Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. DEVELOPING TEACHER-LED PROFESSIONAL LEARNING IN A TANZANIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand Rehema Japhet Mwakabenga 2018 i ABSTRACT The competence of Tanzanian teachers, as in other countries, depends on high quality and widely available ongoing professional learning opportunities. Currently, in Tanzania, provision of professional development for secondary teachers is inadequate and sporadic. This study explores the complexities of teacher-led professional learning in the context of a Tanzanian secondary school and as such, provides a nuanced model of how teachers can develop a sense of agency of their own professional learning. Firstly, this study investigated how Tanzanian secondary school teachers perceived and engaged in school based professional learning. Practice changes made by teachers and their understandings of school-based professional learning are then examined as they engaged in an inquiry and knowledge-building cycle. The factors that constrained and enabled teachers to engage in this school-based professional learning are also analysed. An embedded mixed action research was conducted in two phases. Phase One survey data revealed that teachers were not satisfied with the quality of their existing professional learning and that they wanted to engage in more learning. When four teachers in one secondary school were assisted to engage in a series of inquiry cycles, as a means to engage in effective professional learning, they demonstrated varying degrees of change in their practices. These transformations were primarily related to implementing new pedagogies based on their students’ learning needs and reflecting on their professional learning. This shift in practice was associated with the teachers’ changes in their understanding and valuing of teacher-led professional learning and distinguishing this from previous external training that lacked relevance to their teaching situations. Lack of learning materials and funds were found to be critical barriers that constrained their engagement in professional learning. Established support systems enabled the teachers to strengthen their collaborative learning practice and their understanding of ways to engage in their own professional learning. The findings revealed the teachers’ developing capacities to carry out professional learning and to own and manage it themselves. The changes shown by teachers in this study suggest that teachers can initiate and collaborate in effective professional learning if they are supported to do so. This study contributes to understanding of Tanzanian teacher engagement in professional learning, especially in poorly resourced schools. Based on these findings, implications and recommendations are made to develop teacher-led professional learning in Tanzania and similar jurisdictions. ii iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the almighty and merciful God for taking me through this study journey. My heartfelt appreciations go to many people who enabled me to write this thesis as follows. I am very grateful and respectful to my supervisors, Associate Professor Sally Hansen and Associate Professor Alison Sewell. This research would not have happened without their constant generous and insightful guidance. Their expertise in teacher professional inquiry and encouragement helped me to be well on track to meet my expectations in the research process. Their timely and constructive feedback enabled me to reflect in my research work, challenge my thinking, which helped to shape my research and writing skills. Their overall concern for my wellbeing and family is deeply appreciated. I consider myself privileged to have been under the supervision of Sally and Alison. Many thanks go to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade in New Zealand for awarding me the scholarship to pursue my PhD study. My sincere thanks also go to the Tanzanian government for giving permission to pursue my study abroad. My gratitude also goes to all staffs at the International student office for looking after me. I would like also to acknowledge the administrative care and support from the Institute of Education at Massey University. Special appreciations go to Roseanne MacGillivra and all staffs at the Institute of Education for their love, care and support. I am also grateful to other people and professionals who contributed to my research journey in different ways and levels. I appreciate the comments made by Dr. Rowena Taylor on my findings and discussion in my thesis. It has been a great pleasure to know her and her husband. I am also thankful to Sharolyn and Dennis for welcoming me to the church and praying with me. Many thanks go to the congregations at St Luke in Palmerston North and Kimara Korogwe Lutheran church in Dar es Salaam for the sermons and prayers that kept me uplifted. The concern shown by my siblings, Maria, Tuswe, Bertha, Nuru, Nangi and their families on my study journey was invaluable and made me feel that I was not alone. I also extend my appreciation to all friends at the Institute of Education at Massey for their support and fun moments we shared. Deep appreciations go to all school leaders, teachers and particularly, the four teachers who volunteered to participate in the inquiry project. This study would not be successful without their willingness and great commitment to work with me and share experiences during the research process. I am deeply indebted to my parents, Japhet Asson Mwakabenga and Nisile Kisisile Mbibi, for their persistent prayers and encouragement that made this journey a successful one. Thanks to mother, Twambilile Kalinga, who wished to see this study is completed successfully. Special thanks go to my husband, Musa Gwamaka Mwakalinga Mwasankemwa, who has been on my side all the time of my study and took charge of family matters, while I was away from home. I specifically appreciate his commitment to take very good care of our beloved daughters Blessing and Bernice, which helped me to focus on my study. iv v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ v List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xvii List of Figures ............................................................................................................... xix List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xxi List of Appendices ...................................................................................................... xxiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Aims of the study ................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Context of the study ............................................................................................... 2 1.4 Background to the study ......................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 Increasing enrolments ..................................................................................... 8 1.4.2 Poor student examination performance .......................................................... 9 1.4.3 Challenges of curriculum reform .................................................................. 10 1.4.4 Inadequate initial teacher education ............................................................. 10 1.4.5 Inability to use educational technology ........................................................ 11 1.5 Rationale for the study ......................................................................................... 12 1.6 Problem statement and significance of the study ................................................. 12 1.7 The researcher ...................................................................................................... 13 1.8 Chapter summary ................................................................................................. 14 1.9 Thesis structure ..................................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................ 17 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 17 2.2 An overview of education trend and structure in Tanzania .................................. 17 vi 2.2.1 Education structure in Tanzania ................................................................... 18 2.2.1.1 Pre-primary education ........................................................................... 20 2.2.1.2 Primary education ................................................................................. 20 2.2.1.3 Secondary education ............................................................................. 21 2.2.1.4 Tertiary and higher education ............................................................... 21 2.3 Theoretical stance of the study ............................................................................. 22 2.3.1 Social constructivist theory .......................................................................... 23 2.3.2 Situated learning theory ................................................................................ 24 2.3.3 Social cognitive theory ................................................................................. 25 2.4 Implications of sociocultural theories perspective in the study ........................... 27 2.5 Teacher professional learning and change ........................................................... 29 2.5.1 The concept of teacher professional learning ............................................... 29 2.5.2 Teacher learning and change ........................................................................ 30 2.6 Models of teacher professional learning .............................................................. 32 2.6.1 Traditional teacher training model ............................................................... 32 2.6.2 Teacher resource centres and clusters PL model .......................................... 34 2.6.3 Self-directed teacher PL model .................................................................... 36 2.6.4 Collaborative or community of practice teacher PL model .......................... 37 2.7 Overall status of teacher PL models in Tanzanian context .................................. 41 2.8 Building effective teacher-led SBPL .................................................................... 41 2.8.1 Strengthening role of school leadership for teacher SBPL........................... 42 2.8.2 Developing policy guidelines for SBPL ....................................................... 43 2.8.3 Organising resources for teacher SBPL........................................................ 44 2.8.3.1 Provision of financial support ............................................................... 44 2.8.3.2 Utilizing opportunities around to create more resources ...................... 45 2.8.3.3 Creating time for SBPL activities ......................................................... 46 2.8.4 Encouraging teachers to engage in SBPL ..................................................... 46 2.8.4.1 Creating awareness of teacher PL roles ................................................ 47 vii 2.8.4.2 Respecting and trusting teachers’ PL initiative .................................... 47 2.8.4.3 Promoting teacher collaborative PL...................................................... 48 2.9 Inquiry and knowledge-building cycle approach for teacher SBPL .................... 49 2.10 Conceptual framework of IKBC in Tanzanian context ...................................... 49 2.10.1 Establishment phase.................................................................................... 50 2.10.2 Implementation phase ................................................................................. 51 2.10.2.1 Identifying the students’ learning needs ............................................. 51 2.10.2.2 Analyzing the teachers’ learning needs .............................................. 52 2.10.2.3 Deepening teachers’ professional knowledge and refining skills ....... 52 2.10.2.4 Engaging students in new learning experiences ................................. 53 2.10.2.5 Assessing students’ learning and overall PL progress ........................ 53 2.10.3 Institutionalization phase ............................................................................ 54 2.11 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 54 2.12 Research questions ............................................................................................. 55 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN ................. 57 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 57 3.2 Research questions ............................................................................................... 57 3.3 Mixed methods approach ..................................................................................... 58 3.4 Research paradigm ............................................................................................... 58 3.5 Embedded mixed action research design ............................................................. 62 3.5.1 Action research methodology ....................................................................... 63 3.5.1.1 Collaborative action research approach ................................................ 64 3.5.1.2 Phases of collaborative action research ................................................ 65 3.5.1.3 Role of the researcher in collaborative action research ........................ 66 3.6 Location of the study ............................................................................................ 67 3.7 Sampling ............................................................................................................... 67 3.7.1 Selecting teacher participants for the survey ................................................ 69 viii 3.7.2 Selecting Heads of Schools .......................................................................... 69 3.7.3 Selecting teacher participants for the PL intervention .................................. 69 3.8 Research methods ................................................................................................. 70 3.8.1 A survey questionnaire ................................................................................. 71 3.8.2 Semi-structured individual interview ........................................................... 73 3.8.3 Focus group discussion ................................................................................. 74 3.8.4 Observation ................................................................................................... 75 3.8.5 Researcher’s journal and teachers’ diaries ................................................... 76 3.8.6 Planning meetings......................................................................................... 76 3.8.7 Document review .......................................................................................... 77 3.9 Validity and reliability ......................................................................................... 78 3.10 Research sequence .............................................................................................. 80 3.10.1 Access to research sites .............................................................................. 81 3.10.2 Generating primary data ............................................................................. 82 3.10.3 Selecting a school for PL intervention ....................................................... 83 3.10.4 Entry to Lisuli Secondary School ............................................................... 83 3.10.5 Inviting teacher participants for the PL intervention .................................. 84 3.10.6 Planning IKBC programme ........................................................................ 84 3.10.7 Acting to implement the action plan........................................................... 85 3.10.8 Observing the implementation of the IKBC ............................................... 86 3.10.9 Reflecting.................................................................................................... 87 3.10.10 Exit from the school ................................................................................. 88 3.11 Data analysis ...................................................................................................... 88 3.12 Ethical issues ...................................................................................................... 89 3.12.1 Gaining informed consent .......................................................................... 90 3.12.2 Maintaining privacy and confidentiality ..................................................... 90 3.12.3 Addressing potential ethical issues with insider-outsider role ................... 91 3.12.3.1 Defining roles ..................................................................................... 92 ix 3.12.3.2 Establishing close relationship with participants ................................ 92 3.12.3.3 Negotiating with participants about PL and research procedures ....... 93 3.13 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 94 CHAPTER FOUR: PHASE ONE FINDINGS ........................................................... 95 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 95 4.2 Engagement in SBPL ........................................................................................... 95 4.2.1 Engagement in formal types of SBPL .......................................................... 95 4.2.1.1 Participating in short courses ................................................................ 96 4.2.1.2 Attendance at seminars/workshops ....................................................... 97 4.2.1.3 Visiting other schools/institutions......................................................... 98 4.2.1.4 Peer classroom observations ................................................................. 99 4.2.1.5 Networking ......................................................................................... 100 4.2.1.6 Conducting classroom action research ................................................ 100 4.2.1.7 Engaging in mentoring or arranged expert support ............................ 101 4.2.1.8 Discussions in departmental and staff meetings ................................. 102 4.2.1.9 Team teaching ..................................................................................... 103 4.2.2 Engagement in informal types of SBPL ..................................................... 103 4.2.2.1 Engaging in reading research-based professional literature ............... 104 4.2.2.2 Engaging in reading other professional literature ............................... 105 4.2.2.3 Teachers engaging in informal dialogue with peers ........................... 106 4.2.2.4 Chatting with another teacher to help a student .................................. 106 4.3 Teachers’ self-perception of their participation in SBPL ................................... 107 4.3.1 Teachers’ perceived impact of their participation in SBPL........................ 108 4.3.2 Perceived SBPL support ............................................................................. 108 4.3.2.1 Financial assistance for teachers’ PL .................................................. 109 4.3.2.2 Permission to engage in PL activities at the school ............................ 110 4.3.3 Teachers’ perceptions of satisfaction with PL ............................................ 111 x 4.3.4 Teachers’ perceived level of participation in SBPL ................................... 111 4.4 Factors preventing teachers’ engagement in PL................................................. 113 4.5 Overcoming barriers to teachers’ participation in SBPL ................................... 117 4.6 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 118 CHAPTER FIVE: LUCY’S CHANGED ENGAGEMENT WITH AND UNDERSTANDING OF SBPL .................................................................................. 121 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 121 5.2 School context .................................................................................................... 122 5.2.1 Physical setting ........................................................................................... 123 5.2.2 Social and cultural environment ................................................................. 123 5.3 Lucy’s engagements in SBPL ............................................................................ 124 5.3.1 Lucy ............................................................................................................ 124 5.3.2 Inquiry and knowledge-building cycle 1 (IKBC- 1) .................................. 126 5.3.2.1 Identifying the students’ learning difficulties ..................................... 126 5.3.2.2 Deepening professional knowledge and refining skills ...................... 127 5.3.2.3 Implementing the new teaching skills ................................................ 129 5.3.2.4 Reflecting on the PL practices in IKBC-1 .......................................... 131 5.3.3 Inquiry and knowledge-building cycle 2 (IKBC-2) ................................... 131 5.3.3.1 Identifying the student’ learning difficulties ...................................... 132 5.3.3.2 Deepening professional knowledge and refining skills ...................... 133 5.3.3.3 Implementing the new teaching skill .................................................. 134 5.3.3.4 Reflecting on the PL practices in IKBC-2 .......................................... 135 5.3.4 Inquiry and knowledge-building cycle 3 (IKBC-3) ................................... 136 5.3.4.1 Identifying the students’ learning difficulties ..................................... 136 5.3.4.2 Deepening professional knowledge and refining skills ...................... 137 5.3.4.3 Implementing the new teaching skills ................................................ 138 5.3.4.4 Reflecting on the PL practices in IKBC-3 .......................................... 139 xi 5.4 Lucy’s changed practices in SBPL ..................................................................... 140 5.4.1 Change in developing PL focus .................................................................. 141 5.4.2 Learning through different types of PL ...................................................... 143 5.4.2.1 Changes in participation in PL discussions ........................................ 143 5.4.2.2 Learning through independent study .................................................. 144 5.4.2.3 Learning to use classroom action research ......................................... 145 5.4.2.4 Learning to organise PL activities ...................................................... 146 5.4.3 Sharing PL skills ......................................................................................... 147 5.4.4 Seeking PL support ..................................................................................... 148 5.5 Lucy’s changed understandings of SBPL .......................................................... 149 5.5.1 Changes in understanding of SBPL concept .............................................. 150 5.5.1.1 SBPL is not confined to school premises ........................................... 151 5.5.1.2 Seminars/workshops are part of SBPL ............................................... 151 5.5.1.3 SBPL as a teacher-led learning process .............................................. 152 5.5.2 Changes in understanding of the value and impact of SBPL in teaching ... 153 5.5.2.1 Understanding that PL could improve teaching practice .................... 154 5.5.2.2 Understanding that PL could support students’ learning .................... 155 5.5.3 Changes in understanding about school support in PL ............................... 157 5.5.4 Changes in understanding about implementing SBPL ............................... 158 5.6 Remaining concerns regarding SBPL ................................................................ 159 5.7 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 160 CHAPTER SIX: THREE TEACHERS’ CHANGED ENGAGEMENT WITH AND UNDERSTANDING OF SBPL .................................................................................. 161 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 161 6.2 Introduction to teachers’ engagements in SBPL ................................................ 162 6.3 Teachers’ changed practices in SBPL ................................................................ 164 6.3.1 Changes in establishing PL focus ............................................................... 165 xii 6.3.1.1 Clearer identification of the PL goals ................................................. 165 6.3.1.2 PL goals focusing on students’ learning needs ................................... 166 6.3.1.3 Refining the PL focus areas ................................................................ 167 6.3.2 Changes in teacher learning process ........................................................... 168 6.3.2.1 Engaging in organised discussions ..................................................... 168 6.3.2.2 Teachers’ engagement in planned independent learning .................... 171 6.3.2.3 Conducting peer classroom observations ........................................... 173 6.3.2.4 Participating in seminars ..................................................................... 174 6.3.3 Change in pedagogical practice .................................................................. 176 6.3.3.1 A shift from relying on teaching notes to employing varied strategies ........................................................................................................................ 176 6.3.3.2 Maximising students’ interactions and interest in learning ................ 178 6.4 Change in teachers’ understandings of the SBPL .............................................. 180 6.4.1 Developing understanding of SBPL concept .............................................. 181 6.4.1.1 SBPL is teachers’ learning process ..................................................... 181 6.4.1.2 SBPL can be beyond school premises ................................................ 183 6.4.2 Understandings about implementation of SBPL ........................................ 184 6.4.2.1 Taking ownership ............................................................................... 185 6.4.2.2 Locally available resources facilitate PL ............................................ 186 6.4.3 Impact of SBPL on students’ learning ........................................................ 188 6.5 Barriers and enabling factors to teachers’ engagement in SBPL ....................... 189 6.5.1 Availability of PL resources ....................................................................... 190 6.5.1.1 Lack of funding and other teaching/learning resources ...................... 190 6.5.1.2 Using alternative PL strategies ........................................................... 191 6.5.2 Time management ...................................................................................... 192 6.5.2.1 Lack of teachers’ time ......................................................................... 192 6.5.2.2 Effective time management ................................................................ 193 6.5.3 Accountability by school’s management .................................................... 194 xiii 6.5.3.1 Lack of greater accountability by school ............................................ 194 6.5.3.2 School advised to increase teacher PL support ................................... 195 6.5.4 Adapting PL experiences ............................................................................ 195 6.5.4.1 Difficulty adapting to new PL experiences ......................................... 195 6.5.4.2 Receiving expert support and encouragement .................................... 196 6.5.5 Professional commitment ........................................................................... 197 6.5.5.1 Lack of commitment to PL ................................................................. 197 6.5.5.2 Increased teacher commitment to PL .................................................. 197 6.5.6 Collaborative learning ................................................................................ 199 6.5.6.1 Poor collaboration ............................................................................... 199 6.5.6.2 Promoting PL collaboration ................................................................ 199 6.6 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 200 CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION .......................................................................... 203 7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 203 7.2 Teachers’ perceptions and engagement in professional learning ....................... 203 7.2.1 Teachers’ participation in traditional professional training ........................ 204 7.2.2 Teachers’ engagement in alternative types of SBPL .................................. 207 7.2.3 Teachers’ perceived need for more effective PL ........................................ 210 7.3 New understandings and practices in SBPL ....................................................... 212 7.3.1 Changes in teachers’ PL practices .............................................................. 214 7.3.1.1 Establishing clear and relevant PL goals ............................................ 214 7.3.1.2 Exploring teaching skills and resources .............................................. 216 7.3.1.3 Learning how to learn ......................................................................... 218 7.3.1.4 Applying new learning to teaching ..................................................... 220 7.3.1.5 Reflecting on teachers’ professional learning ..................................... 222 7.3.2 Changes in teachers’ understandings of SBPL ........................................... 223 7.3.2.1 A deeper understanding of the SBPL concept .................................... 224 xiv 7.3.2.2 Taking an active role in PL ................................................................. 224 7.3.2.3 Understanding the SBPL process ....................................................... 225 7.3.2.4 Understanding the impact of effective SBPL ..................................... 225 7.4 Supporting teacher participation in effective SBPL ........................................... 226 7.4.1 Management of SBPL activities ................................................................. 227 7.4.1.1 Developing PL guidelines at the school ............................................. 228 7.4.1.2 Creating a variety of PL activities ...................................................... 229 7.4.1.3 Organising time for PL activities ........................................................ 230 7.4.1.4 Scaffolding teachers’ PL initiatives .................................................... 230 7.4.2.1 Promoting the use of alternative resources for PL .............................. 232 7.4.2.2 Accessing and using professional readings ........................................ 233 7.4.3 Collaborative teacher PL ............................................................................ 234 7.4.3.1 Promoting ongoing peer interactions .................................................. 234 7.4.3.2 Development of teachers’ leadership in PL ........................................ 235 7.4.3.3 Enhanced teachers’ self-efficacy and agency ..................................... 236 7.4.3.4 Teachers’ commitment ....................................................................... 238 7.4.3.5 Developing trust and respect ............................................................... 238 7.5 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 239 CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION........................................................................ 241 8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 241 8.2 Summary of key findings ................................................................................... 241 8.3 Contribution to knowledge ................................................................................. 247 8.3.1 Contribution to teachers’ professional learning.......................................... 247 8.3.2 Contribution to the IKBC model of professional learning ......................... 249 8.3.3 Contribution to research methodology ....................................................... 249 8.4 Limitations of the study ...................................................................................... 250 8.5 Implications and recommendations .................................................................... 252 xv 8.5.1 Implications and recommendations for teachers ........................................ 252 8.5.2 Implications and recommendations for school leaders ............................... 253 8.5.3 Implications and recommendations for policy makers ............................... 253 8.5.4 Implications and recommendations for Tanzanian Initial Teacher Education ............................................................................................................................. 254 8.6 Recommendations for future research ................................................................ 255 8.7 Final comments .................................................................................................. 256 8.8 Chapter summary ............................................................................................... 257 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 259 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 297 xvi xvii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Pass Rate in Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations in Tanzania by Division, Years and Percentage, (2003-2015) ............................................................. 9 Table 2.1 Tanzania Formal Education Structure according to the Educational Policy of 1995 ................................................................................................................................. 19 Table 2.2 Key Implications of Sociocultural Theoretical Perspectives in Teacher SBPL ......................................................................................................................................... 28 Table 3.1 Research Participants Selected for the Study ................................................ 68 Table 3.2 Research Methods Used in Response to Research Questions....................... 71 Table 4.1 Teachers’ Engagement in Formal SBPL (N= 213) ....................................... 96 Table 4.2 Teachers’ Engagement in Informal SBPL (N= 213) .................................. 104 Table 4.3 Teachers’ Self-Perception of their Participation in SBPL (N=213) ........... 107 Table 4.4 Factors preventing teachers’ engagement in effective PL (N=213) ........... 113 Table 4.5 Summary of Teachers’ Comments on Improving their Participation in SBPL (N=213) ......................................................................................................................... 117 Table 5.1 Codes of Data Sources ................................................................................ 122 Table 5.2 An Overview of Key Changes in Lucy’s PL Engagement ......................... 141 Table 5.3 Summary of Lucy’s Changing Understandings of SBPL ........................... 150 Table 6.1 Profiles of the Three Teacher Participants Engaged in the SBPL .............. 163 Table 6.2 Summary of Changing Understandings of Teachers in SBPL .................... 181 Table 6.3 Summary of Barriers and Enabling Factors to Teachers’ Engagement in SBPL ............................................................................................................................. 189 Table 7.1 Major Findings for Research Question One ............................................... 203 Table 7.2 Major Findings for Research Questions Two ............................................. 214 Table 7.3 Major Findings for Research Question Three ............................................. 223 Table 7.4 Major Findings for Research Question Four............................................... 227 xviii xix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1. The map of Tanzania by regions .................................................................... 3 Figure 2.1. The inquiry and knowledge-building cycle of professional learning ........... 50 Figure 3.1. Embedded mixed action research design of this study ................................. 63 Figure 3.2. Summary of the research sequence............................................................... 81 Figure 4.1. Teachers’ perceived level of participation in SBPL ................................... 112 Figure 5.1. Summary of Lucy’s practices in the IKBC................................................. 125 Figure 6.1. The framework of changes of teachers’ PL practices ................................. 164 xx xxi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CAR Collaborative Action Research COB Classroom Observation CPD Continuous Professional Development DOC Document EFA Education for All ESDP Education Sector Development Programme FGD Focus Group Discussion HoS Head of School ICT Information Communication and Technology IKBC Inquiry and Knowledge-building Cycle INSET In-service Teacher Education INT Interview ITE Initial Teacher Education MT Meeting MoEVT Ministry of Education and Vocational Training OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development PEDP Primary Education Development Plan PL Professional Learning PLCs Professional Learning Communities PO-RALG President’s Office-Regional Administration and Local Government PRESET Pre-service Teacher Education REF Reflective journal RES Research diary SBPL School-based Professional Learning SEDP Secondary Education and Development Programme SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences TALIS Teaching and Learning International Survey TC Teachers’ Community TDMS Teacher Development Management System TIE Tanzania Institute of Education TRCs Teacher Resource Centers UK United Kingdom UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization URT United Republic of Tanzania USA United States of America xxii xxiii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1 Massey University Research Ethics Approval .......................................... 297 Appendix 2 Research Clearance- Tanzania .................................................................. 298 Appendix 3 Research Information Sheet for Schools ................................................... 300 Appendix 4 Consent Form for Schools ......................................................................... 303 Appendix 5 Consent Form for Heads of Schools.......................................................... 304 Appendix 6 Consent Form for Teachers ....................................................................... 305 Appendix 7 Consent Form for Teachers’ Focus Group Discussion ............................. 306 Appendix 8 Authority for the Release of Transcripts ................................................... 307 Appendix 9 Teacher Survey Questionnaire, 2016 ........................................................ 308 Appendix 10 Semi-structured Interview Guide for Heads of Schools .......................... 312 Appendix 11 Initial Interview Guide for Teachers ....................................................... 313 Appendix 12 Final Interview Guide for Teachers......................................................... 314 Appendix 13 Focus Group Discussion Guide for Teachers .......................................... 316 Appendix 14 Classroom observation guide .................................................................. 317 Appendix 15 Guiding Questions for Teachers’ Reflections ......................................... 318 Appendix 16 Summary of PL Activities Conducted in the IKBC Intervention ........... 319 Appendix 17 Data View in NVivo 11 Showing Samples of Nodes Created ................ 320 xxiv