Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. BPIS'fiHlLOGICAL ?'Ull1IR • S ro AU.OW FOR awiGE Alm Dr;i"ELOPMQli' IN mtJClTIONAL SUBJOOf..-M&TTflt A +besis presented in partial fulfilJlent of the requirm•ts for the degree of Master of Arts in B:luQtion t Massey University by 1970 COIT E JTS ..• •• •• •• •• •• •• • • •• .PAgE 3 s 17 'W&T IS TllE l.OOIC"AL B&SIS :roR B' S POSITIOB? • • 63 OONCWSI S •• •• • • 67 •• •• • • ' . ACK I 0 Y L E DG E J E ! '£ .S Thanks are due to my supervisor, Ur. D. Steub.ouse, for his helpful suggestions aid mrm:I' stitmla.ting discussions. I would also like to express utr gratit\ale to the J.Jassey UniversJ.ty Library staff for their pati(BCe o.nd. valuEl.ble I N T R O D p C T I O H s. It is~ smor.uly aeceptad 'fiew tbst rcs,onsible oclucational practice depends 311 au underst.mdtng of the inten-elationships between the child, the \.ea.ming proccns, and tha subjcct....m.tter to be lea.med. It is not surprising, thcrefore.t that throughout the ninatearsil:tics wcstem ed\acational literature h4s directed c'1Usidemble attention to clumgl.ng views and. practices in task .malyais, leamor cha.ra.ct0ristics in the l ight of teaching procedures• tho teaching process itself, and the ~ton of leam:Wg outcomes. What is surprising and1 as I intend to sliow, dJ.&nuieting, is that subject-matter whi.c-..h, in bobavioural tems, i s suppos«i. to provide the sthn1li for loaming and beco;ic a ?oo.jor part of the CO&Qlex of responses to be acquired, bas beoo. g:!.vai abysnally lot1 priority in terms of its epistuuological status ani rclin.bilicy. 'i1ris lack oi epistemological cca.cem is particularl y noticeable in thlisil~ oruv; while on the other, there is an ~~ of th.e *ioevitabUity• of c1.tanae wit!.W:s a fl--amevo.rk oE t:M-sht that pJ'esupposes cbaDgo caa oW¥ be for the better. SUCh ~OllS aro, of ocu.rse1 not ~ to theorct.i.w «luca.tiono.:u.s~s whO, for die •-\>B't po.rt, resaJ'd thm aa fUrthe.I' evid<:Dco tJf the ~ taaslou ,~ •prcsressJ.ve• aM ttrQd1tiantlt SQbools Of ~t. Thorc is a teildeney,, ho\:Tevcr• for soae thcoreticians1 t-0 liid.t theh­ analyses of the dtu'Qt1on to an assei"tion a.bout souroes, a lis.tin& of :dc5laritien and difformc~ zux1 a .t~mmt in historlco.l perspective attar.pt~ it s<.'SS, i s :nad'J to o::posc the epi!itcoolcgio:U isuues rhicl.J. ~V'\~he 4l.e u'e~ he.\c:l. 6. ' prosre9$i~I a...'ld ' trr.:.illti~ t ~("oOOOl.S \)f tbougUt1 f.:J,.. ll'ae::.is.i.llg ~et'>'1f_., to~~~~~"'pe.-1ov-1~ J.oV'le'&i:.~cC.~~ cdurotit"n.-1.li.;t: ,, c:ont.i~c u;.-ub~tod :lil &µhe .J4 ~retici;srd,.. .r;,;z-..;: ~o studies to the backgrour..d., and. the t"M~cd T.H. Guxley,, who believed iii a bnl!UlCed curM.cu'.!.un. In :spite l)f t:io raging controve..-sy., the stristed ~ in t Ou.- couli m..···ll;r U(J old tor etfttUl'ies. 11 of the i!Jsucs wt.d.ch, by n:IJlctconth century stao::!D.rds, ~~ quite \."Cl l puhllcl.ood. tio1· could one ~J r. bodr nf l.oorooo c<.'11 :t &l•O!'"l.nt, in tl:.o in higll ocl..ool biolot.tY. He rc:i•·rts: " (They} vci~ pr~red to bt"l.iC"'lo tl'\.-it ~cim~~ '-..r..i~'t r;:-c-.; by .a.c~~tic:i ::~! that ~·: -· ::.:;:""'~ l: '\:.~~ _ , .... ,::u·•·\cc .. ~t ~~ il$CC1ncd and corroctcd. They troro u\>1rlficd by t'1c :;u~~:;ti('l t!.n.t i. !U.. _1:rc 1~~~ ul~~~tt.i:r.w of tLi::.. !.i.·.1 r of !~.l-~g~ 11'.'\l.i ccc!.1 -.nrlc in tho past t\1al{,·y yca!'s . n After '1'.!~·1..L . ..:iit; ~ ,,·: t:1c . !lJC:: cr•Ui.:oi;tuaJ. cht!llf;CO nndo :ln biol o;ty, Schwnh i?oc:; .,n ·.;o .;u:;: "More d.mi. t\:O :t•oars c: i.J1tc.m;ivc cffo:t ·JC'~ N-iiili"-~ t:> :~·ur..i!c sc:J.100) -1t>n :ncl uv..!.:ll ·i;L,.:•" ' .\ ·!1 1'Qdiccl cl~a bJ:2tl oc:cur:-00. rhe _.d'C>blpt, indeed, ~':l.S to pcrsuc.do tllcu tl1.0.t fi'IC.lt ~ cl~tn,acs ~ rcnc lhlc. n 1Jhilo tJds kiD:1 of i-~cc !Jir),.t k d.b&F...ntins at n. tiJ:lc t.1la:. consid~'Oblc ro-ewluaticn or oducatimal curricul:i nooda tc bo m&do in tho lic\l't of ~!: lmovledgo Qnd teclmoloa,y 1 it is b7 uo means surprising if mo C4'Cltddcrs that gcncrt\tialn of tCCLCh tmd ISWC911 in JfdletrJ.sp QDd tho timctuF! sr &wxlda p.5 11. op.cit •• p.S 8. I~ wst bo appreciatcl that tb.i.s ir.lprcssioo of koowlroge ia not ~·' ·la•- to tooch.Gro aJ.onc. As a group,, t~ nc:'Cly reflact whit h:ls bom .md,, '\;O a laro~ extent, &tU1 is, p:irt of our •RSte:m eul.t:uml O"..tt:..co!;. Tllo l'OOta of this ~ of thinking tic in antiquity f'1"'Xll 'f.ha&cc sta:is tlie draw oi ' o.:mif ost tmth'. As M.1.jo~Gt-cn.o (1966) llns obsor-.;~,, 4S a. can.ecpti.w of lon.ovlodge it •i:i the pattern so ro.rJC:.~ ~~aocl UpiatailOl.-'>4) ~c:uta un •1 ••• ~:.·:. ~.:-...1..:.. x:.t~ · ".l~c ·>• ~wi.Menta1 r.::....tl.:od:: ·'...:3 th.'\t ~·ro get ucn.t'.inSG - liD~1'.:l )Jg.;, ... 'b, the )l"<>Cv.SC oi' l·c!'crrl.ne C"ft59C11te.ac&S ... v ::.01.!~'J.~i·:~n: ~ ... ,.; c~l.ltiX;.:: te c:t::MS~, tm ~J no otll'3X' ootllOC.c uh:ltsoeycr. n (~) Bromlot' ~ ~ (1965) cc!~ Ue!:qr•v ~~ti \wi.th tbt~ ~- 11. di.'1\41 w:i ~.-1~- 'i'hio so-'.=n t!.lc !cll f iyt lict aum-.~t the do~tiot. tl1c a.boolutist ~nst the relativ.l.st ••• · " (1) But sec ~ L'1(..~!V in !lf'Ofacillc their at.3ta3<1'lt wit.h: ~ imrolvc3 ° ,.1:"0Vid1nc; pco:_-,lc t.d.th tllc conceptual tool.G0 in or4er t.o o.n: ( 2) !n cff~ ::.ff~-; .C3;c-J· • :; ~x:ri:nr...c.i. n'!:'OcoitU'C > Vo:thtln 11 •• • u .. ~1 l>:- E. co·: cr;o : : -.-,:"c:_! '~""' o,.. ro.JC C'..C;'!t1t.11~.c di·~c.i:uiuc or, ~ro,:;j.~l.r '1. curricul u.:i c.~li~ ••• 11 { 3) "'!1!l:: <'~)(;~ i~ t 1ic ::;::> 'c jt~:c of C'~::ulur . 1.::l1.."'ll\~t~:.; . He ·t.-:.;,• -~~ Uis jiil~·.im·\; : ..... ~·";·:::. :~ OU~O!. ... .f •.I!' 1.mctl~ obsenat!OR or: t ! K· :"'-:'-!. ~°LJ :·(.; :TL~ .. "':"'lr""~ ;J ;~,, J _• -"'!j '}:~~~._• ""'}) :' .-!_:'•J ... "!1 ~.-1 ; ' ri. ~' ' ~1 ~;i:l.WJ.tion o:..' etu•r ::.C..;..1..1.!' o:.::ctill[;S. Ili.: 1Y.;>:?.11i01lS 1'11 cu1.Ti.c:ulm c.IJ.~n,~c~ """" .... ""'r-- ..... - ,. ,.. ~c · ·'""-• ,.. ~,..1~", """"' - , n<-<; .. " 1 , ' 1<' - '\!'\ ... - -e,., . ...,, """"'' .._ .., .... • , ...... ~ .• "" . , .... ... ..,,._ .. ..; .... v , · - ....V..,.1 c.~tru.ii' ti.· :in:--;-ovo ,~.!~~.:i.c..ID ()"]uoa:.;i® in &n~L'lll •• • • ., {-1) pro.cti~iaw;:;.;."":l 1J:CVc.rthclc;:;s like to }4'("Vido a. CUlTi~. ':.'hcro l.; llOtl.!ing (Jdde like ha.vilJG u. cl\!Ol", wca.:rpl:Watad, al¥1 d~mitivc u " n n " 0 " ft p • 13. dCSQ..~ of Y.bat the ror!d• is m t~"' of the csliecip~ ~t toot ~t t fit t c:Df<',-ta.b1~7 into a •1~'\'.'c:-ecc.ivc' c:~>ant we seet.t :., got the situation Adfl(196:~) :-e.foro te •ad CC>mtcnts on -0l"1w f~i.1.C o.it at"t!.dn~~ bt.~ o~x:ill.cntly ooni'o-ruiJl&. rr (2) n·: x Lelli>i.i u.: .. -~.i~y Jo r,~·scd: ~)Svurio atti.'l;..du. are brn..i. 1\00~ .:i.s i lci,-o n-"l..l.d.: hct.; o~:tm _,nn~ ;mo h< ~crl.·::!! '-' !:-~ !nl ::"'' ~ --<' .r.,~ n. 1 t; ~.k.,·;.;~·;)~ ~ t ' •.t.' q _;, ..... /. Jl .. 'C•Po~: . ~hi-,::•(! dK•l"C ~ uo SclciL i.nf~ro 1f ?" (. The. ... ~ L<0\1.· 0.L\;•..; i:.; :·'...!:..-s:.iual., ~ OOOiloU by an individual ~:.:..,"t::~nc; i.J.:.is~.:;- ·,;;..; ncu ti:+.wrifa.-ns tli,{;L'i: be a ~elation ill iX-.J•''t w the au.to..1a"Gica.Uy rise witlili:l i't? I.f they do,; :u-o ~, • probl w~ of tb., ti.r.i~, ~~ .:l?ll1 r~ th.&wf ~ sol.a.ii.ens WOltld be «!11 ti ill; ~ - t,. Reid~ L,A. 1. " 3. ? p.jl P• 31 p.Jl of Fm- soo t """ •:Y.1lcdgo• is !::0rc 1 il~o .·.l to be f Olllld in the re~·.pcctivc 1 df.et.ipline. Pbeni;c ::.i:U.ntcint'> tlh2t scllools nnd othel.' ~u..1 irmtitutionn thovM. dreu tl!tiir ~tbjOOt-Gl.tter fro:i the di.Gci~s nu.d l''': c.ti\Jnslun.; tbl i.1 t!ic c.lixi::-Vnes, :r'hm:b~ i:1tln:·:::, enc c~ fl1!C! t.!1e o.n.-:.1arc t(I hi:J no~CJ, concenw end a,. , ost.blc to ~u.. epiet&Mo.1-0fiml ism1cs1 to ci.~.ge ?;:r ~.ion, nl)ll ii' •i:not1-~t i s :-;;1bjoo.t~VfJ in tbe .:icnoo -..::ut. it '~i.liAlli on ti:!!) .U.J.j;,:idu,a.!o ;;ui;.:.pt.!.flG ~>'li;-!sc.~ ... f t'} na1 fd:tun.t!ona, a..........._ ,,... ;""l d" '\ 1 ') rnc ~ .... - -.-.--· ~~_,; . \).nol~ ttmQe. Ot .,,; . Ll:t.~ .. n,, : .:.:_ ;._;>. : ::._J!:·. fcuvlj l»e latJe.licd SU~ SpealCC.\'" C. ;;_, _; i;;; ~.,:,i J.•·i1.t t1.) ,;._, :}:;~ ::.;Xll~: t!:c~:; ~'l; )ia\,e_\\cd !1DJeQtj.lr~j+.!£ - ~ tl'th;:, lm~· · ~~..rcls ~~ :.,pooi--~ !3 is ;U;',;~ldc,d t~ be the devil I 0 lK..~te and to cia.u~ t:. vr:,.y t'or the eott.clas:lo"5 :r b"'~t(' t.:> ~. ! !W:ln ni,i.ti:dl' ·, ~ things, aad s ex.plicl.tl;y s A y re d1spo of us mlAbt cv bo will in& mougb to a crt to drav up a list of spoeific it s of •knovledg t , and eupposo somoone se1 B, vero to query eoch item. iat kind of ~t could A off r Bin order to asure him that each it on bis list was, in fact, an it of knowl ? If he was prepal"ed to off er argumant in support of bis a.ssert:loins, A ~ point to the cl.aims of others as being confirmdtory of his ow. "E:ports Jn the various subject fields bave discovared ' laus' , uooovei'ed •fact •, a.ud invented procedures that help us describe and e:xp1a1n the world as it is. The list of knowledge items/ A might a.rg11e, n is ptlJ't of the picture of our vorld (JJ)d its workings built u;> t~ the invostitptory and objective contributl,ous of such thinking me. u Accepting A•s word that the :it-ens on his list are •part of the picture• supplied by P..Ynn~s, B might inquire of A wlnt justification he bas for bis rel:ianco on collective authority. "'Who B might ask, "and wmt grou,ud8 do they bavc for suppo ccntrilutic:e.a re •tm.owl ~PA Sasist• n tor A aaret&la iah¢tf j the experts," tha~ their D.8 ?" ' vba1: . ,•A ~ y to ... .., adJ~•lill& ompetm1: in the tter. fteir ha.via& oach 1ve field, their Ull4 ftaldq of lectured er diplomas by recopized 1 • Fnm this point of vJ.ew, we eon accept that the expert i in a position to 'k'Dw' vbat ho ia talking about." "But surely the expert •s •right to 'bo SUJ'O', as you call it, docs not guarantee that th world 1.s what he oo.ys it is,• B might reply- ''The expert could be mistaken. Aft r all, we a.ro all wbjcct to error. The expert mo.y g(Ddacly beliCTe that 'Uhat he says is tnie and his beliefs may be confirmed by others, but they may be mistaken too- Pemaps they have grodua.tod from the wreag lmiversities, read the vrcag litemturo,or arc part of a political ccmspira.cy to doceivc the publ..k:. Unlikely perhaps, but what n ourancc doos on have that this is not the case?" t . It is oometimoa as8\llled that success iD a given domaUn of •imowlodp• is · lid.mt grounds for groat · a persOA th •right to be • A.J. Ayer (1957) so far s to say •• candtdau for • ' true i• ft.Pt AJ ., A.J • . 31 ft l A aight retort vith, "An cxpert•a atatC!llleDU a.re vorifiablo. They am be testod by approTcd proecdlwcs appropriato to the subject field." Thia line of ~C!lt, by no Ill™ unfru:dUar in loamed circles, sea:ia pl.auslble. B, bowovcr_, aigbt not be without smc objections. "Let us suppose for the coo.mt, that an expert ' s statanents Ql'e, Q.S you say, VCrifia.blO. 88 ai&bt begin. Ut11Jo would verify then 19. - GDO'thor expert? l.1hat kind of procedure would another export use - tho some that mdo the oripnal statements po:mible? Arm' t you bcag;i.ng the questioll? If the proposition of your met statmcnt is to bo uadErstood l:ls1 •cxpcrt •s at:atmmts about the vorld are correct because they can be vilrifiod by experts•, then you•rc aSS\1:1.ing the very point at issuo. On the othor hand, if you•ro S\JMCStf.DG that tho axpcrt •s stato:ients arc vcr:ifiablc by me you•rc being tmreasonablc. Suppose that ono of the items on your list is an alleged •ta.ct• in the d00£dn of ator.dc p!Qudcs, how \."Ould I or any non.-pbyoicist be able to verify it? To do so would involve uc in acquainting myself with the literature and methodology of the st'1>joct-raatter, and I wuld ipso f a.cto bcecr:i.o an • a:pert • and thereby subject to rrry Ol.111 objections. " Jn an effort to caapraaise at this point, A &light ropq with, "You neodn•t bocamo an •cspcrt• in tho &troQ1 aawo of that word. True, JOU would need to lmoll Vint JOll vero cloq and which procedures were necosSU"1, but betaa able t o ""1f7 a tao t , ~e l t was lmom, VOf.11dn1t noaoadtato 101a bocC'caq an eapel"C.• ~"t'• Gil wq well," D m,bt: so.y, "but llbd weuW happen lt I OOl11cta•t voai.fJ tho !Isl• SUppoae I 84tOcl ill pod faith, 9Qpl.OJO! the pl'CCdaroa uml17 ~ aeoeeaa17 to ilmsd.pt e experts wore ~. ~se I tried corc tbi7.n once and in CBDY vays to obtaJn ve:rification of an apcrt•c statCJ!JCnt and fo.iled each tilac. t1oQldnt t you say tint it vas I who was cl.etakai am not tho c:r;pcrt? You \IQUld have to say he ~s qualified and I vnsn•t if your present line of a.rgmmt is to bold. " A aidlt dcm_y this. "Not neecssarlly. You my mve tumocl up sa:sotbing new. Porbtlps your lack of expet'imco my have m4bled you to cxiploy tho giVCD proooJurc in a ni>vel wy. You cay have diooavered a hitherto mknoun variable. This iD somcti.tlco the wy na1 discmcrios a.re .oodo. n D cd.gbt press homo his advutagc horo. "I£ I investigate X BS a ~. find tha.t X is not the c:;ise the •wcports• thought it was, and it is conc""1ed that I ma not mist£Uten1 docsn•t that support r;;y main contentim? lbtcr such cirou::mtancos, hov can you accord •experts• the right to be sure that they •Y.nw• wMt they arc t:i.1 king about I tt Unwil~ to d:Lspcm.sc tdtb this line of a.rgmcnt altogether, A m?dJt add the folloriJlG aodificatian:nztm DDt augge tin& ~ experts arc Wallihlo. l agree that any one of us can l&lko aistakes. Perhaps what you G&Q' is true, basod. as it is an tho IJn>othoticol situatton )'OU propoae. Dut1. "A ad&ht cmtanic - not the gl"Oecr. h'hm I a.m ill I gci to a doctor - not a plmbcr. Now it oa.y be the case that ne.:l.thcr the necbBnic nor the doctor can effect his rospectivo cure, but I •d go to thm just the same. I •ci not suuostillg that aa:pert opinion aught not to be givm serious attention. Just as x caDJ.ot both be the caso, ond not tho c.aso at tho SQlllc time, from the oomo pomt of vicv, so too, scae opinions vill be more re:liahlo than others. Opin:lms, bowcvcr aro opinions ... not lmovloclge• an4 ctq>eCta.tians arc ~ - not ~ties. You are arauiDa that the ita:zs m ~ list can be cca.t1raed aa •Jmovlcx!&e' itma by e:xpcita to whom, because of tbetr' ~ amt tmntna. JOU oceord the l"1lbt to bo eure. Dcatuao DQQe of ua ls jofalJible i• l rooo9'1ze ao mch rS.dJ.t• I conecd.c that 8QQO optmans vill bo .,,.. rel iabl. tbDaa otbcra, at t:mt .., apect «liJGl't• to be mon ofte. riabt dlma vraaa, but opiatcm aa4 eapcctatimtS do aot guarantee ~laclp•. so ta, JOD 4-•t eeem to lufe bean able to provide me with A1Q" asSU1"GDCOs that the itsoiblo, there ~ scxie thinas of which I om certnin. One o:: these is t:h?.t if you believe vbnt you•rc R1'~1 it is s \Ibo mo adopted the ccoptic•s positim. If scoptici• ~a your lov c:Jtom, be it an 70tJr ow bcadl • •Let wt consi4er your •a.ccopted • ccaditJma for Jmovledeo. " B lll1a!it sugost. •ht you•ro 9&1iDa is• ill scbS11tlc form, that on CKpcrt (B) 1mog that X io tho caso, if u4 cal7 lft 1) x 18 tra.e 2) g beliCYes X 1a tl'uO 3) s cm give adcqaato e91dcmcc that X is true. 24. 1) is jWJtifiabl if you ~ in m.iat the possibility that X is trae wis. I do s at believe it, and ~ believes tmt is the ca.so, Wea It t'1<>Uld be agreed thm, that 1} =d 2) to~er are nccoosarv conditions for it to be correctly aa:id that E x. Consider, · , the relationship ootvoon 2) arr.! 3)., amt 1). .Now either r. knO\IS x or he doesn•t . !!.' !1c b1ov3 tbo.t X is the c..1:::e (i.a. ~ that X is trQe• aad. it is), what justificati tdll t110re be for 3) a.s a condition for lmowledge? On the other , if he doosn•t !mow tbnt x is true, bow will 2) and 3) w'fk to su:,->port what be does not Jn fact yet know?" In order to ckrlfy Ids point B might suggest, If I give somethin.£ to sooeoi e and n6k hifil to tell uC -w'ha.t it is, and he ccrreet y t::-:11 r.. :1c that .:.t i s e.n c !'P~. c. tr·bat purpose iOllld be served be cy d~ evidence iol' hiu judgwcnt? Suppose thnt t1hcll I a.sk him hew he kno\rs it is an appl~, ho begins li:>ting certdn cllaractcriotics as CV"ldwcc. i:oulcl bis doing so oo.ko it an:r more certa:tn it was apple? 3ur y he vould have to~ it was an apple before ho listed its characteristics." Anticipa.t:ing A• s dissmt B, misht c~tinuc. "Imagine I have gi.van f¢U an apple am asldng you about it. OUI' ~ d.an might like thisa- • lt • it of~I l sad o on. ev:ldcmce for your knowl»g that x is an appl.o. Cclllaider the 1dJJda of cbare.cteristics you could poh1t to - coloul; shape 3nd si~ at me lcwal., chemical componerrt:D c.t r.nother, cbromosmes gones at another, and so an. Hott mauy cbaracteristics u1d you :ve to tum up, and of what kinds would they haw to bG to msure that you •mew• it s an apple? Clearly, you vou1d have to know it JU an o.pple before you could state o.ey of these as apple characteristics. Notice too., ho\1 you would reject each altema.tive that fits cecb finite set of clla.racteristics. For exam:iue, you wuld choose apple over J!2!, ~ £i!liw:.. ~and oo an. Clearly~ cvidmcc for x is superfluous Thon you x alroody. n 0 the other band, "B might point out, suppose that you Jon•t know that x is the case. Hew uil1 2) and 3) be cooditions for your knowing it? Using the clru~ts froo our previous c:ra.mple, let us vorll: it bt\ckw:lrds. You lia:ni ~ red. t.bat uill it be? Perhaps you look for another cbamcteristic and you recoguieo •roundness•. Still not ~ t'> tcl.l you what it is? •S\teetness•, •pulpy teatture• 1 and so on, are disco~ in tum. if YOll discover other rQCteii.stkS M, H• and O, so on, how rill you know it tboy grai~JlM:JW'lC"Ji.B'QCS of? I ilor • if --- by you. to of the I At this "°int 11 Jlti.ght reply~ ''.\s t r as it goes, your a&>:.lysis sems quite ~lo; but a.rmtt you eonfun:ipg wo things here? When I sugge&"ted tha.t experts de-pca."\oi w tllese canditir sorting out what is the case frac \Jhat is not the ea.sc? I Sl.lggost that the •o.cceptodt conditiu clrc lookim <'·::>r, You vi.1_1 be ware thnt b1owl00gc of the vari"U!i m.tbjcc-'i; ~·iehl:: h.'ls tmdc:-1"£1e coo.sidoruuic chont;c and years &.&~ · ••• 11. •autho.t':ita.rian a. priol"i as~•. 1.c . nssunptians be1d as true in spite of auy evidence tllat uay tum up to tho controry. l. People WC> arQlJC fl't'ID At s potd.dm often overlook the fact that it ls oar pr.lvo.to •Jmwlelge• that providee ua with the baaia for certaSnty. In debtcs @out tQbl.J.c crl.tcria for •l:Dowlalgo•, the ~jecd.TO c.'lmmt is not .... 1ato a.co:Kllt elCePC iaaofU' as it~ bo a eourco of Cl":'OI"• A~ puts tho a:nttcr quite pl aiol;y: "I do not see bcu tho Acadmlcitm «m rorutc b:ta dlo "'1'81 •z mow tbot tbia 4ppeu"8 "1lite 1» ao., J: -- tlat 01 hoar.11:\g is 28. The l'C\SOllD for this scan fni.rly obri.ou:l. lnowlcdtJo m tho various subject fic.Uds Ins iDcrmsoi n.t a trcr of text-books arc bocm1ng out-datod oCCl!lO to 81l(Cle8t1 thoro io n. cmitinunl rc&t;nwjtm'ing :md recntceorimtUG of cul>jcct-anttcr content wore, bccm.1so of their irrclevonco or in&itpifican.cc, a amber of B"'-<'nl 1 od •Jmowlec:Jco• itms Jnvc bcvides an ~ct description o·::' our !.)hysical universe. Our prer.ent day view of the a.l:ri.1 is v·-::r)· .::.1t\cb different from wha:t it $S sane tw·cnty-five y rs ;-,.so; a.nd so on. In each case, what uas thought to be ' kn0VJ1' is nw in fnct untrue. But the problm does not end here. Rec-0gnition of this problem loods to RnOthCJ.·. t:'bllt gua.rnnt do \'10 have that what we say we ' , will not t.'UJ"D cut to be faJ. a in the t'uture?" to these probl in another W&l" • If t UIM1Cl'stl'.'Y Bmm.'P 'bo ota1rl:l'W.llJ' teaches us tmt wo can acver be certain 0£ Ql\Y'tldaa• ~- do you inG1st tmt •Jmovledge• is possible vhlln ovcrytbing is agalnst its bain8 so?" JI 01 t birJt ym1 both t.-'\ltc the l~!'d •kncvlcdgo• too ncriously. nc 'lligl'lt cont.:.~.nuc. nny m~illc..-ition it llOUld seem that ycr.i GrO wdDg it to st.and for sO!:le a~ :::t.'.l.tc o:.:' IJind - an ab:Jtr'..l.-..~· octfl of .Jti~t~ :·~3s, 'l'ldG i.!t vha.t •public lmi:.n1lod.f;e• Ins u..1'J:lll:;r 0·~4"tc.d ::>f . Na.; t ef'f~tivcness of Bl.ch knowledge is jud.gcd ilithin the 1e;:2.:x:rntic soc.ial c.aat~i;. This not "1.1.y e-xplaills b,}· obanscs ooc-.ir , !Ju: also wivr ~c:; ~t certain points in timo arc nt-ccsDc:-i.r.{. It c;.mld be a.r,,.. c:J., :~'Jr m~o., hat tllo flAt mrth ~Dis \ra.:.; not only :i11~l1"<>;·..Utc t " t;,_~onc cru:·ly timea but was cfficn.ciou.; ac tl"'...}ll , ' : .en t:hips :ul!.! rncn ~1c:•c ~..i: .. ul,· t;o be sturdy enoue}t to ctau_ ..-:p t o the dlll.?t;Crf~ of :-t:xn i;J.cim ..... .:~ Swil.t such a belief p1VJbably ilc ::-:.,,t bc~Je norc erodible ill a. social cooi;t!X't iu;.>l~~tetl with :.:it~ o::' 4 ,o:L-3.tic':IJ. cxt\lll3i1m and ecooocic ll#!in• The Ccru3tnl'CI[on of sturdier vos~c-ls, t. iC :t.1:1t'OV~r:cot ')1' oo·r~tia:ial tG~s, ant.1 s0 on, ~:ldc ~he t"~:J}oita·tion 0f t!ic •new• iC.c::!. i"r- ~~il>le. Thu:; 1' ogrco5 besets ) rogrc::::; . ')ld bC'1 icf ::; a ':"tr : :;<;"~ t-! ... :; !tu-get £ti't"-"t1 pe~ tl"Cu, $U9'1y r:q ~1~~ 3 -~~ "·!~Ul 17:-. ~ ool:w .. I lt l.G 1:~i·ui1J1:; °' troi'lJ It is .i. ·~~~ .,tl"CV« o.b11i""'y ,..., ob~--ct (}.1)(1 • vtlll"' • • • ., i tlbo.t I m:a flUUOl3tin& la that ' ri&bt' and •vraaa• on DOt absolutes, and that they arc alwys rolatiw to CUIT·c~J.cc .,s at-ti~ i;hcb, witliout aotuully believing it, we ,.,, c . . . -- ... ..., . .., ... ~~·-" c " .,.,. .-: ,~ 1 ··o• _.... ~J J '''"" ......... .,. ··-~.., ... ,..,....,.., .... ~ CCl.lle9 ti'.' 1nnd.. P:")Cl"{;D:J doper.Ju ru OtU' bc.i.»g o.blc to tc rcccptln to Mtt id n ~ flc-;.:iblc ll1 our tHnJdn~ It '°"~uld bo n aista1:o to rcpl'd am• co-callod '1a:iowl~' c.n bc'-..:1.ng U\iO boycmd all doubt. ~ oan ~ nm om:tntnn. in !~rli:y~;. It ~,. c.l~ tnUJCCptiblc to ct.,., - GO J"OUl" lic belief am COd'felltiml in :ttars Gf rather than e the effort to fio:l out £or ~ves. the other btmd, it is olM.ous that all of u need to with those of other&. But when you come r.f.&ht dawn to it, 'What: ve call •lmovledge* . s vlth our own certain, particular, Seasot'Y ~· We !f11t what see with our own eyes, ve I what we hear with our otm. ea.rs, a.nd we !me! vhat we touch with ov bodyflf uzr you bcliove thn.t your •Imewlo:tget is based on partlelllar, SCDSGry perccptices in the ~ you say they wJla.t ldnd of thing can yOUI' ' lmowledge1 be?tt c miaht inquire. •Ccot.d.dcr the ituJ'O of fOlll" of eptian. You ... een to be that you X. e you s lt; so on. I f.i.\IPPO. tree ·DOC1iam1e o~ of al .. optic ....... IQD'l""" .t.t at 'WOlll4 ac:aw tbd x is retsa M'1>01K'.t like ...... IO tat W 90IU:4 3(). another; or1 lil:c sane iB..tJaCts, w bad n thcusaDd eyes; O': lik~ ~.t vc could GOO wb:1t we cmmot nov imagine - ultra-violet JJdit. VOU1d not t1lc vorl d look CIJCh d1ffcl'C!Dt to us thsu it does nov7 B~r can you rc1y on the ooustuction oi y~.xr O\:lll .,Cl~cu:_!-t.'"Ul.l c.r~m; !n order to t kno-4t ~.: the wrld ~ is i n "C'=!l".i.do1• the ~n organs of pcrcopticn ~they ~' •tc oi.ght cmt:Um~~. f!l\l•c tho-; rca11y rcl.inblc? ThC' iJ.ll.1si!·~ b1 r.ck . In tho cla.ssiml M\tHO?'-L;ym illt.:.ci.un, tvo oc:-:.11 H.:r:ar 'l. ..,,"'.ll' ~mcqn'l 1. tx:causc cf their sC1ITOU1tlil'.g i! .. T\Jtlhco~fo. In ~;o:-;o i:.:r.tC'..r.c:'." !'.:~ t"C .,."lv not be mm.re of the f<.!.Ct t!~t '-e :.re cn;porimcipg c .tl il]~!;:!.nn . Cantiruml roQC>m?rC to colour - ooy ./c·L.•~'\.· - ·me.er bright lir,!:'t 1Cll.d:J tw to ~-ceivc n e10rc wtcrcr;.,..o.O\;u ~c tllD.11 t ho.t wl:ich h~ ~b::?C:"V~ at the outset. 'l'hm t.hore: u.."""C .. x:1 cc1,'t..!.vll.f; v.:- t~ve of thinsn that arc x:ot tlla-c n.t all. It ~ n_lt; c..!.1.:::.~~· \ i..!.·:;; :iart our ~ of !>Cl"C'~0'..1 IJJ.r:lv, if any, ~ vc ~"PC~.i.cucc ~::.::..u~mt::cns. Aaidc free induced boUuc:U>n:Cions broug.11'~ on 11,, J.l-uc;;.. "J.irl ~' .... 0 . .,·"'ol - alt~ tho G.'f.tuad.on is Vt:r/ l'"eal for tllosc tllat t~c t:..i...-! - i:~ .c :ilDr"lll psyclie is oubjnc: to ~ ccoliticsWin. l'~c~~ tU.~ Get attitules affect oar j~a. A pcrsm aay i:'\X?l £.J'UU .ln .::. H~lb -iltbour.b it h48 becm ampsatatcd 8a3C oro. i'~-0 said to b~ m the 'fm'BC of DCUl"'Osis percoive objocts 4D n mst 11mma1 wy. itltf:41lS1 for cmcplc, can be piRci.Tw as if tlwy uero a.s !'~sooi.c a::i lio:w. tro can buvo ~of a cmwpJ.e, 6eU!lti«'is Call bo crouscd in ~ CC!lSciOC.S ~)Cl"OO~, b,' clcctr'ical the vorl4, tbal> is DOt oJ.w.ylJ ~ 1:1 ~. Uo • i~ tho kind ot •IQ:lowlcdgo• uz-tt s &1l U\1ll to about; wba.t Olll" 0 Of ~ ~ lave ~tt A mi,gbt reply. .... do JOU imagkae that they 4tll. -~ t you ct? The faet that you can the hman of peroeptJm w.lth those of other Bltities in the mdmal ldq\om ~ presupposes t ·•kemflo:lge• is possible. You wu.ld bsve to relf OD )'QUI" Ol"fPlDd of · A:ll to tho ~ ia order to pose the slbility of thSl bdng other than ubat .ooy arc, I do · t t.bat our percepd.oas are no.t infallil>lc. we es do 900 visions, hea.- tvoioes•, a1ld suffer ballucimt1m-$ in tbe way you suggest. Bat the •Na.lityt of these expcricaces is questiclled boca.uso they nre ill ~t with other -1Sor.Y ex:poriN tblm cao BQWC ~ t10 arrive at C'W:Q!Jta maol1 as llJnrdDosst, · tthiclmcoo•; and so ce. &ice of our hnowledgo 1s ~le by dcgrccs oo our ciDds tum iouards, so to speak, aid ~ an tile objocta or our ~es, ropca~ cgmpa.riDg am mltilag thml. O\n" ·~lalgo• of the cstcma1 wrld is ponsible m t:1o 90DSC ~ it co.m:d.sts of OD ~ or ~ betwoeai tho qunlltics we aro porccivioa at a po.rticular tmo aD1 t.00 siaple or . c«lplaz qm.li.t:i.OG uc have ~ ~' rcta1nod au.\ piooessod in the aial. Tharc ia a ~o-aio ~o bctuew. mc:b objoct om tho idm WO have of it in the 1D1orstaDli.na• n •A plausible~ fl'Dll ~c point of v1a1, n c J:lidl.t reply. nnut if you consider it more ~, you vUl notice a. ~ of f1atro in i t . In tho first ~o, lJt'JW do you f3)0\r tint your pcrcoptUal. g;pcri2gge of o.n eaLtemal oltject actually is aa cn;pcr.lmoo or an 2J!impl obisst? lb1 would you l>l1IJ\1 tbqy \\'Oi-c the ~$ or lAlcrc t1oold you bo6in to look 'for the roSCJblm:loc? 3uro1y it vould be impoS6iblc to Ci1li1pM'C a ~ o.ctllll or l"OlC1'.lbcro1, vith a nm-pcrccptiw - tho ~ objeet itocl.f. SocxoSly # bau a.re your pe:t'CC'~ pci8dblc at aJ.17 Arc yw thBt tho catomal qwilltios arc iD BCDO lq? tttcd r.. tho object -1 tbD:f aro the eouac ~t tbo amaadAaa JOU haYO Of tbl'D1 Dov oaal4 )"OU prowo ~ CCSJOOd.cm? In 'tbe 90J7 procw of try.lag to sbL1lf tJat tho olbjoctG of oaJ' tldaltba3 GN tbe qveli'd,09 ~ b)' - at....:l WOl"ld, yea to ~ that dlere JI aa ClllLtaSi vm-14, aad ~ VO ~ mto fJmawlalact(jn JOflr ..- of d» Wl\l) ot lt. Qa1i' -~ that a ~ vorl4 .sat8 --14 ... '°"'" ~ .......... if llbat JOll ea:, la t.rae, Jota ma.,.. 's.ow' fJtat ~ la • mt--1 world.• 39. ~the n.ra ad fOU' ll aee 1 •w been r:lgllt all alciag, n c cd.abt SUIJeOS~• •\te comot prove tbat ~ ls a.o. .external world besoad ourael~, GD. tho otber ~. it would be foolish to cat•r.lcalJy 4~ its possi"1l itJ'. Tho '*1Sihlo thins to do is to accept the Ol:tCrmJ. vorld•s axistance as t) VOtidq l\ypotbos.1s. All wo c:aa over •tmov• arc om-~ perceptioo•. I~ that tbo:le poroeptf.CDS a.re tho basis of our ·~· OP:1 I agree that om' fknDulodgo• Un the ~ &aJ.$C) is built up from these be.sic percoptml mits as you suggest. uo Ill1St not suppose, boweYer, that thorc is a necessary COGDadCG hero~ our im:lediatc parcopticl1s 41Xl Olli' po.st ideas of tba:i. Th0 first is mereq a sufficitnt ccn:litie.n~e df Thu.~ ~'" :1: 1~11ing to (r.U· ti ~l>,i cctivityJ t~. :U: ~? 41. Fh!:llls1 t:e•s all .very ucll tC> 5UgG0st, a:i yoa 4o by toplicod.Cll, that ~tb _e·~ 'l . . .;J.l ~ v!. t ~.-,;;·: • ~·- -·~ -...... ~ct dew to vo~· of the Jl.'lQ~ . 'i'hc r.1.:lt.lmsiml 1iC ~~ ~ have boai ilJlolq in OIW ~sJ.cG !>O !."a\•, 1s the rulf)o.G\.V.i.:l;;. a~-~iv.i.cy u.f ni:ld. we m'C not •, I " • . ~. 4 ....-.-; ·~ 1 .".'ln•'('\ .;., !~.t - ··- .. ll.•"'-J. t..J'"""'-l"".,._...,... . .l..k. """' .,a,,t..r. ~ -te • Pl t o.: • .L t nro • .. r ou:t' C".:ti~:·~.cncc of t.lle ' ' ..... ... ~ .... ,,,, t; ...........,\'\..· .. ' 44. Pl."OptttiCG of matter, he coneaivcd a ma-thet'ntical structtar-e of inVlsible I· ~~ p!:lr~ir..irt:-: . T.1~ G..11 of." this he ,ro.,s. d•>U:1cd t failm""O - a risk a kct '.Nh.ic.h quaM'1e!:I but does 5~~1'"7'CT' "r.. :".l":".T t:_ ;>1:'' '".:'-~ ~ ' ':u':~: ;•\1'1 f\.no~-. l~\'5.\til i:lw } \..bo:US il:tlt.er.cnt 001--ta:inty of a . . . . .i ;~..,:.._,_:;._:.~..; ;.;~~ :!..!(~L .... ..."! - GS l'OC te:i . 0 f o It s throt\!.u. t:J.o -. -l. cct to !lOO · lC \tortd~;s c:-·" .bl \.i l~nl D • iat to nlwlBPvnt~m. ot nat~Ll. Dl~W~m D'.rot.m:tl (. TOl-4\~,n, S. c:wd ~e(cl, ~- Of·c~t. 350 &paoify - • "1Pt 45. tho older P~to attqted to impes · by rea.s • the ttcr elicit& by such fobsenaUma t, pl'Cllicteli. DO r waut Of ~ botte:r Q1JBJ.Q ~ it ~ be suggestad tllat PlAto fomnlata1 d. ~- opamtim for a curnmcy that didnt-t edst~ , tllP ~tots <>£ the Opal'Qtioo itself, free the mod.mn 'riwptdnt, wore lm»ting. The geotict17 Jn whidl Pl4to placed eucll gl'\'lat fat.th , !\ , au tho one htmd, rcfi.wld Qltd. a:cterided_ and .. Oil the other, ~ ~ by a. mitber of · etrical. systms he coul.d never bil.vc ~. But to the a.lert ~, \1hatGVQr sema :lntc.11J.g.U>le, stirs it to~. QcpoctaticmtJ ~ n~ be aluays realized; but mless au.ch attempts are made, there could never be •lillottladget • n 111llt there coWd be ao •knov.edgo• ~ A might point out. "As you yourself s.Ud.1 Plato' a tll.eory yro:lictw no <:!tlpL-ical evaits. f(J be a?lll'Opl.'intely ffibclloo ' lal.cMledgo• , a tb.oor.r would oove t o eorrcsixmd. vi th roality - be independently ~JOrtci lit tbe •tactD' • h a theory could bee!aWle it -~>;;:> to the l 91-otrlecllJ~' ot the world cpend.s au ow emier:1.-:e of 11:~ ~ I • swrJmsting ls that need to clari.fy wba1: ldDd of ~ our moe ttill have to e if l odUG' is ~ he at all posoiblo. As I have DJ.ready stated pe:rooptuoJ. ~(!l&Ce aJ.cne proride ns with . basis foi- t l ecl&o• . 0ui~ perccptit'es if they are to must e gi: m snap eai sitJll,fioBlleo by ovsel;• oat his ~se, it is because it fits the ftwdJ :! er vattau of our intellectual hi ~ory, aad is sm:Llar to what we ~ 1n O\U"Sclves ODi our 0\-a \Dla."tnld.ng$. Cnwdcler, for omwp.lc, 01n" sel.f-rcl'l.uctive power of though~ 1'hich eree"vtwU ~vi~ al • prori4es us uith no s f o:c •m oulodge• whatsoever, C ~ 4 • In attADS.1.ng to t.hc objects of our ~amu •l'Qllitl • JJD.'9:\Dg specW.e dia-l.A.lo:lllll.l:J , a sort OUt torogroual f ~' we recop:l.ze · t; cODStitutes x rather Y• detersdao what twtos J.o terms of s e arad time sbe.11 be applied and .in what cirol.lastaaceo. It is wo who rocopit:e relations between the objects of our experi.sco. determine vba.t e&plapad.ons, their c:itt · :t and o, will be reqJd.red to make tbem :intel11gihlo to us. Our CODCept of cause enables us to mqu:ire into th conntlCtiens presuppo in th ~ of nature. OUr concept of sub ambles us to suppose the <11'tities whose stability and permanence ve disposed to canine. Ind , which did not 0 te withm tho from rks our a!Dds il!lposed, would not f.\mcticm as the objects we otabilize, in this world of nux., alld retain in a rccopbablo way the objects of our e:sper.lcnee. n n we to take it tbal that it is tho mm that mllken tho world?" A ~ inquiro. "Aro e to be deprived of the efficacy of our senses? In all your talk about the rdlld • s so-call nil.e-g.ivin,g activity the most important feature in our •knowing• that you have rail to stress is the ~t of obj~vitJ. tot• s face factsl Our ~~ world ind provides us vith . ri , tJUOpo&1UCQS Jlllaj~~ that tho tbe ~14 GIP) • oar lit N't 1 • or ~ ht la oar ma.mtce, ~~"' ~ tl».t • tlDtlW.UIA1 lWllAMl9l .... • nPllM!!!l. •tact • o.f '*' of t rw Jil,l,j~ point out. 9It 10'1 your QimtlPJ.e co~y laboll • t - that could t ~ lCASt 00 •facts• , N ia spit of our Uei- cussion.s, % t.llll31< J .~~·1w.\.ltO DGC'1WLUaias of tho • t~' for To • socotllina WOUld tm , bal.1. to be aa.eauntc crid.Elleo for 1~ tnlth. N · WU your IJYl~~l:J.C ammailCil to Plato' s thCOI')' the plain fact af the it false, t:l11M"e :f)l)l'Cei:.o.tc~ fl"OQ point Of viJ· I teer is ®t lda theory iw false. Not '*1ly' rt it. As you yourself 1 Plato' s theory predicted no a.ipir.i.eal cnnt;s. nut, wm ro, to hi.aoelf did not notuolly belicvc that Jle • ledge•. 'Ol"nMbM bis a •Ukoq sto17•. You • It • • bt t fiDd or ~ dafiecl of tho tint caadition, it is our priori rks that search; and, in toms of • only that our' WO't'ld provj4es in '1be lidlt 0£ the que&d.CIOS By V'W of • coa:udder yourself as a epeetntor vi» viss his ~ through specta.Cles. If a. ~ tho wor14 looked gcQl. 1 you Q1ght replf tbBt 10ID" ess of • • was attri:butablc to the ta.oles you wre wearing. Your reGpCJP913 YOGld be a correct one; but 'WbCl. pres~ you would baw ~o Ill.Hr.SY tlmt the spectBcloo by thHiblo withlll the phlo~ ~. It would 1>o reaflC'Vlblc to say that tho Empir.lca1 support for tho theory vu ced.aaco, bow was it poss1blc tbll't n sub8tallOe WI 09'Cll'lookecl? Wboro la tho •recoptiaa.t Of quantity and pli.ty ya spoke on Clearq • U we nro to J'GlF m m.4 to mkD its so-aU«l OCtitlilmtima to our ~ of the _,,.14, wo WD0.14 be mtAl.od•· Pabaps tbe n1oasaa11t7 of pblo~ ca be aple•_, by ~ u lw aouNe the tnaPdnp of t.bo aleladGI' .sm.• "l1e -- flldocd aoooPt tat the ~ tbool7 1a ~ bocmle it ~ wbat we DOit tl&laofif to be tlst auo,• D al&bt adaSt, • But b Sa m.stola:lD ta ..,. ot .. OYl • ~ fnalwo11ce. CXlit'Ul7 i but we ' to peak, a pair ot ~ • Insofar s we cnu •:tmow• it• :eo.lity bem•t , "'1t our ~ of loold»g at 1t bas. The ~ activ.lty of m.iml sbould. by IX!W' apparS't. If .. TG can l"Cmft'e our ovn spootael.c& for a t, ve see tbat 'the ·d of the ~ doscri.ptioc is appJJ.eable le. Ve vou.1.4 be unable to ahape our questions GD4 make saaso ot nature• B answers. But 1:1ht.chwer oua vo cbooae, will tepmd an oarsol:tee aa penano - our ,rlor •tmovleqe• am aper1eoce, ~ ...... of tbinkina, ml the efticaq of our pan ~·· SGcb ~ aa w ~ will be'ill a st1DSe1 54. necoasary. Nscesea , that is, as opposed to cootingent; not peusM£Y as opposed to ~lJ!1tarY• In tems of their empirical applicaticm, our a priori fnmeworks aro representative of our initiative of m.nd, In a sense - with reWlrd to the total person engaged in ·~· - the mind ls free to choose which a priot"'i. i~rks will moltc the world intolliglble. ~1lat it is Mt fl"eO to do, if •ka<>vledgc1 is bcl.Dg SOlJl}lt, is to determine which a posteriori. elemsts sba.11 arise within the tems of that fmmett0rk. It UJ cicperience ve must accept "'1.ly.cdll.y. Once the fmmewrks a.re in ~eration, wo ?mat accept all cxperi0ints of views ' If something is l,WSCfsatY• docsn•t that mean true in all possible worlds?•; and, •If •Jmovledr;e• changes, hcu can nnyth1n.g relating to the nwc of the empirical vorld be said to bC\ necessary?• The question as it Di.gbt be asked froo tho second point of view is pnrtly answered by the qualification I added previously. 'NC(!os~• is to be understood as being opposod to •contingent• and not •w l mtary•. But SOlilC a priori frameworks are not A§Ufia iu a strictlp 13gical scse. However, they are employed as thoush they vere, ond to all extent and purposes may be trcntcd as sudl. If ve can nou raise •necessary• to tho amning it would ha.Ye tram tho first point 0£ riw, ve voald seem to ban a p"Oaa ccntradictian; that ia1 smetbiDg •truo• in all poesiblo vorlda, cbaqea. Tho appo.rmt cant.radictlan can be cleared up lf we ca substitute the term ·$lacM . for ·dlse.1~ ,, T1d.s wt we cnn recaplso a lo8f.cal eSmtJarlty betveeG the teNS ad at tho dme pt a better pe)'Cbol.og!oal •p.ictaro•. ftd.e Ola be ~od vidl ... 1--.00 to 117steu of Whmad.cal •Jmovl«laet • A 4bdapMWnc chan.cter:latic ~ elcb of the &*DOtr.lcs ot Dlcltd, JAbaohew*t, U&t BJmaaa le tbe mm - which doet not Item hcm ov aper.lmM of die amp1r1cal worl4 - rel&ding to S6. parallel.8. Acco~ to QlQlid1 givm a stndght line and e:rq point outside the line, ~ one straigllt lino C4!l be dratm tbratlgb that point in the SCISP pl.enc vbicll docs not intersect the liDti. But ~ccording to J..o~vnky, aorc than one etra.igbt line can be draw throuOi a given point yet is.il to intcrGeet the othftr line; and, e.ccC'rding to r.Je;mm1, llQ m1Cb line:i can be draw. Each system of geauetl'y io nooesrory • . t . c. intc.~y consistent; bat one may be mployed imJtoa.d of anl"tbcr ~ .!! e. doscriptim of our world but l2 Jl2l£ us interpret what WQ •s t·e• ,i.{\ .. :19 a priori fraaeworks. For o:my­ Yeart w •&aH• wr 1..'orl. fl"mlleworics, vocabulary, •!':iots• 1 concepts a.nd thooreticals, together with modes and instna:.'Cllts of oboorvation help t.c produce a consirtent •picture• of our wrld. \Ji1:h cooa1etenoy, comes recoodtian of Ngularitioo, aat CJll)CCtaticm.s s:aore ofte5 tbz:m 001: oonfin::!&:l. But &D the "°PO and precla1GD of tboutll1t and practice . vltb1n the frameilolk, DI -1 msuopectad pb.mcmma boca:io rwealecl• or old ;I~ may ccao to be •seem• jn a ditf~ u.oit.. ~-!ties ritldA ~. at ...._"t.-ttms mooatimed, and -. acddata1 dnnafl 1.a • es am ~titll of obscl"vat.Uu1 mq lead to tho noopSti• Of problma cal paa>oa DOt aolvahle widdn the hut~ wblch *- tbeir to~ poaaiblo. SGch mtll'al•oo td,dlt at ft.rst be ~, bat thos~ that share tha!\1 they may lead to the di covcry of MW •facts•, proeeclurcst or theoret LG tbrcugb vhf.ch a priori. frameworks . :y be ~. As. Kuhn describes it in hi.a acccunt of scieat1fie revolutions - novelti0! of fact om theory •produced iDAdvortmtly bf a ~e played. under 'Xt~ set <.'!f rules• re~! foi· thetr a.ss:lmil ation 1 •the labomtion of another set'." "Let 115 return to too Phlogiston "":t'nnple once =ere, " 3 ~ corati®e• f!Uy about ·t;iie 177-o•s, consider.l.blc ~piricll. data bad aCCU!JlUlMll....,.'JI it propos ' l i. ss. BGl"thollet•s, Fcmrcroy•s and~ de Honcau.:~ # tt pt to reform th tei'lldaologl.Mj Lavoialcr• s :1rmi&tGl.Ce OP the physical a.sised. d "You, too, sean to lnvc nisiDtc.rpreta.1 tho nature and sity of the priori ~ms ~' o ~ ~ .. '' I :ve tt to pd.ar1 f e e rithout 14 tJOald. be tm1Jlltf1W..PJLe ~· 60. "R""1 let us ~t qul.hblo about the clrnmology or CXpCriewe,,. n ~ c«rtinue, "Glearjy, It'>~~ •1<1ww• ~prior to all ~. Yow· W.mmdo~itl8 of ~ ~ sugg~ tlnt you have shifted fl"'CC tho pr<>blCll oi hov ttmowla!ge• is possible to the problm ~umc how and whm •mowledgt>• takes placo. l!e can suppose that our ~J.ty t.o •tmow• ia called into play and diff erentintes itself progressively aa Wl' seuaoo IU'O stirnulo.tt'~';';ed. Aa I have ~ trt.o.toJ.1 ph."l framewo1~ \.tou.ld 1lO't • .'ur.c'dOJl t.:; that. "tJhich \t"O $t4hiliee ulid retai.!l in n reco~blo uay. 10U1' ~~'4;i.on, tlwil, that new •Imowlodgo• arla<:o \rocn t.hc •ku.J\1c1·• ~o ~~v .. ,i.J:.c:r ~-uat is boi.Dg obel!rvcd vith what is i'ecal1.oo ~ .;~"-O wl.l.l.t they \lou.Ld sj.¢;."y troul.d not vork unless tuere w..s ~J ;ni tiu"O.l'~'\:.I'Vo.i iu :ll:~odi.l.tc ~lOrieJlee t.'OUld have to be oJ.roady o~~ sc ~s to pi.-escm: tllo • pictltr0• 01• ~old wh1ch codl.cl be recoOJ.1col>le frou u fomcr ~~·" un lo 7CU? tailaare to appnoiate tho ftl~~ aod.'fi.ty of lldra1 tlat briap :vou ~ tbo precipice of acept:1cimlt D a:d.dlt vguo, "If our ' ~· bmlda ~a the wq JOU baw 408Cl'1lMd i•, tZMll we can Weal tonrp ~ posdbW.q ot ~ ~ Ola' world, GD4 OQI' .•kuowJ.al&ia~ waQ14 be ~ pro&.ble. n.t Gm' 'kn'11wl.Oll&e• 18 :aat acreq probe.b1o .i JOU •1raow• tt. u it W'81'C, tbcrc could be imu- sd>1£ nor t e would not bo able to htti..14 QP sy~ of ' l udge•, the ~des of \hi.ch we question. Oroated t.hat tbero ~ degees of ~~.:o..mty ... there arc aooe thi..oga of will be aoro sure thr& o-tbe-...-s - nm ~ttXl that our 11.uowl\X is ~ subject to qpl.tf:ka.Ueu and ch::mge, o-c • ledge• of tho;; world is, ~s, e in tcras c.lf om- Oll'1l req~'f;s. Rcl:lab!Jity resides in~ f~-orks vo employ to mc.ke our ~ld Srltelli.gible, sud in th" ttieorct:ieel.s, concepes., iDDtNaetlt.ation1 defini:tiou.s mod~ of QbservatJ.an that are fnwooo:rY. dep~. Ubal Gur wox·ld ~ tc· oo intcl.ligible t."ithtn then, they booooe cert:ai.mles tlwn ~ ccr'.;a.i.n bcca.use we reoo~e then n.s sueh1 :uld because we can ~- hew t 1e-1 arc d.Muc!ble within the frnmeworfo~ tlu~ wllliJh we viw X'Cia.lit}". Cw." •lmO\Ilcdgc• of roo.:aey depero9 \I!?OD our experietJ.-oo of it, '!lut ll'~ on brJtQ ~rl~ c . It also dopaads w the way we L:.l"·o a.ud the r.roy oo l oclt at it . t?c oomot invont t he objects oi our :ilisc.riroticu ant! bope thereby to •kutl""''. ...o be ccrta:l.n we must u.tttmd 1;0 no: ure sm faithfully record our ooservations of her, Wt th instn•ui,into througtl \Aiich the rcccrd w·lll be \dtt are O\U'&Cl..YOS. o •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• WHAT I S THE LOGICAL BASI S FOR B'S POSITION? in ~. ,-... .. ...... ........ .. .... ~· .. ' "",,., 'l , . . ~ I-- ·· - "'""''"" ... ~ - '"> < .... ... _ ' ... , ? 1e --:r:J c. such o. uc.y tt..s t.o CCtlle t ' to ::ci:u:o an •object • suc.~1 n.s a • ·ti'ee• • ..to ~ .. ndnara, E:imsr;imce e' E4ucatige. N York: Collier Books. (Rep.1965) Yolk: IAldoa: ~· .. • (1956) (1964) Jersey: Prmtic:e-Ball , I . (tr.by tliklejol:n.J.!1 . )(1934) . Crjit1mtc ef Ppnl Reap 'Uw>dm: net (Rep. 1950) Kant,I.(tr. by Lucas.P. G. )(19'53) P : Manchester EletDJDDtz, D, (Ed.)( 1966) utm,T,.S. (1962) York: John Wil CSJSeago: Uni.Yendty of adcago Press(Rep. 1968) LockeJ. (abr.ldged and edited by W~R. ) (1947) AJl Es:m SmsmPiqg Manllar, J,.M, (1957) Paton,H.J . (1936) LoodOD: J .M. Dellt A NCli York: Jolm Wiley A 1IB1!drs9 Years of Philossphr L