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    Nonviable antibiotic-resistance-free bioactive postbiotics derived from viable probiotic lactobacillus spp. : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 14th January 2028
    (Massey University, 2024) Benhur, Steven Ariel
    With reports that viable cells of probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are unsafe when consumed by or administered to selected human beings, postbiotics comprising nonviable LAB cells and the products secreted by them are considered an option to avoid such risks, especially potential transmission of antibiotic resistance genes to other microbes. In this review, the functionality and safety of nonviable postbiotics relative to viable LAB Lactobacillus spp. were examined by collecting the relevant literature from databases and publications. The study indicated that, even after inactivation, postbiotics of Lactobacillus spp. remain active in the gastrointestinal tract with probiotic bioactivities such as antimicrobial action, barrier function, microbiota balance, immune-regulating and anti-inflammatory responses. As they lack cell viability devoid of resistance to antibiotics, postbiotics of Lactobacillus spp. are relatively risk-free but endowed with uncompromised activities and health benefits suitable for varied uses in food science and therapeutics, enlarging the scope for both progenitor probiotics and postbiotics derived from them. Safety-wise, compared to resistance-prone high-risk antibiotics, live probiotics are at low-risk shadowed by antibiotic resistance, while inanimate postbiotics are risk-free without the viability-linked antibiotic resistance.
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    Coconut oil body membrane materials and storage proteins as emulsifiers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 7 July 2027.
    (Massey University, 2025) Şen, Aylin
    As consumer preferences shift towards natural and sustainable food ingredients, plant emulsifiers are emerging as feasible alternatives to synthetic and animal-based options. This PhD thesis aimed to investigate the emulsifying potential of two coconut-derived components: oil body membrane materials (OBMMs) and press cake proteins. The study began with the extraction and characterisation of coconut oil bodies (OBs) from fresh and frozen coconuts (Chapter 4). The objective was to establish an extraction protocol that maximises the OB yield. The interactions between OB membranes and non-OB proteins were also examined through various washing techniques. Findings indicated that OB yield from frozen coconuts exhibited less variability than that from fresh coconuts and revealed considerable amounts of exogenous proteins within the OBM protein fraction. Next, the research focused on optimising the extraction and functionality of OBMMs obtained through churning or freeze–thawing (Chapter 5). The main goal was to identify OBMM composition and improve its emulsification properties via extraction method optimisation. Results showed that freeze–thawing proved more effective than churning for OBMM extraction yield, with an additional freeze–thawing step further improving the functionality of the resulting OBMMs. This project then investigated the extraction and fractionation of coconut oil press cake proteins with the goal of obtaining a fraction with emulsification properties (Chapter 6). Three protein fractions were produced for this purpose: those soluble at pH 7, soluble at pH 4.5, and insoluble at pH 4.5. Findings highlighted that variable costs, particularly raw material expenses, greatly impacted the production cost of pH 4.5 insoluble proteins. Finally, the emulsification properties of coconut press cake protein fractions (obtained in Chapter 6) were evaluated in oil-in-water emulsions (Chapter 7). Results show that pH 4.5 insoluble fraction exhibited the highest emulsification ability and emulsion stability. Additionally, the emulsions with excess proteins (> 1.5% w/w) showed a time-dependent flocculation, which was attributed the slow bridging interactions between adsorbed and unadsorbed proteins. Overall, this study characterises coconut-derived materials (OBMMs and press cake proteins) and determines their emulsifying capabilities to indicate their suitability for emulsion-based food systems. It also highlights that minimally purified plant materials can maintain functional properties, offering natural and sustainable emulsifier alternatives.
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    Dairy whipping cream : synergistic roles of fat crystallisation and partial coalescence : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Food Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North, Manawatū, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 26th March 2026
    (Massey University, 2024) Mohamad Fauzi, Siti Hazirah Binti
    The study of fat crystallisation and shear-induced partial coalescence mechanisms has been crucial for the development of aerated colloidal food products like whipping cream, whipped toppings, and ice cream. This research examines the interdependent effects of these factors on the stability, foam structural properties, and underlying mechanisms of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions in the recombined dairy whipping cream made using anhydrous milk and stabilised by sodium caseinate. Partial coalescence in O/W emulsions can be influenced by factors such as droplet sizes, shear, air incorporation, and the addition of emulsifiers. This study investigates the impact of fat droplet sizes and emulsifiers on the development of stable whipped cream, with the aim of understanding the complex physico-chemical properties affected by these interrelated factors. The study is divided into three parts: 1) development of a novel technique using a rheometer to monitor the primary mechanism of whipping in the presence of air, 2) investigation of the influence of fat droplet sizes, and 3) examining the effect of different types and concentrations of emulsifiers on whipping properties. -- Shortened abstract.
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    Effects of fat crystal networks on the stability and whipping properties of non-dairy oil-in-water emulsions : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 21st February 2027.
    (Massey University, 2024) Zhang, Sheng
    Non-dairy whippable oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions have gained increasing attention from food companies and consumers in recent years due to their greater sustainability and lower energy density. This study investigated functional aspects of whippable non-dairy emulsions, focusing on the unique properties of coconut oil as the lipid component and monoglyceride emulsifiers. The study attempted to address longing-standing challenges relating to the stability and performance of these emulsions and emphasised the vital role of the fat crystal network (FCN), with a particular focus on achieving whippable formulations and low-fat contents. The study explored several compositional and processing variables, including fat content, homogenisation pressure, rate of cooling, Unsaturated monoglycerides UM concentrations, and sugar addition.--Shortened abstract
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    The potential of wheat and rye sourdough starter cultures to produce functional and nutritional components during sourdough fermentation : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 31st March 2026
    (Massey University, 2024) Zhang, Yuexin
    Production of sourdough bread has been part of human culture for over 5000 years worldwide. The traditional sourdough technology involves the use of different flours mixed with water to make dough which is then allowed to ferment at ambient temperature using inherent microorganisms. It is common practice to use previously fermented sourdough as a starter culture to produce consistent products. The demand for sourdough bread has increased due to the unique sensory properties of the products and their perceived health properties. The aim of the study was to investigate the potential of sourdough fermentation by wheat and rye sourdough starters to increase the concentration of folate and resistant starch in sourdough and sourdough bread. The specific objectives were to: 1) analyse the composition of wheat and rye sourdough starter cultures; 2) optimise the fermentation conditions of the sourdough fermentation process, 3) analyse sugars; organic acids and the content of folate and resistant starch in the sourdough and sourdough bread.--Shortened abstract
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    Investigating the impact of αs1-casein genetic variants on sheep milk composition, physico-chemical properties, rennet gelation properties and digestion behavior : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 18th December 2025.
    (Massey University, 2023) Chiang, Kuan Yu
    Sheep milk is an important dietary resource in various regions across the world, including the Middle East, Europe, and certain developing countries. The unique composition of sheep milk, with high levels of protein, fat, and essential vitamins, makes it a valuable source of nutrition. Furthermore, the genetic polymorphism of αs1-casein in sheep milk has recently gained attention due to the potential influence on sheep milk properties and dairy production. In this study, the genetic variations in αs1-casein and their effects on the physicochemical properties, composition, rennet gelation properties and digestion behavior of sheep milk were investigated and discussed. The genetic polymorphism of as₁-casein among 39 sheep milk samples were analyzed.--Shortened abstract
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    Development of cultured sustainable vegan cheese : a project report presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Master of Food Technology at Massey University. EMBARGOED until further notice.
    (Massey University, 2023) Tapsuri, Chalita
    The demand for vegan cheese is increasing and the majority of plant-based cheese produced from cashew nuts. Cashew nut cultivation caused intense deforestation and is responsible for several environmental impacts due to the use of fertilizers and pesticides on farms. Literature review was done to gain a better understanding of the definition of premium cheese products and the consumers, consumer expectations, fermentation and cheese making processes, and potential ingredients for the product. The development of cultured vegan cheese products with sustainable main ingredients was carried out in a series of experiments.--Shortened abstract
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    Microstructural, techno-functional, and in vitro starch digestion characterization of New Zealand pea varieties : a template to design sustainable low glycaemic foods : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, Manawatū, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 27 February 2026.
    (Massey University, 2023-12-16) Ajala, Abayomi
    The results presented in this dissertation provided a systematic investigation into the microstructural components (starch granules, protein matrix, and encapsulating cell wall) in the different forms of pea seed microstructure from four (4) varieties and how the interaction between these structural components during processing influence its starch gelatinization and hydrolysis properties. Based on the fundamental information provided above, the thesis explored a sustainable processing technique to transform pea seeds into a novel pea ingredient with low glycaemic features. This first study examined how the microstructure of New Zealand pea varieties: White/yellow (WP), Marrowfat (MFP), Blue (BP), and Maple (MP) respond to pre-and-post starch gelatinization conditions. The microstructural characteristics of raw pea seeds were evaluated via scanning electron microscopy and image analysis before studying their hydration kinetics at 30, 40, 50, or 60 °C (pre-starch gelatinization conditions) while in-vitro oral-gastro small intestinal digestion was performed on the cooked pea seeds (post-starch gelatinization condition). For the raw sample, the cell wall thickness for the pea varieties differed significantly from each other and followed a decreasing order of MP > MFP > BP > WP. The shortest time (139 min) for the soaked pea to reach its saturation point was exhibited by BP at 60 °C while the lowest moisture content of soaked peas at saturation point was found in MP at 60 °C. The starch hydrolysis (%) of the cooked pea varieties during oral-gastro-intestinal digestion in vitro followed a decreasing order of WP > MP > MFP > BP. The discernible irregular particles (protein bodies, fibre fragments) attached to or between the starch granules observed in both hydrated and cooked pea seed microstructure seemed to modulate the inflow of water and starch-degrading enzymes. The next study investigated the role of cell wall permeability in the microstructure and rate of starch digestibility in intact cotyledon cells from different varieties of pea seeds. PFG-NMR coupled with light and confocal microscopy were employed to evaluate the cotyledon cells' diffusion coefficients and cell wall permeability. The diffusion coefficients and cell wall permeability of the cotyledon cells followed a decreasing trend; WP>MFP>MP>BP. The varying size of internal cavities in the microstructure in the cotyledon cells as observed by the light and confocal micrographs may be responsible for this trend. The extent of starch hydrolysis recorded from the cotyledon cells somewhat followed the same trend of the cell wall permeability. Thus, indicating that the more permeable the cotyledon cell to the starch-degrading enzymes, the higher the extent of intracellular starch hydrolysis. The microstructure changes in the cotyledon cells during digestion also confirmed this observation. Based on the fundamental insights provided by the previous studies, the next study compared the microstructural, nutritional, and starch digestibility properties of a novel cotyledon flour prepared via micronization techniques (colloid milling) with a blended flour from the same botanical sources. The SEM characterization of both flours showed a distinct difference in their microstructural arrangement. The protein and fibre contents of cotyledon flour were higher than those of the blended flour from the same plant sources. The starch hydrolysis and glycaemic response of cotyledon flour were almost 10 % lower than that of the blended flour. This could result in the cell wall of cotyledon cells acting as a primary barrier that regulates the inflow of starch-degrading enzymes to the intracellular starch granules. Also, the high-quality protein/cellular matrix found in the cotyledon flour may reduce the exposure of the extracellular starch granules to degrading enzymes. This study provided fundamental insights into how to sustainably process whole pulse seeds. Finally, wheat flour for making bread was replaced with 25 and 50 % of cotyledon flour and the effect of this on the microstructure, physical-functional properties, starch digestion in vitro, and the glycaemic response were investigated. The micrographs of these three bread samples showed a distinct microstructural organization between the cotyledon flour-formulated bread and the control bread samples. Intact cotyledon cells and high levels of cellular materials were observed in the cotyledon flour-formulated bread samples. The protein, fibre, and resistant starch in the cotyledon flour-formulated bread were significantly higher than the control bread. The bake loss, volume, and specific volume decreased with an increased percentage of cotyledon flour used in the bread formulation. The colour of the crumb and crust of the cotyledon flour-formulated bread was significantly different from the control bread while the textural profile showed that the crumb hardness and cohesiveness of the bread samples increased with an increase in the percentage of the cotyledon flour added to the formulation of the bread. The starch hydrolysis for this study showed bread made with 25 and 50 % cotyledon flour was significantly lower than the control bread sample. The intact cotyledon cells with high cellular integrity observed in the microstructures of the bread samples confirmed this trend. In conclusion, this thesis provided fundamental insights into forms of microstructure (cotyledon cells and pulse flour) that can be generated from whole pulse seed via size-reducing techniques structural components (starch granules, protein matrix, and cell wall) in each form and how the interaction between these components influences the starch hydrolysis in each form. One of the significant fundamental knowledge areas provided by this dissertation was that achieving a sort of equilibrium between “applicable particle size” and “intactness of microstructure” in processing a pulse seed could be a suitable template for designing a “wholesome” pulse food ingredient with medium glycaemic features.
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    Assessment of the relationship between kiwifruit skin topography and its quality and storability using fringe projection : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 22 November 2025.
    (Massey University, 2023) Lai, Po-Han (Leo)
    Kiwifruit harvested from different growing locations tends to have variable fruit quality and storage performance due to many preharvest factors that contribute to fruit variation at harvest. This variability of fruit between batches makes the prediction of postharvest storage quality difficult, causing postharvest fruit losses. One of the preharvest factors that introduces fruit variability is the growing environment in which the fruit are exposed to. Fruit skin, a protective layer that covers the entire fruit, plays an important role in fruit development and is the first point of interaction with the surrounding environment. The objective of this research was to investigate a novel non-destructive technique that utilised at-harvest skin topography to link with fruit quality and storage performance of kiwifruit. The ‘G3’ (marketed as SunGoldᵀᴹ) kiwifruit cultivar was chosen for consideration in this thesis because it has distinctive skin properties with protruding lenticels and is a high-value cultivar that is of considerable importance to the New Zealand kiwifruit industry. The potential for fringe projection to extract skin physical properties in kiwifruit was demonstrated through surface roughness quantification and image analysis technique. Characterisation of lenticels on the surface of kiwifruit was achieved by developing an automated image processing algorithm. The knowledge of the skin properties of kiwifruit was revealed through a comparison of skin topography and cuticle compositions of different kiwifruit cultivars. Skin topography differences revealed genotype related diversity as well as the effect of environmental factors that fruit were exposed to. The most abundant cutin monomer composed mainly of C₁₈. Predominant cuticular waxes such as fatty acids and phenolics were identified. The knowledge of lenticel development was confirmed through monitoring the skin topography during fruit development and fruit bagging. Lenticel formation becomes visible from 45 DAFB and is dictated in the early stage of fruit growth before 77 DAFB. Lenticel properties are set and established before harvest. An orchard bagging experiment revealed that the difference in the growing environment modified the development of lenticels in kiwifruit. The lenticel coverage was positively correlated with the humidity condition that the fruit is exposed to during fruit development. Lenticel density and size at harvest had little influence on the water loss and storage performance of fruit. Lenticels were found to become a low resistance pathway for water loss if there is evidence of microcraking and splitting. The hypothesis of using at-harvest skin topography to predict the post-storage quality of kiwifruit was explored by developing a blackbox machine learning model. Unfortunately, both quantitative and qualitative predictions of soluble solids and flesh firmness in storage were not successful due to a low level of accuracy across models. The storability of fruit is affected by many factors, and improvements can be made to include additional information such as other non-destructive techniques to help in prediction. While skin topography using fringe projection may not be a good indicator of kiwifruit storability, the application is useful to characterise skin properties that are related to fruit quality. The work found that skin roughness generally increases after storage which is likely to be caused by shrivel development or skin scuffing. There is an opportunity to rapidly and reliably quantify skin defects. Another potential application for fringe projection is to use in a kiwifruit breeding program as a high-throughput phenotyping tool to capture the surface properties of different genotypes, enabling the identification of desirable traits.
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    High temperature-shear processing of plant and dairy proteins for the development of structured meat analogues : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until further notice.
    (Massey University, 2023) Beniwal, Akashdeep Singh
    Structural and techno-functional properties of some plant proteins can be transformed into fibrous structures while undergoing high-temperature shear processing (HTSP). However, plant-based substitutes are generally considered to be nutritionally and sensorially inferior to muscle food. Blending dairy protein with plant protein during the restructuring process could improve the functional and nutritional characteristics of the hybrid blend. This study aims to create nutritionally enhanced hybrid meat analogues (HMAs) from plant and dairy protein combinations using an innovative HTSP technique, and investigate the effect on structural, sensorial and nutritional properties of these combinations. The role of protein–protein interactions responsible for fiber formation in concentrated binary protein mixtures undergoing HTSP was also studied. Results indicated that the temperature range of 120°C–140°C, a processing time of 10 min–30 min and a shear rate of 25%–75% (i.e., 806-2314 RPM) create anisotropic structures in soy protein isolate (SPI) and wheat starch (WS) (at a 90:10 ratio) dispersions. Moisture content, shear rate and processing time significantly affected the textural responses (p < 0.05). Interestingly, in the absence of mixing (shear rate ~ 0), no network was formed in protein mixture, suggesting that combined thermal and shear forces were essential to introduce physicochemical changes in protein dispersions. Consequently, the HTSP of SPI, pea protein concentrate (PPC) and plant–dairy protein combinations (using sodium caseinate [NaCas], calcium caseinate [CaCas], whey protein concentrate [WPC] and milk protein concentrate [MPC]) result in various structural morphologies such as gels, layered gels, layered fibrous or fibrous structures. Further, incorporation of 10 % WS in hybrid protein mixtures undergoing the HTSP, enhanced the fiber formation. Restructured mixtures containing 20% MPC and 10% starches (i.e., wheat starch [WS]) combined with plant proteins (35% soy and 35% pea protein mixtures) generated anisotropic structures with textural attributes very similar to “chicken breast”. Therefore, this combination was considered the best formulation for further experimentation and product testing. The effects of material composition and processing conditions on mechanism of fiber formation in novel meat analogues during HTSP and its impact on texture, macrostructure, protein interactions and protein conformations were analysed. We find that the evolution of fibers depends upon the interrelations between shear work input and processing conditions during HTSP. Processing time, moisture content, shear rate and raw material formulation significantly affect HMA energy input, texture and colour (p < 0.05). Both non-covalent (hydrogen, hydrophobic) and covalent (disulphide) interactions during HTSP were responsible for sample structure. However, processing conditions had an insignificant influence on protein–protein interactions. A significant correlation between processing parameters, texture attributes, protein solubility and secondary protein structures of meat analogues was observed. Therefore, a subtle balance of processing conditions and material properties could achieve a fibrous structure with controllable textural and structural functionality in novel meat analogues. The impact of dairy protein (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% MPC) integrated with plant proteins on physicochemical, sensory and nutritional properties of HMAs were also investigated. The results showed that plant and dairy protein ratios significantly influence HMAs’ textural properties. Meat analogues with 20% MPC are closest in terms of both textural and microstructural properties to boiled chicken. Hybrid samples with 20% and 40% MPC yield acceptable sensorial scores, although overall palatability decreases with increasing MPC concentration. The tenderness and juiciness scores were higher for the hybrid samples than for the plant-only and commercial samples. Nutritional studies showed that essential amino acid (EAA) content in hybrid mixes was higher than in the plant-only meat analogue, indicating enhanced dietary properties.