Multi-level tensions in transport policy and planning : bus-rapid transit (BRT) in Indonesia : a dissertation presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Planning at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Date
2017
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Massey University
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Abstract
International development agencies, supporting climate change sensitive transport
policies in Low-Income Asian (LIA) cities, promote Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). However,
these policies create tensions at the local level. Using a multi-level governance lens
(MLG), this research examines the relations between and distribution of power among
actors in BRT investment decisions in the two medium-sized Indonesian cities of
Bandung and Surabaya. Analysis of policy and planning documents, and interviews with
key stakeholders at central, provincial and city government levels highlighted financialinstitutional,
socio-political and discursive tensions at multiple levels in BRT projects in
these cities. The financial-institutional tensions resulted from city government funding
dependency on central government and international development agencies that promoted
BRT projects as low-cost ‘green’ solutions to traffic congestion and greenhouse gas
emissions. Their “Go-green” campaign made it possible for Bandung and Surabaya
governments to privilege BRT over traditional minibuses (angkot) and regular bus modes.
The BRT projects were advanced through the low-cost, environmentally friendly and
modern public transport discourses that did not get attention due to the absence of sitespecific
narrative. Open communication and proactive public participation were also
missing when undertaking BRT projects in Bandung and Surabaya so that the projects
were opposed by social and political actors in both cities. As a result, national and
provincial policies were modified in Bandung limiting BRT to two peri-urban corridors
that do not meet local needs. In contrast, Surabaya accepted a BRT project, but then
turned it down due to political and social pressure that developed during the process. This
research identified the importance horizontal and vertical relationships in the BRT
projects’ planning and implementation. While vertical alignment is important for
translating national transport policy to local transport planning, horizontal integration and
communication is crucial for transport project implementation. The mismatch between
horizontal and vertical actors resulted in delays and ultimately rejection of BRT project
in Surabaya and distortion of the BRT project in Bandung. This research identifies a need
for integrated policy packages to help develop site-specific BRT projects for LIA cities.
The evidence suggests a refinement for MLG theory in the context of LIA countries by
taking into account the role of power and communication within the emerging economic,
social and political pressures at the local level and the need to take into account the vital
role of individual actors, institutions and planning process as they respond to and shape
policies imposed by higher levels. It also identifies the important role of international
level non-government organisations play in setting, or at least, influencing national and
local policy agenda.
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Keywords
Bus rapid transit, Planning, Urban transportation, Bandung, Surabaya, Indonesia