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End date: 1989Subject: search.filters.subject.Feeding and feeds

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    Pasture utilization in relation to New Zealand dairy farming : a thesis presented in part fulfilment of the requirements for the Animal Husbandry section of the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1949) McArthur, Alistair Thomas Giles
    The world shortage of food is the most serious crisis which faces mankind today. It is a crisis which has no earlier precedent and one for which remedial measures will be hard to find. The problem, first mentioned by Malthus in 1798, is one of limited food resources combined with an increasing world population. The basis of food production lies in the soil mantle of the world which is limited in extent and decreases yearly both in quantity and quality through the use of bad farming practices which lead to soil erosin. The present level of human nutrition throughout the world is far from adequate. In North .America and Australasia, the average daily consumption of calories per head is above 3000 but in the Middle East it is only 2400 while in the Far East it varies between 1700 and 2100, which is well below requirements (Fawcett (1948)). Not only are these people in need of more food energy but they also require more protein, minerals and vitamins. Livestock products are, of course, rich in these 'protective' foods and the expansion of livestock production will play an important part in raising the level of nut­rition of the world's population. [From Introduction]
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    The value of dried buttermilk as compared with skim milk for calf rearing, and the effect of feeding at two different levels on growth to weaning under New Zealand conditions : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science, University of New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1949) Corbett, J. L.
    It is startling fact that each year in New Zealand, the digestible protein lost for human consumption through the inefficient conversion of dairy by-products into pigment, is approximately twice the total annual output of protein in lamb and cheese; and the food energy lost nearly equals the energy in these two commodities (Filmer 1944). Though a proportion of the loss is through the associated feeding of coarse grain and meat meal, and also some from whey, the great majority arises from the feeding of skim milk and buttermilk which are of immediate human nutritional significance. The case for making these high quality foods directly available for human consumption is strong, despite any repercussions on the pig industry and notwithstanding such economic considerations as secure markets. In order to do so it is obvious that the raw materials must be processed to reduce bulk and improve keeping quality for transportation. The utilisation in this way of skim milk is set back by the considerable problem of its collection from the cream supplying farms, though it may be easier where the density of these in an area is high. Since the butter­milk is produced at the dairy factory, this difficulty does not apply. [From Introduction]
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    The derivation of a meal whey production function for pigs : a thesis presented at Massey University College of Manawatu in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Victoria University of Wellington
    (Massey University, 1963) Townsley, Robert J
    This chapter discusses in some detail, the usefullness of knowledge about technological relationships, in the form of a production function, in management processes associated with pigmeat production in New Zealand. 1.1 The Management Process In 1939 T.W. Schultz wrote a fundamental article(¹)"Theory of the Firm and Farm Management Research" T.W. Schults, J.Farm Econ., Vol.21, 1939, p.570. pointing out that the farm firm exists in a dynamic economy where production nay be adjusted and co-ordinated in response to changing conditions. The motivation for change at the farm level is generally the expectation of progress in the attainment of a set of objectives held by the entrepreneur. The whole process of making adjustments and changes within the framework of the firm has become known as the "Management Process". In the article referred to, Schultz pointed to the two main interests of Farm Management workers and Agricultural Economists, namely: (1) a desire to provide a basis for guiding entrepreneurial decisions under dynamic conditions; or, in more up-to-date terminology, to assist farmers in carrying out tho management process with the aim of maximising their objective functions, and (2) to provide results of use to policy makers in understanding the relationship between micro and macro adjustments in agriculture. [From Introduction]
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    The diet of feral goats (Capra hircus L.) in the Rimu-Rata-Kamahi Forest of Mount Egmont [microform] : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1985) Mitchell, Russell John
    The diet of the feral goat (Capra hircus) in rimu-rata-kamahi forest on Mount Egmont was examined by sorting monthly rumen samples for one year. Seasonal changes in diet, relative plant palatabilities, differential fragmentation and digestion rates of plant species, nitrogen and mineral levels in principal foods, and several aspects of population biology were measured. Results show that individual goats contain at least 19 plant species on average and some more than 30. Presumably, they eat about this number daily. However, just two species (Asplenium bulbiferum and Ripogonum scandens) make up 44.8% of the total amount eaten over the year. There are significant seasonal changes in the amounts eaten for Coprosma grandifolius, Coprosma tenuifolia, Griselinia littoralis, Melicytus ramiflorus, Ripogonum scandens (fruit and vine) and Weinmannia racemosa. Goats clearly select or reject different plant species. Thus use of species is largely independent of availability. The most preferred foods are probably Schefflera digitata and Ripogonum scandens fruit and vine. In contrast the very abundant Microlaena spp., Uncinia spp., moss, Alsophila smithii and especially Blechnum fluviatile are among the most unpalatable. The low and probably variable availability of many species within the study area obscures their seasonal trends and palatability ratings. Asplenium bulbiferum, and probably Melicytus ramiflorus, are underestimated in the diet, whereas Ripogonum scandens vine may be overestimated. However, the magnitude of error is not sufficient to be a problem in this study. There is no obvious correlation between diet selection and the levels in plants of N, K, Ca, Mg, P, s, Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn. Only Na is deficient enough to possibly be selected for and highest levels occur in the very palatable Schefflera digitata. Age structure, body condition and reproductive data suggest a predominantly young, healthy population that is reproducing rapidly.
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    Biology of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792) in New Zealand with particular reference to diet in a Manawatu flax swamp : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1981) Kelton, Simon Douglas
    This MSc. thesis is the first detailed account of the biology of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792) in New Zealand. Observations were made for fifteen months on approximately 35 animals inhabiting flax swamp at Moutoa, southern Manawatu. Sambar are shy and cautious, mostly nocturnal and prefer dense cover. Methods used to overcome problems of direct observation of sambar are described and their relative effectivenesses are compared. Habitat requirements are also discussed. Diet of Moutoa deer was determined by analysing monthly faecal samples supported by direct observation of feeding and examination of feeding evidence. A quantitative method of faecal analysis based on the area of plant cuticle present is described. Seasonal changes in diet composition are detailed. Flax and rank grasses comprise the greatest proportion of the diet, while ryegrass was present in low proportions and clover was absent from the faeces. Evidence is presented suggesting sambar deer do not compete with domestic stock for high quality forage. The eight most frequent forage species found in faeces were sampled seasonally and analysed for Acid Detergent Fibre, energy, nitrogen (crude protein) and water content. There was no correlation between changes in forage quality throughout the year and seasonal changes in diet composition. Other factors involved in forage selection are discussed. The Moutoa breeding population is viable and had an estimated average age structure of 36% adult males, 46% adult females and 18% juveniles. In New Zealand sambar appear to breed throughout the year with two peaks of increased rutting activity in June, July and August, and in November. Evidence is presented that the majority of stags shed their antlers annually, in contrast to the previously accepted belief that they hold antlers for two or more years. Antler cycle is closely associated with the breeding cycle, most sightings of stags in hard antler occurring from June to November. Examination of available information on breeding and antler cycles in Australian sambar revealed similar cycles to those in New Zealand, whereas in India it appears a single peak in rutting occurs from October to December, with a corresponding antler cycle. Herds are loosely structured and generally comprise small family groups, commonly a hind, yearling and fawn. Young stags generally form groups of two to four individuals while old stags evidently lead solitary lives except in the breeding season when they were often observed with one or two hinds. Rutting stags are territorial with olfactory and visual cues apparently serving to exclude rivals. Roaring or fighting, apparently common in India during the rut, is rare in New Zealand. Evidence is presented that some hybridisation with rusa deer (Cervus timorensis Blainville, 1822) occurs in the Bay of Plenty. A comparison of cranial characters between Manawatu and Bay of Plenty deer was inconclusive because of insufficient numbers of skulls. Sexually dimorphic cranial characters are given for animals from the Manawatu area. Sambar deer skulls were aged by counting the number of annuli in the cementum pad of molariform teeth.
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    Studies on the effects of grazing regime on sward and dairy cow performance : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1986) Hoogendoorn, Coby Jean
    Grazed herbage is the major source of feed for dairy cows in New Zealand. The efficiency with which herbage grown is converted into animal product is thus of major concern to the dairy industry. The objectives of the present study were to assess sward response to different grazing regimes over a range of seasons, and to measure the performance, in short term trials, of cows grazing the resultant sward types over a range of herbage dry matter allowances (DA). Seasonal effects on sward structure and composition were great, with the effect of season often interacting with grazing regime imposed. Grazing regime had the greatest influence on sward characteristics in late spring. The cultivar mixture sown had a much less significant effect on sward characteristics measured. Swards grazed intensely and frequently had the lowest percentages of senescent matter, the highest values for herbage quality (DMD and N %) and optimal levels and patterns of NHA throughout the year. Intense grazint or topping (I) versus lenient grazing (L) in spring resulted in those swards maintaining high percentages of grass leaf and clover, low percentages of grass stem and senescent matter and a high herbage quality into early summer. The effect of sward type on dry matter intake (DMI) in early summer was variable, but milk and milk protein yield and sometimes milk fat yield were greater for cows grazing the I swards, at both a restricted and generous DA. When a common leaf allowance (LA) was offered, there were no significant differences in DMis or production between cows grazing the Land I swards. LA, rather than DA, was the best predictor of DMI and milk and milk protein yield over the three grazing trials conducted in early summer. Swards that had been allowed to regrow for 60 versus 120 days in autumn/winter had greater percentages of clover, lower percentages of senescent matter and a higher herbage quality in early spring, although pre-grazing total DM masses were lower. At a common nominal DA, milk, milk fat, and milk protein yields were greater on the 60 day regrowth swards despite DMis being similar. In all trials greater milk yields were attributed to greater percentages of grass leaf and clover and lower percentages of senescent matter and thus a higher herbage quality, both in the herbage consumed and on offer. Irrespective of sward type or DA on offer, the percentage of grass leaf was higher and the percentage of senescent matter lower, in the diet than that present in the herbage on offer. The results of the present study emphasize the importance of maintaining swards with a high percentage of grass leaf and clover and a minimal percentage of senescent matter. This is best achieved by maintaining an intense and frequent defoliation regime, especially during reproductive growth in spring.
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    The comparison of pasture and concentrates as early-weaning foods for calves : a thesis ... for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Animal Science
    (Massey University, 1974) Byford, Malcolm James
    Fourteen Friesian bull calves, born May 1972, were used in an experiment to study the use of pasture compared with concentrates as an early weaning food for calves. Early-weaning was defined as the weaning of calves off a liquid diet to a solid diet by the time they were five weeks of age. The calves were housed indoors in metabolism crates, with the pasture (ryegrass/clover) being cut daily and fed to them fresh. The composition of the concentrate diet was 65% rolled barley, 14% meat meal (60% protein), 15% linseed meal, 5%molasses, and the balance minerals and vitamins. The concentrate diet was fed as a meal and to help ensure the health of the calves receiving it, 10% finely chopped hay was added. The calves were randomly allocated to the two groups (seven calves in each) on arrival, when they were about four days old. During the pre-weaning period all calves were managed similarly and fed in accordance with early-weaning practise, i.e. restricted level of milk to induce a rapid development of the intake of solid food. In order to guarantee the ingestion of pasture the level of concentrates fed was restricted. The calves were weaned off milk by five weeks of age. In the post-weaning period, from five through to eight weeks of age, one group of calves received pasture ad libitum and the other concentrate ad libitum plus a restricted level of pasture (500g wet matter/day - accounting for 8 to 10% of the total DM intake). It was concluded that pasture was inferior to concentrates in promoting live-weight gain in early-weaned calves. This occurred despite pasture and concentrates having similar DE coefficients; namely 75.16 and 74.25% respectively. The major difference was that of intake, with the calves receiving pasture having a significantly lower DE intake over the post-weaning period compared with the calves receiving concentrates. The difference in intake was probably associated with pasture having a lower bulk density than concentrates. Two possible mechanisms, gut fill and oropharyngeal, whereby this would have caused a difference in intake are discussed. Also discussed is the absolute growth rates of the calves receiving pasture in the context of the possible use of pasture as an early-weaning food for dairy replacement stock. Between eight and ten weeks the calves receiving the concentrate diet were changed to pasture alone. This caused a decrease in the performance of these calves. However, these results were confounded by a decrease in the quality of the pasture over this period. Between ten and twelve weeks all calves were receiving pasture alone ad libitum. The rearing methods were shown to have no effect on the calves intake of pasture during the twelfth week, provided allowance was made for the difference in live weight which existed between the two groups. The calves were put out to pasture when twelve weeks old and their post-experimental growth rates recorded. This period was terminated when the average age of the calves was 303 days. The results demonstrated that the mean grown rates of both groups during this period were very similar. This resulted in the live-weight difference established between the two groups when they were twelve weeks old being permanent.
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    The effect on food intake and milk production of adding concentrate to the ration of cows fed pasture : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1967) Taparia, A. L.
    It has long been appreciated that well managed leafy pasture will provide sufficient energy and protein for high milk production. However, because of seasonality of pasture production there are periods in the year when the supply of pasture is deficient. Hay and silage are used to supplement pasture during these periods of shortages on New Zealand dairy farms, but are limited in their ability to maintain high levels of milk production, particularly early in lactation. Thus recourse may have to be made to the use of concentrates to maintain milk production during periods of pasture shortage. The limited amount of experimental work conducted in New Zealand on the use of concentrates (Hancock, 1953; Wallace, 1957) indicated that their use may be worthwhile. However, information on the effects of supplementing pasture with concentrates under controlled (indoor) experimental conditions is non-existent under New Zealand conditions. Results obtained by overseas workers on the effect of concentrate feeding on milk production suggest that responses have been most erratic, especially when concentrates have been fed with pasture. In general these responses were less than would have been expected on the basis of feeding standards. Reports on supplementary feeding of dairy cows by Corbett and Boyne (1958), MacLusky (1955) and Seath et. al. (1962) suggest that the concentrated fed acted as a substitute for pasture. In all of these experiments, however, the intake of pasture was measured by indirect methods. Taking the above points into consideration two experiments were conducted. The first one was a small grazing experiment with the object of studying the effects of concentrates on milk yield and composition and to obtain experience in the problems of experimentation in a simple continuous trial using 16 Friesian cows. The other experiment involved nine Jersey cows and was mainly designed to study the effect of feeding concentrates on voluntary intake of pasture. This experiment consisted of a 3 x 3 Latin square replicated three times, with squares being run concurrently. Measurements of milk yield and milk composition were also carried out. Additional information was obtained on the rate of passage of feedstuffs with some of the cows, on digestibility of feeds with sex wethers, and rumen fermentation studies with four (extra) fistulated cows.
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    An assessment of current dietary amino acid recommendations for the growing meat rabbit based on whole body amino acid composition: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1986) Schultze, Wendy Helen
    Reservations regarding the amino acid levels recommended by the National Research Council [NRC] (1977) and the Societe de Chime Organique et Biologique [AEC] (1978) for the growing meat rabbit, prompted the use of rabbit whole body amino acid composition values as a first approximation toward determining the ideal dietary amino acid balance, relative to lysine, for this species. In the absence of whole body amino acid composition data for the growing rabbit, a technique was established for the processing and subsequent chemical analysis of the rabbit whole body. Using the established technique, twelve 53-day-old New Zealand White rabbits were prepared and representative whole body tissue samples were analysed to determine their amino acid contents. The determined overall mean essential amino acid composition of rabbit whole body (g/kg dry matter) was, lysine 5.05; histidine 2.54; isoleucine 2.57; leucine 5.67; phenylalanine 3.66; tyrosine 2.82; threonine 3.24; valine 3.16; arginine 5.48; methionine 1.49; and cystine 2.32. A comparison of these determined rabbit whole body amino acid values, relative to lysine, compared with the recommendations of NRC (1977) and AEC (1978), suggested, that the published requirements were overgenerous. In a subsequent study, aimed at determining whether the published dietary amino acid recommendations were indeed excessive, 81 five-week-old New Zealand White rabbits were fed one of a series of nine iso-caloric diets with progressively reduced amounts of crude protein (159 to 97 g/kg) but a fixed level of lysine (6.5 g/kg). Over a 40-day period the growth performance of the rabbits was similar on the first six diets of the series, but thereafter with decreasing dietary crude protein content there was a linear decrease in growth rate and concomitant increase in the feed conversion ratio. Urinary nitrogen and urinary urea excretion measured during the experimental period declined progressively from the first to the sixth diet of the series and then plateaued, findings which are in general agreement with the growth performance data. Urinary creatinine excretion showed a decline across diets, indicating, that the rabbits on the higher protein diets were leaner than their counterparts on the diets of lower crude protein. As the gross amino acid composition of the first diet in the series equated with that of published recommendations, while that of diet six approximated rabbit whole body amino acid composition, it appears that the recommendations are overgenerous and that the dietary ideal amino acid balance may not be far removed from that of rabbit whole body composition. The need for further research to confirm these findings and define more exactly the dietary ideal amino acid balance for the growing rabbit is emphasized.
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    Pasture availability and composition in relation to diet selection and diet quality by grazing sheep : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1979) Guy, Murray Clive
    Some factors influencing grazing behaviour, diet selection and diet quality by sheep were investigated. The influences of pasture availability, accessibility, composition and digestibility on diet selection by grazing sheep at two stocking rates (24 and 36 sheep per hectare) over three-day grazing periods during two seasons (summer and autumn) were examined. The stocking rates were replicated twice and measurements were recorded at six intervals, each a three-day grazing period., over the summer and autumn seasons. Dietary samples were obtained by the use of oesophageal fistulated sheep, and comparisons between extrusa samples and cut pasture were made. Pasture type contrasted between seasons with extremes of availability, structure, accessibility and quality. These evolving pasture types and their changing properties are discussed. Sheep grazing pasture have the ability to be selective, the extent of diet selection being dependent on pasture properties of availability, composition and quality. Diet preference is for the green leaf component of the pasture with avoidance of mature stem and dead matter. However in situations of low pasture availability and poor accessibility of the preferred green leaf component, increasing amounts of dead herbage were ingested, as was evidenced in comparisons between periods and during three-day grazing periods. Digestibility values of the sheeps' diets are higher than corresponding values from available pasture the magnitude of the difference being dependent on pasture composition, availability and accessibility, ie. the opportunity afforded for diet selection.Descriptions of experimental site, climatic conditions and animal management are recorded. The results are discussed in relation to other research findings, and their practical implications.