Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. \ 'Theatre of Wonders': The Emergence of the Southland Museum 1869-1945 A thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy In Museum Studies at Massey University, Turitea, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Johannah Carmel Massey 2000 \ ABSTRACT During the last two decades of the twentieth century, international scholarship in museology began to focus on the development of museums in the colonial context, with particular emphasis on the nineteenth century. While a tradition of institutional histories has developed in North America and Australia there have been few detailed histories written of New Zealand Museums. Institutional histories provide an insight into the motivations and practice of early museology and the role museums took in the colonisation process and the subsequent development of provincial centres. This thesis provides the first detailed historical account of the early development of Southland Museum and Art Gallery. Four periods of development have been identified. Andrew McKenzie operated a museum in his commercial premises from 1872 until 1875 when the Invercargill Athenaeum purchased his collection. The Athenaeurn maintained a museum collection until the early twentieth century when it was transferred to the Southland Technical College where it was opened to the public in 1912. Intensive political lobbying and fund-raising from 1936 led to the opening of a purpose built public museum in Invercargill in 1942. At a time of adversity, the museum emerged as a public symbol of progress and freedom. Underpinning the primary chronological narrative of this thesis is the identification of the important individuals whose energy ensured that the museum collection continued to develop as an educational resource for the community. The thesis also documents and analyses the changing focus of the collections from a 'theatre of wonders' to a more systematic natural history collection. While located at the Southland Technical College the focus shifted progressively towards agricultural suhjects, though the museum maintained a very broad range of exhibits including an increasing range of cultural material. The final chapters of the thesis broaden to a detailed account of the collecting activities of selected individuals in Southland during the period 1869 to 1945. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Karl Gillies, my external Thesis Supervisor and Collections Manager for the Southland Museum and Art Gallery. Also Russell Beck, former Director of the Southland Museum and Art Gallery, 1976-1999, David Woodings, current Director of the Southland Museum and Art Gallery and the staff of the Southland Museum and Art Gallery Niho o te Taniwha. I wish to acknowledge the assistance of Alan Bryce and Marianne Foster, Information Services Department, lnvercargill Public Library. Invaluable material was also provided by Sheila Natusch, author and grand-daughter of Roy Traill, the family of James Morton (naturalist) and George Murdoch, past Southland Technical College pupil. I also wish to acknowledge family and friends who have supported me throughout. Of paramount importance was the guidance and support of David Butts, Thesis supervisor at Massey University, Palmerston North. Also of assistance were Aaron Braden, Research Librarian, and Janine Delaney, Curator of Archives and Manuscripts, Hocken Library, Dunedin. I also wish to acknowledge Brian Patrick, Research and Archives Manager, Otago Museum and Eamonn Bolger, Archivist, Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington. I would like to thank William Cox, Associate Archivist, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., and Samantha Collenette, Natural History Museum Archivist, The Natural History Museum, London. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the many curators, information professionals and historians who have freely given their knowledge and assistance towards this project. 11 CONTENTS ABSTRACT ..... .. .. .... . ... . . ... ... .. . ..... .. ......... ........ .. .. ....... ................ ........ . i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ........ . ...... .... ........ .. .... .. ....... .... ... .. .... ........ .. . ii CONTENTS ... ... ... .. . .. .......... .. .. . ......... .... ... .... ...... .................. .... ..... .. ... iii FIGURES ... .... ... .... . ... .............. . .. . ...... ............. ... .... . ...... .. .. ............... .. vi ABBREVIATIONS ...... .. . .. .. .. ..... .... .. ..... ....... . .... .... .. ... ... ..... ..... .. .. ... ... .. viii GLOSSARY ...... .... . ... . ...... ........................ ...... .. .... .. ... .. .. .. . ...... .... ... .. .. .. ix INTRODUCTION ................. ............... . .. .. .... .. ....... . ....... .... ... .. ... ... .. .... 1 Research Objectives ..... . ... .. .................. . ....... ............. . .. ... .. ... 1 Structure Of Thesis ....................... .. . . ... .. ....... ... .. .. . .. .. .......... 2 Sources And Limitations .... . .. .. ... ...... .... ........................... .. ... . 4 1 THE NEW ZEALAND CONTEXT: COMMON THEMES ... .... ... ..... .. . .. 7 1. 1 The Emergence Of Museums In Europe ......... ... ... .. . ..... . .... 7 1.2 Museums In The Colonial Context ................ .......... ... .. .... 9 1.3 Museums In New Zealand ......... . .... .......... .. ... .. .. ... ..... .. . 10 1.4 Metropolitan Museum Case Studies ... .... ... .. ..... .. ......... .. .. 11 Auckland Museum ... .. .. .. ... .. ..... ... .. ...... .. ....... .. ..... .... ... 12 National Museum ... .. ................. .. ...... ...... .... ..... .... ..... 14 Canterbury Museum .......... ....... . .... ..... .... .. ....... .......... 17 Otago Museum .. . .... .... . ..... .... .- .. ...... ... ... ... .. . .......... .. .. 19 1.5 Regional Museum Case Studies . . . ... .. ........ ... .. .. .. ... ..... .... 20 Hawkes Bay Museum ... ....... .. .. ....... .. ............. .. ... ........ 20 Whanganui Museum ... ......... ...... ... ... ......... .... ... ........ .. 25 1.6 Common Themes .. . ... ... ............ . .. ........ .... ............ .. ... 29 111 1. 7 Southland Historical Context ........................................ 31 Maori Settlement ... ... .... .... ... . ..... .. .... . .... .. ... .... .... ........ 31 Post-European Development ... ............ . ... .. .. . ..... .. ......... . 32 2 A PRIVATE AFFAIR .... .. .. . . .. .... .. ..... ......... .. .. .. .... ..... . ............ .. .. . 39 2.1 Andrew McKenzie 's Museum .. . ........... . ... . ... ......... ... ..... 39 2.2 The Invercargill Athenaeum Museum .......... ... .. .. ... . ..... . ... 48 3 AN EMERGING PUBLIC COLLECTION ... ... . .. ............. .. ...... ..... ... 66 3.1 The Southland Technical College Museum ...... .............. . . .. 66 4 ESTABLISHING A PUBLIC INSTITUTION .... ...... ....... . . ............. .. 96 4.1 The Planning .. . . ................... .... .. . ............. ...... ... .. ..... 96 4.2 The Opening ... ....... . ....... ......... .... ........... ... .. . ... ... .... 133 4.3 A Public Museum .. ...... . ............ ... .......... .................. 142 5 THE CULTURE OF COLLECTING: 1860-1890 ...... .. . ............... .. ... 158 5.1 Hitherto Unknown To Natural History ............... .. . ... .. .. . . 158 Von Hammer's Display ....... ... .. .... . ......... . ......... .. ...... . 158 James Morton ..... .. .. .. . .... .. .... .... .. ... .. ............ .. .... .... . 160 Exhibitionism .... .................. ..... ......... .. .. .. .............. . 165 From Riverton To Washington ...... ..... ....... ...... ..... . .. .. ... 169 James Hanan And The Temple of Science ....... ... ..... .. .. ... .. 173 The Southland Institute .... ... ........... ... .... .. ...... .. .. .. ....... 176 Charles Traill ............. .. ..... . ...... ......... ... . .... .. ..... .. ... 183 Conclusion .......... .. . .. ............ . .. .. . ............... . .. .. .. ..... 189 6 HONORARY CURATORS: 1890-1945 ..... .. . . . ... .. .... .......... . .. .. .. .... . 198 6.1 'Eminent Professor' Or 'Enthusiastic Amateur'? ... ........... 198 Joseph Crosby Smith ... .. ....... ... ... ... .... ... ....... ........... .. 198 Alfred Philpott .. .. .... . ... .. ..................... .. ... .. ... .. . .... . .. 202 Robert Gibb ......... ......... ....... ... ....... .. .. ......... ....... .. . 207 lV 6.2 Conferences, Carnegie And Co-operation ... ... ...... ....... ... .. 209 George Jaquiery .... . .... .... .... ........... ...... ..... .. ..... .. ... .. 209 Jack Sorensen ...... .... .... . .. . .. ... . .. ..... .. .. . ... ....... .. ....... . 213 David Teviotdale ............ .. . ...... .......... . .. .......... . .... ... . 222 Conclusion .. . ..... .. .. .. ........ .. . .... . ....... ....... .. .............. 224 CONCLUSION .... .. ..... . .. . . .... . ......... .... ......... .. ...... ........... ....... ...... . .... . 234 APPENDICES ........ . ... . ............. .... .... .......... .. ............................. ...... . 241 Appendix One: Andrew McKenzie's Museum (collection 1869-1875) .... .. .. 241 Appendix Two: A list of items held in the Athenaeum 1874 onwards (as reported in the local newspapers) ... .... . .. ... ... .. .. ................. ........ .. 242 Appendix Three: Southland Technical College Museum (Stewart collection c.1924) ............ ......... ... .. . .... .. ..... .. .. ..... . . .. ........ 244 Appendix Four: Stewart's 'First Class' collection of Maori Specimens ....... 246 Appendix Five: Massey Collection (as loaned to the Invercargill Museum in 1912) ..... .. . ... ... . ..... . .. . ..... . .. ......... .. .. .... ... ........... .. ..... . .... ... . . .. 247 Appendix Six: Athenaeum Register commenced June 1915 .... ...... .. ......... 252 Appendix Seven: Schedule of suggested contributions by local bodies to Southland Centennial Museum 1936 ......... .. .. .. . ....... . ....... .. .. .... .. .... 259 Appendix Eight: Visitor Statistics compiled from David Teviotdale's Diaries ........... .... ........ . ...... .......... .... ...... .... ... ..... .. .. ... .... . ........ . 260 Appendix Nine: Timeline 1861 - 1961 .... ... ... ....... ....... ....... .. ....... . .... 261 BIBLIOGRAPHY .. . .... ...... ........ ... .... .. ... . ... .. ... ...... .. ........................ .. .. 266 Institutions Holding Archives ........ . ... . .. ..... . ...... ............. ... ...... ....... 266 Theses And Research Essays ............ .... ..... .. ........................... . ..... 266 Published Sources ..... . .. . ... ... . .. ............. ... ........................... ..... .. . 267 Government Publications ...... ..... ...... . .... .. .... .... .... .. ............. 267 Newspapers And Almanacs .... ........ ... ............... ........... ... ... .. . 267 Books And Articles .. .. ............. . ..... .. ........... .... .. .............. . .. 268 v FIGURES Figure 1: Major New Zealand place names cited in the text ...... ........... . ... .... 38 Figure 2: Andrew McKenzie's 'Scotch Pie House', Invercargill 1870's .... ... .. .. 62 Figure 3: The first known advertisement for McKenzie's Museum ................ 63 Figure 4: James Morton (taxidermist) and McKenzie's Museum advertisement. 64 Figure 5: Advertisement for the exhibition of live animals at McKenzie' s ..... . .. 64 Figure 6: The Invercargill Athenaeum, Dee Street' circa 1880 ................... .. 65 Figure 7: lnvercargill Athenaeum floor plan showing museum area, 1897 .. .... .. 65 Figure 8: Aerial view of the old STC, Tay Street (museum area marked) .... ..... 94 Figure 9: Mezzanine gallery and ground floor plan for the Southland Museum .. 94 Figure 10: Joseph Crosby Smith .. . ..... .. .... . ........... . ... ....... ............ ... ... .... 95 Figure 11 : Alfred Philpott ........ . ....... .. .......... .. .......... ..... .. .. ...... .... ..... .. 95 Figure 12: Robert Gibb .. ..... ......... .. ...... .. ... ....... ..... . .... .. ..... . ....... .. .. ... . 95 Figure 13: George Jaquiery (senior) .. ...... .. ......... .... . ...... ...... ...... ... ... ..... 150 Figure 14: J. H. (Jack) Sorensen ............... ............... ................... ....... . 150 Figure 15: Thomas Spencer ..... . .... ................ . ... .. . ... ... ... .... .. ... ..... ... ... . 150 Figure 16: David Teviotdale .......... .. ... . .............. .. ....... ....................... 151 \ Figure 17: The 'Fortrose' necklace ... ... .. . .. . . .. ..... .. .... . ... .. ... .... ... ............ 151 Figure 18: 'Hitler or no Hitler'! ... . .... .... .... .... .. ......... ............ ...... .. ... ... . 152 Figure 19: Wanganui Museum ... .. ... . .............. ....... ... ............... ...... ..... 153 Figure 20: 'The dream' (sketch of proposed Southland Centennial Museum) .... 153 Figure 21: 'The reality'. Ground floor ................. .... .. .... . ... ..... .. .. .......... 154 Figure 22: 'The reality'. First floor ...... ....... ................... . ....... ..... ....... 155 Figure 23: The Southland Centennial Memorial Museum, 1942 ...... .. . . ... ... .... 156 Figure 24: Southland Museum interior; Oceanic weapons case (1942) ...... . ..... 157 Figure 25: Southland Museum interior; Ethnology Gallery (1942) .. . ........ . ..... 157 Figure 26: Von Hammer's Scandinavian Hotel .. ...................... ....... .. .. .... 190 Figure 27: Barnum-like 'freak' show ................... : .. .. ..... ..... .... . ......... .. . 190 Figure 28: Cole's circus ..... .... .... ..... ..... ... ......................... ... ....... . .. ... 191 Figure 29: The 'Exhibition'; Thomson & Beattie, post-1881, Tay Street. .... .. ... 192 Figure 30: Hanan's Temple Of Science, post-1877, Dee Street. .. .......... ... . ..... 192 Vl Figure 31 : Figure 32: Figure 33 : Figure 34: Figure 35 : Figure 36: Figure 37: Figure 38: Figure 39: Figure 40: Figure 41 : Figure 42 : Figure 43 : Figure 44: Figure 45: Figure 46: Figure 47: Figure 48: Figure 49: Figure 50: Hanan' s street advertisement ... ..... . ... ... .... .... .. ..... ....... ... ... .... .. 193 Hanan's newspaper advertisement ...... ..... . .......... .................... 193 Hanan' s 18th century interior display boards; natural history and people of the world .... .. ................ .... . ... .. . ... ......... .. . .. . .. .... . ........ .. 194 Charles Traill .. . .... .. ... .... ... .. ....... ... ... .. ... .... .... . .. . ........ .. ..... 195 Colonial Museum staff surrounding the skeleton of Neobalaena .... .. 196 The network of local, national and international institutes/individuals connected with the formation of the Southland Museum 1862 - 1890 .... .... . .. .... . ..... . .. . ............ ....... .. .. ... . ...... . ... ................ 197 Local officers and visiting scientists at the 10th Annual Session of the Australasian Association for the advancement of Science .... ........ . . 225 First Museum Curator's Conference, 2 November 1926, Wellington. 226 Southland Acclimatisation Society' s display at the front of Fisheries Court, Christchurch Exhibition, 1906-1907 .............. . ......... ... .... 227 Southland Exhibition Court, Christchurch Exhibition, 1906-1907 ... .. 227 ?STC pupils with produce at a Department of Agriculture and Industries Exhibition, ?Southland, circa 1910 ...... ... .. ....... ... .. .. .. . 228 Proposed agricultural additions; first Annual Report of the Southland Museum Board 1915-16 ..... . .. .. . .. . . ..... . ......... .... ...... ... .. . .. . .. ... 228 Southland Naturalists Society's syllabus, 1917 .. . ...... ... .. ... . . ... .. .. . 228 Southland Court at the 'New Zealand And South Seas International Exhibition', Dunedin 1925-1926 ..... .. .. . ..... . .... ... .... . . . .... .. .. ... .. 229 A Carnegie circulating loan case, ?Dominion Museum display ... .. . .. 230 David Teviotdale 'excavating' an archaeological site ..... .. .... . . ...... 230 Eric and Jack Sorensen fossicking at Orepuki (Southland), 1940' s . .. 231 Moa bone hunters, Riverton 1895 ....... ..... ... ... .. . .... .. ... ... . ... .... . 231 The network of local, national and international institutes/individuals connected with the formation of the Southland Museum 1890' s - 1945 .. .... .. ... .. ..... . .. .. ........ .. . . .. ... ... .. . .. .. .. .. . ... .. .. .... . .. . . ... .. .. 232 Timeline of development for Southland Museum 1869 - 1945 ..... . .. 233 NB. Figures are clustered at the end of appropriate chapters Vll EPS ICC IPL JPS SC sec SEB SI SMAG SMB SMTB STC TPNZI TSC TSN TST TWN UAS SIME SMA: Misc. SMA: Bl-B7 TD: ABBREVIATIONS Emergency Precautions Service Invercargill City Council Invercargill Public Library Journal of the Polynesian Society Southland College (later Southland Technical College) Southland County Council Southland Education Board Southland Institute Southland Museum and Art Gallery Southland Museum Board Southland Museum Trust Board (Inc.) Southland Technical College Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute (formerly TPRS - Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society) The Southern Cross The Southland News The Southland Times The Weekly News University Association of Southland SMAG ARCHIVES ABBREVIATIONS KEY: Southland Institute Minute Book Miscellaneous Southland Museum Archives Southland Museum Archives: Boxes 1-7 Teviotdale Diaries Vlll GLOSSARY * The Southern Maori dialect is used throughout. For example 'k' replaces 'ng'. Barnum Flax F ossick/F ossicker Hei tiki Iwi Koiwi Koiwi *takata Maori Mari pi Mere Moa Murihiku Pake ha Pa tu Paua Poi Pounamu Taiaha Takahe Takata whenua Taoka Tekoteko Tuatara Wakahuia Whakapapa Whare Referring to Barnum and Bailey, American showman. 'Barnum­ like' was used in a derogatory sense in the mid-1800's. Similar to the use of 'Disneyfication' today Plant fibre. Maori name Harakeke (Phormium tenax) To gather. Someone who collects artefacts without regard to stratigraphy or systematic documentation of discoveries amulet, neck pendant Maori tribe, people Human remains Maori human remains Original colonist of New Zealand - of East Polynesian origin Paua levers Short flat Maori club Large extinct flightless bird of New Zealand Often used to refer to the southern end of the South Island of New Zealand Non-Maori New Zealander Maori club Abalone (Haliotis iris) Ball used in action performance A collective Maori term that includes two minerals, nephrite jade and bowenite Long Maori club Flightless bird (Notornis mantelli) People of the land/people of this place Treasured item Carved ancestral figure on house Ancient 'living' reptile (Sphenodon punctatus) Feather/treasure box Maori genealogy Maori dwelling lX INTRODUCTION As we enter the twenty-first century the nature of the museum is evolving rapidly. In our search for a way forward it is critical that museum practitioners understand the origins of their collections and the historical development of their institutions. Southland Museum and Art Gallery is one of a series of regional museums in New Zealand supported by regional government. The transition from private collections to public museum is an important part of the history of each of these museums. The part these collections have played in the lives of individuals, families and communities is an important dimension of the cultural and social history of each region throughout New Zealand. Research objectives: The primary objective of this thesis is to provide a detailed historical account of the development of private 'museums' 1 and the emergence of a public museum in Invercargill, Southland, from 1869 to 1945. In order to account for the development of these 'museum' collections it has been necessary to explore the nature of private collecting in Southland and the networks interconnecting private collectors, scientists and museum personnel in New Zealand and beyond. It is argued that the development of public museums in New Zealand draws on a complex set of interrelated forces. The essential notion of the museum was transplanted from Europe and Great Britain in particular. As was the case in Great Britain, there were a number of public organisations, such as athenaeum, mechanics institutes and the philosophical societies, established in early New Zealand settlements, each with the potential to foster the development of a museum collection for educational purposes. However, the significance of local individuals with their own motivation and vision, 1 The term private 'museum' is used to refer to private collections that are opened to the public in commercial or other premises. 1 \ should not be underestimated. Their contributions as collectors and voluntary curators are documented and analysed. Within the historical account this thesis attempts to provide answers to an inter-related set of questions. For example, what phases of development did the museum go through before it emerged as a publicly funded institution in a purpose built facility and is it possible to document the network of collectors from which museum collections derive? Of equal significance is an expioration of the objectives of the key personnel involved in each phase of museum development. Insights into the museum development process may be gained from a detailed investigation of the political struggle to establish the museum as a community facility and the key factors in being able to complete this transaction will be explored. The broader and more theoretical objective of this thesis it to explore the complex web of interrelationships that motivate and sustain private collecting and museum development in the colonial context. Contemporary museology is much concerned with understanding the political and social context within which private and public collections were accumulated and interpreted. Knowledge of this historical context is essential to contemporary understanding and management of these collections. Structure of thesis: This study presents an essentially chronological account of the transition from private and commercial collections to the establishment of a fully public museum in Invercargill. Chapter One begins with reference to the development of museums in Europe. In the colonial context, the museum became an agent of imperial appropriation. First, the private collectors and public institutions focused on identifying and naming the newly discovered flora and fauna. By the 1880' s, with the indigenous peoples declining in the face of colonial settlement, there was a rush to collect the remaining material evidence of their cultures. 2 Brief historical outlines are provided for the four major museums in New Zealand. Two smaller regional museums are then examined. Common themes in the development of these institutions are identified. The final section in this chapter provides a brief historical overview of the Southland region as a context for the historical narrative to follow. Chapters Two, Three and Four provide a case history of the early development of the Southland Museum from 1869 until 1945. Chapter Two documents the development of Andrew McKenzie's commercial 'museum' from 1869 until it was purchased by the Invercargill Athenaeum in 1876. This chapter also documents the development of the Athenaeum museum. Attention focuses on the development of the collection and the way in which the public profile of the 'museum' changes during this period. Chapter Three traces the relocation of the Athenaeum Museum to the Southland Technical College. Although not opening until 1912, the Southland Technical College museum collection was under the watchful eye of its first museum 'curators' from 1906. The history of this emerging public collection documents a transition from the emphasis on science, particularly natural history, as the prime function of a museum, towards more specific educational objectives, particularly agricultural education. In addition to documenting the growth of the collection, this chapter provides an overview of the management and curatorship of the museum. Chapter Four explores the establishment of the Southland Centennial Memorial Museum from 1936 until 1941, the opening in 1942 and subsequent developments in the period from 1942 to 1945. This chapter is a purposefully detailed exploration of the complex and difficult process of securing funding and gaining public support for the museum. During this period, the museum shifted the emphasis from agricultural to ethnographic and historical display, though the natural history collections were retained and exhibited. Chapters Five and Six place the development of the Southland Museum in a broader context. Chapter Five explores the social and intellectual milieu within which McKenzie and the Invercargill Athenaeum operated in the second half of the nineteenth century. It 3 explores the ' culture of collecting' that was extant in Southland in this period and documents the extent to which collectors participated in the collection and exchange of natural history specimens. Case studies have been provided to illustrate the range of collections and exhibitions which was characteristic of the period. The first section of Chapter 6 provides biographical detail about those involved in the emergence of the museum. The intention of this section is to explore the origins of the Southland Technical College museum and the impact of the emerging ideas of ' professionalism' in the museum sector. The importance of the role of agricultural research in the development of science in New Zealand and the unique placement of the Southland Museum within the Southland Technical College is also documented. The second section of this chapter relates to Southland Museum during its planning period and beyond. For Southland Museum it was also a period of increasing inter-institutional co­ operation and museum development. Sources and Limitations: Although there has been some primary research on aspects of the history of some New Zealand museums during the last decade the published literature on this subject is still very limited. Hence, the accounts provided in Chapter One are dependent on a very limited range of sources. However, these sources were useful in identifying themes and patterns to explore in the context of this case study. It was this awareness of the lack of detailed historical accounts of museum development in New Zealand that determined the form of this thesis. Such a detailed account provides the opportunity to balance the general assumptions made about colonial museums in New Zealand against a detailed account of the local context. There have been significant recent publications in the field of the history of collecting, particularly in the colonial context. In particular, the works of Clifford, Ames, Griffiths and Sheets-Pyenson2 provide important insights in understanding and analysing the early history of Southland Museum. 2 Michael Ames, Cannibal Tours and Glass Boxes: the Anthropology of Museums (Vancouver: UBC Press, c1992), Tom Griffiths, Hunters and Collectors: the Antiquarian Imagination in Australia. (Melbourne: University Press, 1996), J. Clifford. The Predicament of Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), Susan Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science: the Development of 4 The documentation of collectors, collections and early museum activity in Southland depends almost entirely on original archival resources. There are few published references to Andrew McKenzie's 'museum' and those that do exist repeat erroneous facts. Hence, the account of this 'museum' depends almost entirely upon contemporary newspaper reports . Because the Southland Museum collections moved from the Athenaeum to the Southland Technical College to the Centennial Memorial museum it was necessary to source archives from all three locations. The absence of a central archive in Southland made this difficult but archives do remain for each period and these have been consulted. For the Athenaeum 'museum' period, records relating to the founding of the Athenaeum and the purchase of McKenzie' s and other collections were found amongst an incomplete archival record at the Invercargill Public Library. The period between 1880 and 1915 is characterised by scant newspaper reference to the museum collection and an almost non-existent archival record. However, while housed in the Southland Technical College the museum was under the control of the Southland Education Board and their records for this period have been most useful. Many of these records, including minute and newspaper clipping books provided valuable information about the development of the 'museum'. Most were held at the lnvercargill Public Library as the nominated repository for Southland Education Board records . Other archives were located at Invercargill ' s Cargill High School, the successor to the Southland Technical College. In the course of this research these records were united with those at the Invercargill Public Library. The Southland Institute of Technology, which remains on the site of the Southland Technical College, provided records of the building site and plans showing where the museum was located. For the period 1915 to 1945 there was a contrasting wealth of relevant un-indexed archival material in the Southland Museum and Art Gallery. A comprehensive review of this material provided a clear picture of the development of the collection, funding and staffing levels, exhibition focus and overall functioning of the museum as the collection Colonial Natural History Museums During the Late Nineteenth Century (Kingston, Ont. : McGill-Queen's University Press, 1988). 5 moved from the Southland Technical College to the Southland Centennial Memorial Museum. This thesis traces the history of museum development in Southland from 1869 - 1945; from a collection in a private commercial establishment to a publicly funded institution in a purpose built facility. This pattern of private collecting and museum development in Southland has aspects in common with other regions in New Zealand. This thesis however, presents for the first time a detailed account of the complex network of individuals and institutions that was necessary to sustain such development over a period of75 years. 6 CHAPTER I The New Zealand Context: Common Themes This chapter provides a wider historical and museological context for the early history of the Southland Museum and Art Gallery Niho o te Taniwha. Particular attention is given to the development of museums in New Zealand, through to the end of the Second World War. 1.1 The Emergence Of Museums In Europe: In general terms the history of museums documents the transition from private collections to public museums. The concept of a 'public' museum was a largely European construct. Museums emerged from the private collections of royalty and noblemen and the institutional collections of clerics and scholars. As the number of private collections began to increase, a body of literature devoted to their management began to evolve. By the early 1700's there was literature available to collectors on classification, collection care and specimen availability. 1 This wealth of literature and scholarship grew out of the need to organise and arrange, to interpret and find meaning in the objects collected. The organising principles of these collections altered through time in response to the changing set of practices for the shaping of knowledge. 2 Public collections developed in response to developments in scholarship and in response to the idea that all people had a right to learn freely. The development of museums in the Western world, whether of art, history or science, was part of an overall trend towards increased democratisation.3 Museums were closely associated with the emergence of the democratic nation state. For example, in Paris the Louvre was opened to the public in 1793, four years after the beginning of the French Revolution. One of 1 Geoffrey Lewis, "Museums and Their Precursors: a Brief World Survey." In Manual of Curatorship: a Guide to Museum Practice (edited by John M. A. Thompson. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992), 9. 2 Eilian Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge (London: Routledge, 1992), 191-197. 3 Ames, Cannibal Tours and Glass Boxes, 15-16. 7 the great European museums that influenced the course of museology in the nineteenth century, the Louvre grew from the exclusive collections of a royal dynasty into a public museum that was owned by the state and therefore accessible to its citizens.4 The European exploration of Africa, Asia, the Americas and Oceania led to an influx of natural and cultural materials from around the world. Europeans took the roll of organising and naming the natural and cultural world according to their own practices for the shaping of knowledge. Their influence was far reaching. A 'museum mindedness' was carried by the European colonists to many parts of the world. 5 Associated with the growth of museums and European exploration was the European passion for organised exhibitions. Colonial, national and international exhibitions had a profound and lasting influence on the development of museums.6 For example, the Great Exhibition (London) of 1851 encouraged people to see the world in a new way. It provided an opportunity to learn about other cultures.7 Differences between cultures were demonstrated. Ideas of progress, civilisation and empire were embodied in the exhibitions. This passion for exhibitions was closely linked to European expansionism. The exhibitions demonstrated progress and oppression as Western governments strove to present economic and imperial messages. 8 Museums acquired many of the objects collected together for the exhibitions and in their displays continued to convey the same imperial messages. 9 Museum collections became a means of maintaining intellectual control over the natural and cultural world. The building of museums was in itself a political act. 10 A museum was a place where the rapidly expanding knowledge of the world could be displayed and made accessible to the general public in a form that reinforced ethnocentric prejudices. 4 Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics (London: Routledge, 1995), 36 5 Joanne Black, Fragments Shored against Their Ruin: Victorian Museum Culture (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International, {19--} Thesis {Ph.D.} University of Virginia, 1991), 12-13. 6 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, 61. 7 Black, Fragments Shored against Their Ruin, 7. 8 Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: the &positions Universe/les, Great F,xhibitions, and World's Fairs, 1851-1939 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, cl988), 225 . 9 A Coombes. Reinventing Africa: Museums, Material Culture and Popular imagination. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994). 10 Black, Fragments Shored against Their Ruin, 12-13. 8 In the nineteenth century the rate of museum establishment increased significantly. Numerous literary, scientific and philosophical societies had been established in an attempt to provide access to learning and forum for scholars. Advances in geology, palaeontology and archaeology, in particular, provided new frameworks for the organisation of collections. These ideas were as influential in the colonial context as they were in Europe. Objects of natural and human history were collected and returned in large numbers to Europe. European ideas and institutions were transplanted to the colonies. The museum was one European institution which formed part of the colonial infrastructure that enabled settlers to assume control over their new environment. 11 1.2 Museums In The Colonial Context: By the nineteenth century natural history collecting, both private and public, popular and scientific was well advanced.12 Colonial settlers were also quick to begin private collections of natural and cultural curiosities in their new colonies. During the last . century significant progress has been made in the investigation and analysis of museum development in the colonial context. 13 This has made it possible to identify some common themes in the development of colonial museums. The early establishment of a range of educational and philosophical societies in colonial settlements led to the early development of collections and eventually public museums. Together with the unprecedented explosion in the creation and expansion of natural history museums all over the world came the rapid growth of colonial museums. 14 These museums tended to focus initially on natural history collection, particularly exploitable raw materials. This focus was followed by an interest in the material culture 11 Griffiths, Hunters and Collectors, 18. 12 Susan Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science: the Development of Colonial Natural History Museums During the Late Nineteenth Century (Kingston, Ont.: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1988), 5. 13 Griffiths, Hunters and Collectors; Moira Simpson, Making Representations: Museums in the Post­ Colonial Era (New York: Routledge, 1996). Douglas Cole, Captured Heritage: the Scramble for Northwest Coast Artifacts (Vancouver: Douglas & Mcintyre, cl985). 14 Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 3. 9 of indigenous peoples. These interests were generally followed by the establishment of art museums. While colledions of items relating to colonial history began in the nineteenth century, particularly relating to the achievements of ' important men', social history collections as we know them today are a relatively recent development. The general pattern of museum exhibition development began with a random selection of specimens, particularly spectacular and rare items that were intended to ' entertain' the visitor. Later the emphasis was given to systematic exhibitions of natural and cultural specimens with the intention of 'instructing' the visitor. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, colonial museums tried to develop smaller versions of the collections of the large metropolitan institutions. This led to a period of increased exchange of specimens as museums strove to develop national and international collections. During their development, colonial museums remained dependent upon the museums of Europe as centres of scientific knowledge and museological expertise. 15 1.3 Museums in New Zealand: Apart from a small number of regional societies there was no national framework for the co-ordination of scientific activities in New Zealand before the establishment of the New Zealand Institute in 1867. Though the collective scientific effort in New Zealand was substantial, the geographic separation of those most capable of initiating a scientific movement prevented any cohesive development. In the context of this study it should be noted that the scientific societies in southern New Zealand were particularly active. 16 The key figures in the development of the New Zealand Institute and the development of colonial science were also key figures in the development of the major museums in New Zealand. The philosophical and scientific incorporated societies of Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury and Otago were associated with museums from their beginnings. 15 Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 11. 16 J. R. Andrews, The Southem Ark: Zoological Discovery in New Zealand, 1769-1900 (London: Century, 1987), 166. 10 The initial focus in the development of natural history collections, exploitable resources in particular, was followed by a growing interest in collecting Maori material, particularly from the 1880's, as it was realised that significant quantities of material were being exported and it was assumed that Maori culture would be assimilated. As key figures involved with the various institutes moved from one centre to another around the country, interest was stimulated and societies were created. The New Zealand Institute was established in 1867 two years after the establishment of the Colonial Museum under the Directorship of James Hector. Existing philosophical societies in Nelson, Wellington and Canterbury were joined by like groups from other provincial centres collectively supporting the national body. There followed the addition of a museum in Christchurch and then, in 1869, the founding of the University of Otago (Dunedin), followed by the initiation of the University of New Zealand. Otago University Museum opened to the public in 1877. Other institutions of note that opened in the South Island in the nineteenth century were the North Otago Museum (Oamaru) and Nelson Provincial Museum. The North Otago museum (which opened to the public in 1883) was formed as a consequence of James Hector's 1863 geological collections that were on show at the 1865 N.Z. Exhibition (Dunedin). The museum was created during a prosperous time for the region but went into decline. In 1900 there were five public museums in the South Island and this number had only increased to nine by 1950. 17 1.4 Metropolitan Museum Case Studies: The early histories of the four major New Zealand museums are outlined briefly here, as it was against the backdrop of these larger institutions that the regional museums were established. The regional museums initially aspired to be smaller versions of these metropolitan institutions, even to the encyclopaedic nature of their collections. 11 \ Auckland Museum Auckland Institute and Museum (now known as Auckland Museum Te Papa Whakahiku) began in 1867 based on the collections originally accumulated by John Alexander Smith. He had started collecting in response to a lack of information relative to products of the colony. 18 Smith was also responsible for co-ordinating the Auckland entries sent to London for the 'Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations' of 1851. 19 Smith's collections had been opened to the public in 1852. He advocated the need for a permanent building for the growing museum that was housed above his business premises. In 1857 he left for Napier. Administrative oversight for the collection was given to George Elliott but nothing significant was done for at least another decade.20 It is probable however that Ferdinand Hochstetter renovated the collections at some stage. The museum did receive a small annual grant from the Provincial Council and there was a caretaker in residence, but it struggled financially. In 1866 when F. W. Hutton arrived in Auckland and was employed by the Geological Survey21 , he arranged the museum specimens and enlarged the collections.22 In 1867 the Auckland Institute was established under his influence and revived an interest in the museum. It was moved into a larger and more centralised building and by 1868 the collections were transferred to the Auckland Institute. A purpose-built museum building was opened in 1876. The Auckland Institute's early secretaries, Thomas Kirk (1868-1874), Thomas Cheeseman (1874-1924) and Sir Gilbert Archey (1924-1964) also acted as the curator/director of the museum.23 Cheeseman's period of curatorship saw the collections grow in every department despite his botanical 17 Art galleries have not been included here. K. W. Thomson, Art Galleries and Museums of New Zealand (Wellington: A. H. & A. W. Reed Ltd, 1981), 166-172. 18 Stuart Park, John Alexander Smith and the Early History of Auckland Museum, 1852-1867 (Auckland, N.Z.: Auckland Institute and Museum, 1998), 14. 19 Park, John Alexander Smith and the Early History of Auckland Museum, 1852-1867, 18. This was more commonly referred to as the 'Great Exhibition (London)' . 20 Park, John Alexander Smith and the Early History of Auckland Museum, 1852-1867, 24. 21 In 1874 he became Provincial Geologist in Otago and curator of the then Otago University Museum. 22 Park, John Alexander Smith and the Early History of Auckland Museum, 1852-1867, 26. 23 Park, John Alexander Smith and the Early History of Auckland Museum, 1852-1867, 41 . 12 interests.24 The Museum's ethnography collections (particularly in relation to Maori history and art) were expanded during this period with the support of the Town Council, gifts and monetary contributions by the public.25 In 1913 the Institute and Museum Council requested government aid for a new museum building. The advent of World War One slowed progress but by 1920 a significant sum had been raised. It was suggested that a War Memorial Museum be erected and a citizens committee for the promotion of this memorial was formed. This committee operated from 1920 until 1929 when the Auckland War Memorial Museum opened.26 In 1928 the Auckland War Memorial Maintenance Act authorised the City Council and surrounding local authorities to provide the funding needed to maintain the facility and employ the professional staff required to operate a major museum.27 The museum had a \vide base of scientific staff allowing for the proper maintenance and servicing of the constantly expanding collections. The staff engaged in numerous scientific research expeditions and published the results of their research. In the 1920's the Auckland War Memorial Museum had a strong programme of exhibitions and encouraged public participation in its activities. An Auckland Museum School Service commenced in 1929. By 1933 the Auckland War Memorial Museum had a part-time Education Department teacher and in 1938 a Carnegie Corporation grant allowed for the full-time appointment of a teacher as a museum Education Officer.28 While the public displays changed infrequently, curatorial and education activities continued to increase the reputation of New Zealand's major museum. Displays and collections stretched the museum facility but there was no major extension until 10 years after World War Two. 24 The Centennial history of the Auckland Institute and Museum I967, 12. 25 The Centennial history of the Auckland Institute and Museum 1967, 14. 26 The Centennial history of the Auckland Institute and Museum 1967, 24-25. 27 The Centennial history of the Auckland Institute and Museum 1967, 28. 28 The Centennial history of the Auckland Institute and Museum 1967, 30. 13 \ National Museum Before the Colonial Museum in Wellington there was a small collection formed by the New Zealand Society. Walter Buller, the New Zealand-born naturalist, was largely responsible for the formation and curation of these collections that were later transferred to the Colonial Museum.29 The Colonial Museum, however, began with the geological collections of James Hector. 30 The Otago Provincial Government had engaged Hector for three years during which he carried out a geological survey of the Otago Province. Fallowing his success with the 1865 New Zealand Industrial Exhibition in Dunedin, Hector was selected to be Director of a National Geological Survey, with headquarters at the Colonial Museum, founded in 1865. The Colonial Museum opened to the public in December 1865 with reliance upon displays of geological specimens. The collections grew quickly from donation and the acquisition of zoological, botanical and ethnographic (especially Maori) material.31 Hector laid the foundations for three separate institutions; namely the New Zealand Geological Survey, the Colonial Museum and the Colonial Laboratory. In its formative years the Colonial Museum was closely associated with the functions of its fellow institutions. The most important scientific institution to become associated with the Museum was the New Zealand Institute. Under the New Zealand Institute Act 1867 the Museum became the property of the New Zealand Institute managed by a Board of Governors. Hector, as director of the Geological Survey, became the Manager. 32 In 1868 a new wing was added to the museum to provide exhibition and office space as well as a library and meeting room. Those associated with the museum produced numerous catalogues and manuals on natural history subjects. It was a period of New Zealand-based scholarly research. The museum building was inadequate. The collections were cramped and could not be properly sorted and catalogued. In 1874 Hector pressed for the completion of the original museum plan. However, his ability to 29 R. A. Galbreath, Walter Buller: the Reluctant Conservationist. (Wellington, {N.Z.} : GP Books, c 1989). 30 James Hector who was the leading figure in New Zealand science and museology for the entire second half of the nineteenth century in New Zealand. 31 Dell, R. K., Dominion Museum, 1865-1965 (Wellington, N.Z.: Dominion Museum, 1965), 4 . 32 Dell, Dominion Museum, 1865-1965 (1965), 4. 14 influence government decisions was declining. Financial constraints meant reductions in staff and maintenance. Augustus Hamilton was appointed Director in 1903. He had been curator of the Hawkes Bay Athenaeum Museum and Registrar of the University of Otago before his appointment. 33 Whilst in Otago he was involved with the Otago Institute34 and had established a wide network of scientific contacts in New Zealand and overseas. He brought to the Colonial Museum a knowledge of museology, natural history and Maori ethnology. There had been considerable discussion regarding the recording of Maori history, art and culture, which culminated in the passing of the Maori Antiquities Act 1901. Pishief35 has suggested that Hamilton's appointment to the Colonial Museum was the result of his activities in promoting the establishment of a national Maori museum and his active support of the antiquities legislation. 36 During his time at the Colonial Museum from 1903 until his sudden death in 1913, Hamilton was successful in significantly augmenting the national collection. He was responsible for the acquisition of a number of major private collections of taoka Maori. 37 Hamilton was continually frustrated by his inability to persuade government to provide the new facility desperately needed to house the museum's rapidly expanding collections. 38 J. A Thomson was the third director of the museum, and the first New Zealand-born director. 39 The Science and Art Act 1913 placed the Museum under the newly formed Board of Science and Art which was to provide governance for the Dominion Museum, Art Gallery and Library. Due to the outbreak of World War I the board did not meet until 1916 but they continued to work towards a new building. During this period museum staff increased and a substantial body of research resulted in scientific publications. The work of Elsdon Best on Maori ethnology was of particular 33 Natalie Wilson, The Otago Years of Augustus Hamilton, 1890-1903. (Thesis {MA Thesis} Otago University, {no date}), 12. 34 Incorporated in 1869. Wilson, The Otago Years of Augustus Hamilton, 1890-1903, 13. 35 Elizabeth Pishief, Augustus Hamilton: Appropriation, Ownership and Authority: a Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Museum Studies at Massey University. (Thesis {M.A. Museum Studies} Massey University, 1998), 76-125. 36 This had been previously suggested by Wilson, The Otago Years of Augustus Hamilton, 1890-1903, 69. 37 Wilson, The Otago Years of Augustus Hamilton, 1890-1903, 73. 38 Best was appointed as 'extra clerk' in 1910. Although he remained on the staff of the Dominion Museum until his death in 1931 and produced several 'classic' ethnographic accounts of Maori life he was to remain as 'temporary clerical assistant' despite Hamilton's efforts. 39 Dell, Dominion Museum, 1865-1965 (1965), 14. 15 importance.40 At the end of the war the museum entered another expansion phase resulting in further staff increases. In 1924 the Government announced that it would give a subsidy towards the cost of the building if the same amount could be raised locally. Progress was slow until 1928 when the Mayor of Wellington initiated an appeal for funds. 41 The new building opened in 193642 and the National Art Gallery was established. The museum's name had been changed from Colonial to Dominion museum in 1907.43 Oliver, who had become director in 1925, planned the general overall layout of the galleries. The main plan was to cover the fields of Maori and foreign ethnology, New Zealand plant and animal life, with a large section devoted to insects, and the geology of New Zealand.44 Oliver' s aim was to provide a new arrangement of the collections that 4- was " . .. all embracing but thoroughly ordered". ) In 1942 the major part of the Museum and Art Gallery was taken over for defence purposes at very short notice. The Art Gallery vacated the building, all the Museum collections, the library, office records and personnel were relocated amongst the display cases. Some of the collection was irreparably damaged.46 The museum was closed but curation and research work continued with reduced staff.47 At the end of the war staff returned but the museum remained closed to the public. Oliver retired in 194 7 and R. A Falla was appointed. He was a natural historian, who had previously been assistant director of the Auckland Museum and director of the Canterbury Museum. 48 40 Dell,DominionMuseum, 1865-1965(1965), 15. 41 Dell, Dominion Museum, 1865-1965 (1965), 15. 42 Dell, Dominion Museum, 1865-1965 (1965), 16. 43 Dell, Dominion Museum, 1865-1965 (1965), 14. 44 R. K. Dell, The First Hundred Years of the Dominion Museum (196-), 179. 45 Dell, The First Hundred Years of the Dominion Museum (196-), 179. 46 Dell, The First Hundred Years of the Dominion Museum ( 196-), 181 . 47 Dell, The First Hundred Years of the Dominion Museum ( 196-), 185-186. 48 Falla was also involved in wartime subantarctic coast-watching operations on the Auckland and Campbell Islands (Figure 1), p.38, where he was able to carry out extensive fieldwork on subantarctic birds and seals. R. K. Dell, The First Hundred Years of the Dominion Museum ( 196-), 185-186. 16 \ By November 1948 renovations and repairs had been carried out and the staff and collections returned to their pre-war locations. The exhibitions were reorganised and opened to the public in 1949. Canterbury Museum In Christchurch, Dr. (afterwards Sir Julius von) Haast established Canterbury Museum in 1861 with a small collection of geological specimens gathered during the two previous years whilst travelling through parts of New Zealand.49 The early · collections were opened to the public in the old Provincial Government Buildings in 1867. The first portion of the present museum building was completed in 1870. This was the first purpose built museum facility in New Zealand. Extensions were added in 1872, 1876 and 1882. Since 1874 the Museum had been administered by the Board of Governors of Canterbury College through a Museum and Library Committee.50 This initial period of development appears to have been largely dependent on the energy and leadership of Haast.51 The Museum grew quickly and established an outstanding reputation for its collections. Haast raised more than a quarter of the funds initially expended on the museum through private subscriptions and supervised the construction. Unfortunately, an absence of long-term planning and stable resources meant that further development was difficult.52 It was not until 1868 that a salary was provided for the Curator (Director).53 For 14 years from 1861 to 1875 the Provincial Government actively supported the museum and income was supplemented by public subscriptions.54 During this period public subscriptions were an important factor in the finances and acquisitions of the Museurn.55 49 Guide to the Collections in the Canterbury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. ({3rd ed.} Christchurch: Canterbury Museum, 1906), 1. so Directory of museums and art galleries in Australia & New Zealand. ({Compiled by S. F. Markham and H. C. Richards} , London: The Museums association, 1934), 95. si Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 48. s2 Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 49. s3 Jennifer Queree, personal correspondence with Jennifer Queree (Senior Curator, Canterbury Museum) on the history of Canterbury Museum, 28 April 2000. s4 Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 49. ss Jennifer Queree, personal correspondence with Jennifer Queree (Senior Curator, Canterbury Museum) on the history of Canterbury Museum, 20 April 2000. 17 \ In 1873 the Canterbury College Ordinance was passed which placed the Museum under the control of a Board of Governors. Many of those on the board were members of the Canterbury Philosophical Institute. 56 For the first 30 years of its existence the Canterbury museum had a substantial national and international reputation. However, because of later financial difficulties its staff was reduced and facilities were less than adequate, especially in the years leading up to World War Two. In 1933 the museum received only £400 from the Christchurch City Council. 57 This is an indication of the extent to which the museum had declined from its former position. The Canterbury Museum Trust Board Act 194 7 transferred control of the museum to a Trust Board that succeeded the Canterbury University College Council. At this time the major responsibility for maintaining the Museum was accepted by local bodies between the Rangitata and Conway Rivers of the Canterbury region. 58 Haast developed Canterbury Museum' s collections by exchanging duplicates of moa bones and Maori artefacts with institutions and private collectors in many parts of the world. He also purchased material from dealers in Europe and America. During the early stage of the museum' s development in the 1870's Haast gave attention to ethnological materials in particular. The museum opened a complete 'Maori House ' as an exhibition room. In ethnology, as in natural history, New Zealand and foreign collections were segregated. By 1873, the museum's holdings had increased to 56,000 specimens, with nearly half of them zoological.59 By the early 1880' s Haast concentrated on further improvements to the museum's geological, technological and ethnological branches. 60 In general the Canterbury Museum emphasised general exhibits of foreign materials and segregated local materials into distinct geographical groupings. 61 s6 Queree, personal correspondence with Jennifer Queree (Senior Curator, Canterbury Museum) on the history of Canterbury Museum, 20 April 2000. s7 S. F. Markham, A Report on the Museums and Art Galleries of Australia and New Zealand (London: The Museums Association, 1933), 78. ss Queree, 20 April 2000. s9 Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 83 . 60 Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 51 . 61 Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science, 90. 18 Otago Museum Due to the lack of any substantial published history it is not possible to provide an adequate outline of the early development of Otago Museum. The collection that fonned the nucleus of the Otago University Museum (now known as the Otago Museum) was mainly the result of the work of James Hector and his assistants in the early 1860' s, and was displayed for the first time in the New Zealand Exhibition in 1865.62 The collection of mainly natural history specimens was stored for nearly three years after Hector left for Wellington. It was then moved to the University of Otago where it remained, largely neglected, until a purpose-built museum was opened in 1877. There is a lack of research on the initial impact of this highly influential provincial museum, which grew from and was established in what was essentially the commercial and social capital of colonial New Zealand. This period of economic superiority lasted until at least the tum of the twentieth century for Otago. At first the Otago Provincial Council voted £200 a year for the maintenance of the Museum. This sum was tripled by 1875 and supplemented by public subscription.63 With the centralisation of government after 1876 the maintenance and management of the museum was provided for under the Otago Museum Act 1877. The act transferred the buildings, exhibits and other property of the Museum to the University of Otago.64 However despite private bequests, public subscriptions, and the voluntary contributions of Local Bodies, notably the Dunedin City Council, the State made no provision for the financing of the Museum until the passage of the Otago Museum Trust Board Act 1955. Over 78 years of control by the University of Otago was ended when responsibility for the museum was handed over to the Otago Museum Trust Board in 1956.65 62 G. E. Thompson, A History of the University of Otago (1869-1919): Written under the auspices of the University Council in Connection with the Jubilee Celebratiom (Dunedin: J. Wilkie & Co., Ltd., {1919}), 262. 63 Angus Ross, "The Otago Museum 1868-1955." In Otago Museum 1868-1955 Report for the Years 1954 and 1955 (Dunedin: Coulls Somerville Wilkie Ltd., March, 1956), 9. 64 Ross, "The Otago Museum 1868-1955." (1956), 10. 6s Ross, "The Otago Museum 1868-1955." (1956), 9. 19 McRobie66 has observed that Hutton, Parker, Benham and Skinner (all museum directors) were all University teachers and, perhaps inevitably, this meant that the displays created under their direction were developed to suit the requirements of their teaching programmes rather than to appeal to members of the general public. According to McRobie it was not until the late 1930' s that there was any real effort to display the Museum's material in a manner calculated to appeal to non-academic visitors. Then as a result of the visit of Frank Tose (preparator at the Museum of the Academy of Sciences, San Francisco), the first dioramas in any New Zealand museum were prepared. The single unifying thread throughout the institution's history was the fact that at no stage was there" ... income sufficient for the Museum's every need".67 1.5 Regional Museum Case Studies: The basic pattern of development is outlined in case studies of two regional museums. These two museums emerged in the same period as the collections in Southland that are the subject of the remainder of this thesis. Hawkes Bay Museum Two separate societies, the Napier Mechanics Institute and the Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute contributed to the foundation of the Hawkes Bay Art Gallery and Museum.68 In 1859 the establishment of a Mechanics Institute for Napier was discussed, but it was not until 1865 that the first Athenaeum was opened. The Athenaeum received some financial assistance from the Provincial Government. By 1871 literary evenings were being held and lectures given. In 1874 an exhibition was held to raise funds for the purchase of books and the foundation of a museum. This Exhibition featured Maori carvings and artefacts, manufactured goods, ' settlers possessions', 'foreign ' exhibits and produce from nature.69 The Mechanics Institute was incorporated with the Athenaeum in 1876 and all the real and personal property of the Institute was vested in the Athenaeum. 66 A D . McRobie, An Administrative History of the Otago Museum (Thesis, 1966), 218. 67 McRobie, An Administrative History of the Otago Museum, 2 18. 68 Elizabeth Pishief, A Provincial Expression of International Ideas: the Development of the Hawkes Bay Art Gallery and Museum, 1859-19./0 (Research essay {Museum Studies} Massey University, 198-), 9. 69 Pishief, A Provincial Expression of International Ideas ( 198-), 11 . 20 The Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute was founded in 1874 under the New Zealand Institute 's Act 1867, for the " ... advancement of science, literature, and art, as well as for the development of the resources of the colony".70 Included at the first meeting were prominent local professionals and scientists such as William Colenso and John Alexander Smith who had begun the first museum in Auckland. William Colenso, became the honorary secretary and treasurer of the Institute, a position he held until 1884.71 Membership of the Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute peaked in 1886 and thereafter declined.72 In 1873 a reading room had been added to the Athenaeum and with the abolition of the provinces in 1876 the site was vested as the 'Athenaeum Reserve' to the Napier Athenaeurn and Mechanics' Institute.73 In 1877 the Philosophical Institute housed its books in the Athenaeurn signalling the beginning of a long association with the Mechanic ' s Institute.74 Apparently the ' Athenaeum' had a museum collection at this stage which contained ' numerous specimens of zoological, botanical, fossil and palaeontological ' material that had been assembled by individuals " ... for the education and entertainment of the Mechanics Institute".75 The Athenaeum building was enlarged during the mid-1880's. By 1883 the Philosophical Institute managed the room in which the 'museum' was housed and began organising their own 'museum'. They employed Augustus Hamilton, a local teacher, as honorary curator. He was to become a major influence in the development and direction of the Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute' s Museum.76 Colenso's influence was of equal importance at this time especially in relation to the Institute's natural history collections. By the 1870' s his achievements in science and scholarship were widely acknowledged. He belonged to the Royal Society and the Linnaean Society in England and was the mainstay of the Philosophical Institute. He 70 Pishief, A Provincial Expression of Intemational Ideas (198-), 12. 71 Pishief, A Provincial Expression of International Ideas (198-), 12. 72 Pishief, A Provincial Expression of Intemational Ideas (198-), 14. 73 Roxanne Fea and Elisabeth Pishief. Culture of Collecting: 60 years of the Hawke 's Bay Museum (Napier: Hawke's Bay Cultural Trust, 1996), 12. 74 Pishief, A Provincial Expression of International Ideas (198-), 14. 75 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 13 . 76 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 13 . 21 \ had arranged all the meetings, purchased the books and gave lectures. He remained as secretary and treasurer until 1884 when Augustus Hamilton took over.77 Colenso had donated numerous specimens to the 'museum' and Philosophical Institute prior to his death in 1899.78 Colenso had played an important part in the activities and direction of the Institute but Augustus Hamilton played an even more crucial role in the development of its collections. He donated a significant private collection of New Zealand fauna, fossils, moa bones, taoka Maori including canoes and buildings, adzes, tattooing implements, needles and fishhooks . He also collected koiwi Maori.79 As well as increasing their collections from gifts, the Institute acquired specimens through purchase. During his association with the Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute Hamilton published a number of scientific papers covering subjects ranging from fossilised shells to moa bones.80 He left Hawkes Bay in 1890 to take up a position at Otago University in Dunedin. In 1885 Henry Hill, an inspector of schools joined the Institute. He was an influential 'educationist' . His personal interests influenced a new direction for the Institute when he became president in 1891.81 He moved the emphasis away from natural history and ethnology towards questions of national development and current social and political issues. 82 By 1890 the Institute was in financial difficulties because of a declining membership. In 1892 Hill led a move by the Institute to secure a new building in which to store the collections and base the Institute's activities. However, little progress was made during the 1890's: " ... social changes, coupled with an unmanageable debt and the departure of visionary figures such as Augustus Hamilton and William Colenso, saw the Philosophical Institute's Museum fall into a state of stagnation in the early 1900s .. .. By this date the educational and literary services of the Institute were no longer compatible with the needs fth . "g~ o e commumty... . 77 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 14. 78 Pishief, A Provincial Expression of International Ideas ( 198-), 17. 79 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 14. 8° Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 15. 81 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 15. 82 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 16. 83 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 17. 22 \ The remaining members of the Institute agreed that the collections could only be saved through the intervention of the Town Corporation and in 1900 Henry Hill made approaches to the Borough Council. 84 Support for the Philosophical Institute had declined and very few acquisitions were made to the museum for the next decade. Napier along with the rest of the country was affected by the depressed economic climate and went into a period of stagnation and decline. By 1926 the Philosophical Institute was effectively closed to the public85 and the museum collection was deteriorating. The Town Council kept little more than a watching brief over the collection. The neglected state of the museum collection was not addressed until after the devastating earthquake in 1931 . The Athenaeum building was left intact but the collections were damaged. According to Pishief the near destruction of the town of Napier by the earthquake engendered a desire amongst the citizens to protect and preserve their heritage. 86 In 1924 the Napier Society of Arts and crafts had been founded . The Society's premises were badly damaged in the earthquake and they decided to build new premises. Lady McLean's offer of her collection of ethnographic and historical artefacts to the town of Napier led to the building of a combined facility for art and historical collections. Plans were commissioned in 1933 leading to major fundraising initiatives that attracted government, public and international support through the Carnegie Corporation.87 In 1934 the old Athenaeum was dismantled and the museum and library collection vested in the Society of Arts and Crafts. In 1935 the Athenaeum site was officially leased by the Society from the Borough Council for a nominal rental. A new Art Gallery and Museum was opened to the public that same year.88 Leonard Bestall was appointed honorary director of the new institution. He influenced the direction and rapid growth of the 'Hawkes Bay Art Gallery and Museum' for the 84 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 17. 85 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 18. 86 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 19. 87 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 19-20. 88 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 23. 23 next 20 years. It was not until 1937 that the first paid staff member was appointed.89 The museum was to be completed in stages as funding became available. This meant an ongoing commitment to fundraising by Museum staff and the Society. The Napier Society of Arts and Crafts became the Hawkes Bay Art Society Incorporated in 1936 and its main function was to act as a fundraising and governing body. An Art Gallery and Museum Management Committee was established to oversee its various operations. There was no iwi representation. According to Fea and Pishief this was not unusual for the period.90 The institution had a high level of community involvement and support and (apart from the curator William Ball) was staffed by volunteers and members of the Art Society.91 The collections developed rapidly and in 1936 the Carnegie Corporation gifted £2,500 to the institution for building extensions, education and exhibitions allowing for a second stage in the building to be opened in 1937.92 The Carnegie Corporation had a significant impact on the development of the institution, giving money, books and then including the museum in the Carnegie Exhibition Exchange circuit from 1936. Bestall was awarded a Carnegie Travelling Grant in 1938 that allowed him to visit American museums with the intention of encouraging exchange amongst museums internationally.93 During this early period the museum exchanged surplus collection items with institutions in America in order to extend it's foreign ethnology collections. Bestall was conscripted in 1940 and did not return until 1944. The museum' s activities slowed during the early 1940' s as staffing dropped and war conditions had a negative impact on the level of donations.94 However when Bestall returned the Hawkes Bay Art Gallery and Museum gained a degree of financial stability and direction. Once again he revived the collecting, exhibition and social activities of the museum with the support of a local group of volunteers . . 89 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 23-24. 9° Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 25. 91 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 25. 92 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 27. 93 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 30. 94 Fea and Pishief, Culture of Collecting (1996), 31. 24 Whanganui Museum The Whanganui Public Museum opened to the public in 1894. It housed and displayed a mixture of mostly local natural history specimens and taoka Maori . The museum had its origins in the private collection of Wanganui jeweller and amateur naturalist Samuel Henry Drew.95 His lifelong passion for collecting brought him into contact with an " ... exciting milieu of naturalists, scientists, and other like-minded individuals" .96 For example, he corresponded with James Hector, Julius Von Haast, and Frederick Hutton, all notable scientists at this time. Drew carried out excavations of fossil and other sites around Wanganui and endeavoured to supply Hector with any natural history specimens he desired. McKergow notes that little was known of his excavation technique or archaeological knowledge97 but he was able to amass quite a collection of specimens and had close contact with other collectors in the region . His collections were also expanded through the gift and purchase from both Maori and pakeha of the Wanganui region. Along with natural history specimens he collected Maori material and by 1885 created a private 'museum' in two rooms above his shop.98 In his ' museum' he displayed New Zealand and foreign specimens of natural history and 'curios' as well as twelve live tuatara. His foreign items were mainly from Australia and Oceania.99 A variety of eminent naturalists and scientists visited his museum including Andreas Reischek, Thomas Hocken and Walter Buller. Hocken viewed his museum when he came to organise exhibits for the New Zealand and South Seas exhibition to be held in Dunedin in 1889.100 In 1879 it was proposed that a combined library and museum be built in Wanganui but the museum did not go ahead. In 1889 personal circumstances forced Drew to sell his collection. This prompted the Wanganui Borough Council to consider the establishment of a public museum in Wanganui based upon his private collection. Public subscriptions 9~ Fiona McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House': the Founding and Early History of the Wanga1111i Public Museum, 1870-1901 (Research essay {67.741 History and Philosophy of Museums} Massey University, 1997), 7. 96 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House ', 8. 97 McKergow, 'Nature 's Treasure House', 8. 98 McKergow, ' Nature's Treasure House', 10. 99 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 10. 100 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 11. 25 to support the building of a museum were sought in 1890. A major 'Public Library and Museum' fundraising bazaar was held in 1891 and by 1892 it was decided that the project would go ahead. James Hector valued Drew's collection and it was sold to the people of Wanganui at half the estimated worth. The museum was formally constituted and permanent officers were elected to the board of trustees. Samuel Drew became the museum's first curator. 101 There followed an intense period of fundraising by the trustees and a failed attempt by Napier and Wanganui to secure an endowment for land from the government. 102 Regional museums were not seen as having the same educational potential as libraries or larger metropolitan museums. One Member of Parliament argued that " ... resources should only be given to 'museums of magnitude' in the main centres, not 'miserable little abortions in every outlying town in the country'". 103 The museum project had community and regional support. By 1893 a purpose built museum was completed. Drew and his sons worked voluntarily on creating the museum displays. 104 He sought international exchanges to enhance his museum and when the museum opened it had numerous specimens of fish in cases, rare birds, bones and skeletons, geological specimens and a large and 'splendid' collection of Maori artefacts.105 An entrance fee of one shilling was charged and opening hours were restricted but from 1895 (when the Borough Council voted an annual subsidy) the museum had free entry and was supervised by a paid custodian. Funding remained a problem and throughout its formative years Drew carried out all aspects of collection work on a voluntary basis. 106 The museum's collection of Maori artefacts expanded through donation. Some Maori families loaned items for display purposes only. 107 Drew was unable to compete with the network of organised collectors and dealers in Maori art. He did not approve of the items going out of the country and 101 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 15. 102 The Napier and Wanganui Museums Endowment Bill was read in August 1892 whereby each museum asked for an endowment of £5,000 worth of land but the bill was not passed. 103 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 16. 104 McKergow, 'Nature 's Treasure House', 17. 105 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 18. 106 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 20. 107 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 21. 26 felt that the museum's Maori art collection was of importance to the town as a tourist attraction.108 Wanganui residents such as Henry Sarjeant, who travelled internationally, provided the museum with its foreign material. McKergow suggests that Drew was aware of the pioneering exhibition work of William Flower, Director of the British Museum. Using a similar rationale in his exhibition arrangement Drew avoided the cramped 'curiosity shop' clutter, characteristic of the period, and strove to maintain public interest while offering visitors a blend of education and amusement. 109 In order to maintain this interest Drew introduced the exhibition of live specimens to the museum. Several Tuatara were set up in an aquarium against some opposition that such a di splay was out of place in a 'museum '. 110 By 1899 the museum had an aviary and a monkey house. It was suggested at the time that Drew' s collection might grow into a zoo. The local people even donated live specimens. A formal ceremony was held for the opening of the educational 'live' annex. Walter Empson, a member of the board of trustees, was vociferous in hi s support of the notion that museums could make a significant contribution to the education system in New Zealand. At the opening of the annex he stated that the museum curator was pivotal in fashioning an environment which could enable intellectual and moral uplift.11 1 Drew believed that apart from its educational purpose the museum was a means of preserving the material culture of Maori people. McKergow has suggested that Drew, aware of the negative effect of colonisation on Maori, believed that the material manifestations of Maori culture needed to be preserved. 112 By 1900 the Whanganui museum was flourishing. When Drew died suddenly in 1901 his sons continued on the curatorial role. The years from 1902 till 1907 were very lean years. Funds were low, membership had fallen off, and the Honorary Curator pointed out that the specimens required more attention than the time at his disposal would allow. Whanganui Museum lobbied for and received funding from the county councils of 108 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 21. 109 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 23 . 110 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 24. 111 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 25. 112 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 25-26. 27 Waitotara and Wanganui in exchange for seats on the museum trust board. 113 From 1908 the financial position of the museum improved because of various monetary bequests but a lack of public support and interest in the museum almost caused it to close. Trustees of the Whanganui Public Museum met in 1910 to discuss the advisability of closing the museum. By now the institution was suffering from a lack of funds and support. 114 It was suggested in 1914 that the museum, which was now inadequate for the collections, be handed over to the Borough Council to manage and that a new museum, library and art gallery be erected. This suggestion was postponed because of the outbreak of World War One. The Sarjeant Gallery (Wanganui) was built in 1917 and it was suggested that the museum be housed with it. The museum trustees decided however that it was inadvisable. Such a move would not meet the conditions of the will of Miss Alexander who had bequeathed £ 12,000 to the building and establishment of a library and museum to be called 'The Alexander Library and Museum' in memory of her father. It was also decided that if the museum was transferred to the Borough Council it might not remain under the guidance of ' scientific and experienced' men.115 By 1921 the Trustees were again in financial difficulty. The Wanganui and Waitotara County Councils had discontinued their subsidies and public support had declined once more. The Whanganui Museum was still supported by the Borough Council but an admission charge for adults was introduced.116 From 1922 the museum trustees worked towards the establishment of the Alexander Museum and Library. In 1924, one of the most highly prized exhibits of the museum, the war canoe 'Te Mata o Hoturoa' was gifted. Other bequests allowed for the museum project to go ahead and by 1926 work on the building had commenced. By 1928 a new two-storey concrete building was completed. The ground floor included ethnology and early history exhibits and on the first floor the diverse natural history collections were exhibited. When the museum opened an honorary director was appointed. 117 113 The Alexander Museum: Wanganui, N.Z . Founded in 1892 by S. H. Drew, F.L.S. Early History and Guide to the Principal Exhibits (Wanganui: The Alexander Museum, 1933), 13-14. 114 McKergow, 'Nature's Treasure House', 27 . 115 The Alexander Museum, 14 116 The Alexander Museum, 1 S 117 The Alexander Museum, 1 S 28 1.6 Common Themes: Only a small number of public museums had been established in New Zealand by 1900. Metropolitan museums had been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. Regional museums were operating in Taranaki, Wanganui, Hawkes Bay, Nelson, Oamaru and Invercargill. From the outlined histories of the four metropolitan museums and two regional museums presented above it is possible to identify a number of common themes and patterns. While these themes and patterns go some way to characterising the nature of museum development in New Zealand through to the 1950s, there remains an urgent need for further substantial institutional studies. While these themes and patterns provide an important insight into the development of musewns in New Zealand, they do not deny the significance of the individual institutional histories. Each institution emerges from a unique set of local circumstances and the role of particular individuals in each case determines the character of each institution. While the whole country was affected by the economic depression of the late nineteenth century and the World Wars, only Hawkes Bay was devastated by the 1931 earthquake. Such local events are pivotal in understanding the major phases of development in some institutions. Had there not been an earthquake in Hawkes Bay in 1931 the Athenaeum Museum collection may not have been transferred to a new facility and formed the foundation of what is today a major regional collection. Several of the museums established in the nineteenth century in New Zealand emerged from the activities of Mechanics Institutes and Philosophical Societies. Men of science, trained in Europe and driven by a desire to establish reputable scientific institutions in the colony, provided the energy and vision required to establish and develop museums. Also important was the network of contacts each of these men had with the scientific community throughout New Zealand and beyond. It is also notable that many of the early museum directors held their tenure for long periods thus giving stability and continuity to the development of these institutions. Both the metropolitan and regional general museums founded in nineteenth century New Zealand focused primarily on the development of natural history collections. These 29 collections were an essential part of the collecting, nammg, documentation and interpretation of the new environment surrounding the European settlers. Identification of commercial resources was a priority and these items were of particular interest when displayed at international exhibitions and museum exhibits. It is therefore not surprising that a number of notable scientists, such as Haast and Hector, who had been instrumental in the development of geological surveys in various parts of the country, were instrumental in the early development of museums. Many institutions tried to develop international and encyclopaedic natural history collections. While the metropolitan institutions were more successful in this, regional institutions such as Whanganui developed remarkable collections of foreign fauna in particular. In order to develop their collections most institutions engaged in exchange programmes with overseas collectors and public museums. Most of these early institutions did not tum to the active collection of taoka Maori until later in the nineteenth century when it was generally recognised that significant collections had been taken to Europe and North America. It was generally considered that Maori culture would be assimilated by European 'civilisation' and that there was a need to ensure adequate collections were preserved in New Zealand for future generations. Both metropolitan and regional institutions acquired major private collections during this period. Particularly notable are the collections acquired for the Colonial museum by Augustus Hamilton during the period 1903-6. Significant private collections were still available for acquisition as late as the 1930s when the Hawkes Bay museum acquired the McLean, Black and Waipare collections. At the metropolitan and regional level there appear to have been two main paths to the establishment of public museums in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One pattern is that of private collections being developed to the point where the collector makes the collection 'public' as a transitional phase towards the establishment of a fully public museum funded at least in part by the community. Recent research has shown that this was the case in Auckland, Canterbury and Whanganui . The other pattern is the emergence of a public museum from a collection developed by a local society. This second pattern has been documented in Hawkes Bay and Nelson. The origins of Otago Museum seem to emerge from the New Zealand Exhibition in Dunedin in 1865. 30 All of the museums established in the nineteenth century survived on very limited budgets. The metropolitan institutions had professional staff while most of the regional institutions relied on the voluntary assistance of the local scientific community well into the twentieth century. The regional museums seem to have found the period from 1900 - 1920 a very difficult time to survive. Both Whanganui and Hawkes Bay museums almost ceased operation during this period. Further research may show that other institutions also found this period difficult. By 1945, there were a number of major museum collections in metropolitan and regional centres in purpose built facilities, that provided only basic provision for the natural and cultural heritage collections. Exhibition halls, were usually organised on a systematic basis and changes were infrequent compared with today's exhibitions programmes. Most institutions were seriously understaffed given the size and diversity of collections. 1.7 Southland Historical Context: The final section of this chapter turns to the specific regional context within which the Southland Museum developed. The history of Southland began with Maori settlement. When European settlers arrived in the nineteenth century some brought with them a desire to make collections of natural and cultural heritage. Maori Settlement The first European settlers in Southland found the region inhabited by the indigenous people who had occupied the area for at least 700 years. The first people to settle in the southern region of the South Island (Murihiku)118 of New Zealand had been seafaring explorers from eastern Polynesia. Maori descendants of these early arrivals, living in Southland today, record in their oral traditions the occupation of the region over the centuries by successive peoples including, Waitaha, Kati Mamoe and Kai Tahu. 118 Murihiku (Figure l), p.38, refers to the southern portion of the South Island, south of the Rangitata River. H. D. Skinner, "Culture Areas in New Zealand." Journal of the Polynesian Society, 30 (1921) 70- 78. 31 \ Although there has been only limited archaeological research in Southland, this region is generally included in discussions of the early history of Murihiku. Anderson has divided the southern South Island into three periods based on a synthesis of all the archaeology undertaken in the region to date. 119 The early period (AD900-1350) is characterised as a mixed economy of coastal fishing and the hunting of moa and fur seals. It was not possible to grow the kumara (so far south) that was such an important part of the Maori diet in the North Island. During the Middle Period (AD 1350-1550) there appears to have been a decline in the exploitation of moa and a subsequent increase in dependence on offshore fishing. Anderson suggests that communities would have been more mobile during this period. During the Late Period (AD 1550-1800) coastal settlements continue to develop based on a broad­ spectrum marine economy. Exploitation of particular resources, such as the burrowing birds on the off-shore Islands, would have given people on the southern coast of the region particular delicacies for trade with their northern relatives. Significant changes had occurred with the migration south of Kai Tahu in the eighteenth century. By the time European settlement began in Southland the Maori population was around 2000 and was concentrated in settlements at Pahia (near Riverton), Riverton, Oue (near Invercargill) and Ruapuke Island. Post-European Development Captain James Cook's Endeavour was the first ship to visit Southern New Zealand in 1770. On a second voyage in 1773 Cook and his men spent some time exploring the Fiordland coast, especially Dusky Sound where they encountered local Maori. In 1792 the first sealing gang arrived and formed the first, albeit temporary, European settlement. Australian, English and American sealers and whalers arrived. It was at this early stage that the subantarctic islands were rediscovered120 and exploited. 119 Atholl Anderson, When all the Moa Ovens Grew Cold. (Dunedin: Otago Heritage Books, 1983). 120 A 1998 excavation of a Maori site on Enderby Island (Auckland Islands) produced reliable radiocarbon dates clustering between 1100 - 1300 AD. Te Panui Runaka,.(Christchurch: Ngai Tahu Development Corporation. December 1999), 15-16. 32 In 1829 a shore whaling station was built at Preservation Inlet. Encounters between local Maori and the sealers and whalers were punctuated by incidences of violence from both sides at times but by the 1830's Kai Tahu had built up a thriving industry supplying whaling ships with provisions such as pigs, potatoes and wheat. Shore stations were established from 1835 under the authority of local Kai Tahu chiefs. Many Kai Tahu women married whalers.121 After a relatively short but intense period the sealers and whalers ceased their operations. When the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840, Southland already had a 70 year old history of navigators, explorers, scientists, sealers, whalers and settlers. This move to shore-based ventures and an increase in trade had necessitated the 'purchase' of land from local Maori and favourable reports of the area brought representatives of the State and the Church south to investigate. The New Zealand Company was interested in establishing a settlement in the south of the South Island. Frederick Tuckett spent three weeks in 1844 investigating a suitable site for the 'New Edinburgh'. Bluff was seriously considered, but bad weather prevented an investigating expedition from landing, and Dunedin was chosen as the first organised settlement. The agricultural value of Southland122 was soon realised and in 1853 the area was purchased from several Kai Tahu123 by the Otago Provincial Committee and became part of the Otago Province.124 Mantell had been given the task of acquiring over 7 million acres for £2,600 in the Southland region. As in other purchases he had negotiated, Mantell was given the power to set aside such reserves for Kai Tahu as he thought to be proper, taking into account that these reserves should provide for their present and future needs. Mantell ignored many of the Kai Tahu requests for reserves and would only agree to set aside 4,875 acres, about 17 acres per person. Part of the agreement - and one of the main reasons Murihiku chiefs agreed to Mantell' s offer - was that Kai Tahu would be provided with schools and hospitals alongside of each Kai 121 Te Karaka Special Edition. The Crown's Settlement Offer: A Consultation Document from the Ngai Tahu Negotiating Group (Christchurch {N.Z.}: Ngai Tahu Publications Ltd, 1997), 59. 122 (Figure 1), p.38. 123 Mantell and 58 members of the Kai Tahu tribe from Otago and Foveaux Straits signed the deed on 17 August 1853 at Dunedin. However according to Hall-Jones it was a Kai Tahu sale. Solomon Pukuheti (Patu), the Riverton 'chief of the Ngatimamoe', did not sign the deed of sale. F. G. Hall-Jones, Historical Southland. (Invercargill, N.Z.: Southland Historical Committee, 1945), 89. 124 Rakiura (Stewart Island) was not included in the sale and was not visited. 33 Tahu village. This was never done. As was the case in other purchases, the boundaries of the area to be included in the sale were not made sufficiently clear at the time. Kai Tahu had always maintained that the region known as Fiordland was not to be included in the Murihiku Purchase. 125 As a result of the 'Murihiku Purchase', land was sold to European settlers and many sealers and whalers also turned to farming. Most of the early settlers were English, but when a land rush started for the interior sheep stations Highland Scots and Irish arrived in force. As Otago Province expanded it was decided that a new town was needed on the southern coast. John Jones who had vested interests in the south became a spokesperson for those settlers who wanted Bluff to be Otago's second port. Around 1856 Jones approached Governor Thomas Gore Browne, who had just arrived in Otago, with a petition. Before a site had been chosen the name of 'lnvercargill ' was given to the proposed settlement in communication with Captain Cargill, Superintendent of Otago Province. Peter Proudfoot, Provincial Surveyor, and Alexander Garvie went south and chose a site for Invercargi ll at the junction of the New and the Makarewa Rivers. John Turnbull Thomson succeeded Proudfoot as Chief Surveyor and changed the site to its present location. 126 Although Invercargill was not the port settlement originally planned, a port was established close by at Bluff and the two settlements developed and complimented each other. By 1859 Invercargill had over 200 dwellings and a population of around 1,000. Until 1861 the citizens of Invercargill and the settlers of Southland were under the governance of the Provincial Council of Otago. It was a complicated situation. The citizens of Invercargill perceived inequality in the partnership. Southland lobbied and convinced Central Government to create a separate Province. 127 In 1861 Invercargill was constituted a town district and the first tovm board was elected. Unfortunately the provincial separation was very badly timed. It proved economically disastrous and was to have a lasting effect on Southland and in particular the 125 Te Karaka Special Edition. The Crown's Settlement Offer, 64. 126 M. H. Holcroft, Old fnvercargill (Dunedin: John Mclndoe, 1976), 21. 127 The Southland Province was about a ·central third of the Southland Land District illustrated in (Figure I), p.38. On April l 1861 the Southland Pr