Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Civil Society in the Chi River, Northeast Thailand A thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Policy and Social Work at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand. Choopug Suttisa 2005 11 ABSTRACT The thesis 'Civil Society in the Chi River, Northeast Thailand' , aims to answer the questions of what civil society means in the Northeast Thai village context, which factors make civil society pro active and how civil society is activated. Participatory action research (PAR) was carried out in two communities in the Chi River Basin to answer the inquiries. The research discusses the contexts of the Northeast Region and the two communities in the Chi River Basin. The people in this area are of the Thai-Laos ethnic group and hold particular beliefs in an amalgam of Buddhism and animism which creates cultural rituals that are different from other regions. The society is based on kinship ties. The economic situation has transformed from an agrarian society to a commercial agriculture society. Through the research process the new term of 'grounded civil society' was created. It means 'the sphere of an autonomous group of local people who actively participate in collective action to deal with their struggles and promote their common interests by mobilizing cultural and social capitals in consort with other people to productively solve their problems. Grounded civil society may include traditional forms of mutual assistance, and formal or informal social associations. It seeks to have a significant influence on public policy at any level ' . The research found that grounded civil society was activated by both outside and inside factors. The outside factors included the negative effect of government development projects and the intervention of the participatory action research, which stimulated local people to engage in civil society. The inside factors activating civil society were the poor economic conditions of the villagers and the social capital existing in the communities. The social capital was built up around kinship ties and cultural capital, which generated the social values and norms of the local people. The research concluded with an analysis of the causal links between social capital and civil society claiming that social capital facilitated the creation of civil society. Further research possibilities are suggested. iii DEDICATION For my parents who had encouraged and supported me in my education. I am saddened that they did not live to see my successful education. IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author of this research would l ike to acknowledge many people for their valuable contributions. F irst and foremost, I am indebted to the villagers from Wungwern and Nong Phue vil lages who devoted a year of their time to work with me on the research project. Without their cooperation this thesis would not have been possible. I would also l ike to thank my friends from 'The Ecology of the Chi River Project' who shared ideas and cooperated on the research project. I would l ike to offer special thanks to Professor Marilyn Waring from the School of Cultural and Social Studies, Massey University, Auckland, who as my chief supervisor supported me in so many ways. She gave me the opportunity to work this research project and always guided me with patience. Her positive critique encouraged me to keep going when I lacked confidence. I would also l ike thank my co-supervisor Dr. Silaporn Buasai from the Thailand Research Fund, for her constructive thoughtful critiques. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor l.A.(Tony) Binns, Ron Lister Chair of Geography, the University of Otago, Professor John Overton, Institute of Development studies, Massey University, and Associate Professor Chayan Vaddhanaphuti, Regional Center for Social Sciences and Sustainable Development, C haingmai University in Thailand, the external examiners for providing valuable comments of the thesis. I want to acknowledge with gratitude, Dr. Graeme MacRae, School of Social and Cultural Studies, for reading and commenting on the draft of the thesis and offering his advice. I also thank Miss Vicky WaIters, a phd. student at Massey University, who read and edited the first draft of the thesis. v My thanks to Joy Oehlers, the l ibrarian at Massey University, who worked actively in supporting me and finding resources for my research. I also owe a dept of gratitude to Bill and Audrey Waring, who made me feel that New Zealand was a second home. Also to Joan Donaldson and her house at the Karuna community on the Coromandel Peninsula where I spent time with serenity to reserve energy for working on the thesis. Also my friends and fam ily in Thailand, who gave me moral support. Finally, I would like to gratefully acknowledge the support I have received from Mahasarakham University whose scholarship supported my study in New Zealand. Choopug Suttisa, October 2005 . TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 11 Dedication III Acknowledgement IV Table of Contents VI List of Maps x List of Figures, Charts and Diagrams Xl Glossary of Thai Terms xu Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations XIV Preface X vu Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Literature Review 1 0 Civil Society, Development and Democracy 1 0 A Brief History of the Concept of Civil Society and Its Transformations 1 1 Contemporary Civil Society and its Definitions 1 4 Perspectives of Civil Society: Marxist, Libertarian and Communitarian 1 9 Components that Constitute Civil Society 22 Different Terms of Civil Society and its Characteristics 23 The Concepts Social and Cultural Capital 25 Definitions of Social Capital 27 Three Dimensions of Social Capital 30 Components of Social Capital 30 Characteristics of the Functionability of Social Capital 3 1 Measurement of Social Capital 32 Conclusion 33 Chapter 3 Civil Society in Asia 35 Civil Society in Thailand 37 The Perspective and the Features of Civil Society in Thailand 4 1 Factors that Nurture and Constrain Civil Society in Thailand 49 Conclusion 52 Chapter 4 Theoretical Framework 53 Emancipation: Emancipatory Research and Emancipation Methodology 53 VI Emancipatory Research Emancipatory Research Methodology Emancipation Theory Critical Theory Critical theory and Methodology The Key Phases of Emancipatory Research: Enlightenment and Empowerment Postmodemism Characteristics of Postmodemism Postmodemism and Methodology The Conceptual Framework of the Two Communities Conclusion Chapter 5 Methodology Action Research Meaning of Action Research The Process or the Model of Action Research Community- Based Action Research Characteristics of Action Research Aims of Action Research The Key Concepts Concerning Action Research The Principles of Action Research The Role of the Researcher in Action Research Validity in Action Research Research Methods Methods Used in the Thesis Methodology in Practice Ethical Consideration Conclusion Chapter 6 Regional Settings Geographical Setting Culture: Belief and Religion The Transformation of the Northeast Region (Is an) and the Chi River Basin Pol itical, Governmental and Administrative Systems vi i 54 55 57 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 66 67 67 68 69 70 71 72 72 74 75 75 76 77 81 89 91 92 92 100 102 102 Communication Education Health Economy Development Programs and Foreign Aid The Impact of Development Projects Conclusion Chapter 7 Background of Wungwem Village Resources and Natural Resources Economic and Household Production Education Culture: Religious Beliefs and Cultural Values The Community-Based Organizations (CBOs) in the Village Community Problems Conclusion Chapter 8 Background of Nong Phue Village Natural Resources Economy and Household Production Community-Based Development Education Culture: Religious Beliefs and Cultural Values Mutual Aid and Reciprocity Politics Conclusion Chapter 9 Experiences of Participatory Action Research (PAR) in the viii 106 106 107 107 111 114 115 117 120 124 130 131 134 136 137 138 140 141 145 149 150 155 157 158 Case Studies 159 Experiences of Participatory Action Research in Wungwern Village 159 Experiences of Participatory Action Research in Nong Phue Village 186 Conclusion 200 Chapter 10 Case Analysis and Findings 202 The Working Definition of Civil Society 202 Context and Conditions Influenced the Formation of Civil Society in the Rural Community 203 The Inside Factors Activate and Nurture Civil Society The Outside Factors Which Activate Civil Society Conclusion Chapter 1 1 Conclusion and Discussion Theoretical Implications Implications for Public Policy Appendix Bibliography Implication for the Frontline Community Workers Implications for Future Research 205 2 1 7 235 236 239 244 246 247 249 258 IX LIST OF MAPS Map of Thailand Map of the Northeast Region Map of location of Wungwem Village Map of location of Nong Phue Vil lage x 93 94 118 118 LIST OF CHARTS, FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS Chart 4. 1 Conceptual Framework of Wung Wern Vill age Chart 4.2 Conceptual Framework of Nong Phue Village Chart 6 . 1 Chart of Government Administration Structure Chart 9. 1 Participatory Action Research in Wungwem Village Chart 9. 2 Participatory Action Research Process in Nong Phue Vil lage Figure 7 . 1 Sketch Map of Wungwem Village Figure 8 . 1 Sketch Map of Nong Phue Village Diagram 9 . 1 The Effects on Environment of Reducing Chemical Useage Diagram 9.2 Framework of the Proj ect Diagram 10 . 1 Research Findings Xl 64 65 105 1 85 1 99 1 1 9 1 3 9 1 93 1 97 204 Buaed Pa Bun Sungkatan Bun Huay Nam Khem Bun and baab Bun Kathin Clum Cham Isan Isan Khiaw Chao Muang huamuang Hiet Sibsong Kong Sibsei Long Khaek GLOSSORY OF THAI TERMS tree ordination ritual. the ritual organized for making a merit in the Buddhist Lent. Xll the ritual organized to pay respect to the Iilone'spirit in Nong Phue and the nearby villages. merit and demerit . a ceremony to make a merit for ancestors. cluster administration unit in a village. a person who communicates with supernatural spirits. refers to the Northeast Region and the people who live there. the green revolutions project in the Northeast. ruler held autonomy to govern huamuang. town and its territory of the former Thai administration system and now replaced by the provincial administration system. a yearly cycle of rituals of the Isan People. the system of a traditional mutual assistance. Villagers help their relatives and neighbours, and then will be assisted in turn when they need help. Nai Hoi Phii Pu-ta Pha Pa Prachakom Prachakom Moo Ban Prachakom Tambon Prachakom Changwat Rai Siam sIao Sima Asok Sarakham Pattana Project. Thammarat Tai Chi Xlll Isan traders . Spirits. the Lao version of an ancestor's spirit. making a merit by collecting money and necessities and donating these to monks and temples. CIVIC group. village civic committee. sub-district civic committee. provincial civic committee. approximately .2529 acres. The name of Thailand previously before 1 939. close friend. a self-reliant community in Thailand. This group strictly practices Buddhist principles. A development project initiated by the ex­ governor of Maha Sarakham province. good governance. name used to describe poor people who live near the Chi River Bank. XIV GLOSSORY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Alternative Agriculture Project BAAC Bowring Treaty Brahma The non-governmental organization which aims to promote and develop alternative agriculture for small scale farmers in small scale agricultural businesses. Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives which mainly gives credit to farmers for investment in agricultural occupations. The agreement between Siam (Thailand) and Britain in 1 855, which aimed at commercial and political issues. It opened up Siam to Western influence and trade. the Hindu god. Community - Based Organizations (CB Os) the development groups in a village Kong Chi Mun Project Local Administration Act 1 9 1 4 NESDB which may be launched by villagers or promoted by government officers with financial support from the government for operations. the project which aimed to draw water from the Meakong River to supply irrigation for agriculture production in the Northeast Region. The first law which endorsed the subdivision of local administration organizations. The National Economic and Social Development Board which is the central planning agency undertaking a continuing study of the country' s One Tambon One Product People's B ank Project Phu-mi-bun Rebellion SAO SAoe Sambok Rebel lion S upanimit foundation Rajaprajanugroh Foundation. xv economy and drawing up plans for its development. the government project support for each sub-district to select a typical local product based on traditional indigenous expertise and local know­ how. The project then assists to develop production, product promotion and marketing. the government project started in 200 1 , offering small loans to low-income earners through the Government Savings B ank branches across the country, in order to help poor people secure low­ interest loans without collateral for their business operation. Rebel lion of the I san people against local government authorities. Sub-district Administrative Organization. S ub-district Administrative Organization Council. The rebellion which occurred in Khon Kaen province to refuse paying taxes to the central government. The non-government agency which aims to help orphans. Formed m 1963 under the royal patronage. Literally the word means "mutual help between the King and the people". The foundation aims to give basic assistance to the victims of public hazards and to prepare a public hazard protection The 1 997 Constitution XVI system throughout Thailand, and to give assistance for education to poor children. The Sixteenth Constitution in Thailand, which incredibly increased and ensured the rights of Thai people to voice their political opinions. The Constitution launches a more open and accountable political system, and enhances the system of government administration checks and balances. The National Education Act ( 1 999) The Act serves as a fundamental law for education reform in a) Learning reform which focuses on student or learners. b) Administrative reform includes upgrading the teaching profession by reorganizing systems and increasing efficiency in the utilization of resources and investment for educational purposes. The Eighth National Economic and Social Developmental Plan (1997-200 1 ) The Plan focused on a holistic people-centred development. The Plan is strategy focussed on people' s respective potential. Development Strategies included the upgrading of the potential of the target groups at all ages and genders, to encourage popular participation, and to strengthen the economy and the development administration. Village and Urban Revolving Fund The government project which funded one million bath ($ US 25,000) for each community as a loan for individuals and households for local investment and to create new local employment. xvii PREFACE 'All people, no matter how poor, can develop themselves if they have opportun ity to' . Th is is my motto that I have developed from my own exper iences . I am an Isan I nat ive . I was born in a m iddle class fam ily and as a result I had the opportun ity for a good educat ion. I d id my first degree in Pol it ical S ciences at Thammasat Un ivers ity, the or ig inal inst itute of pol it ics. Th is inst itute has the slogan ' I love Thammasat because Thammasat teaches me to love the people.' For th is reason , I d id not hes itate when I was offered a pos it ion as a community development worker in a remote v illage in the Isan reg ion where I could work w ith underpr iv ileged people. I worked for Foster Parents Plan Internat ional (PLAN) , one of the world's largest internat ional , ch ild -centred development organ izat ions, wh ich has branches in over 45 develop ing countr ies. The community where I worked was very poor and the v illagers struggled w ith the ir l ivel ihood on a da ily bas is. There were infrastructure scarcit ies w ith l ittle water , electr icity or roads. They l ived on infert ile land affected by drought , wh ich y ielded very l ittle. They walked a long way to cat ch fish from small r ivers or to colle ct mushrooms and insects from the forest . I l ived and worked w ith them and tr ied to help them solve the ir problems . I learned many things about how Isan people surv ived in d ifficult cond it ions. Th is was a major factor in my intellectual development. Even though I was born in th is reg ion , I had never came across these circumstances before. The more I worked w ith them, the more I real ized that the v illagers had a lot of potent ial. They could go a long way towards solv ing the ir problems by rely ing on the ir ind igenous knowledge , even though they had to cope w ith such d ifficult ies. I found that people had the capacity to develop if only they were g iven an opportun ity. My five years in and out of the v illage taught me that the best way to understand these people's problems was to 'stand in the ir shoes' and exper ience them by 1 The term Isan refers to both the people and the region of North-eastern Thailand xviii myself. I also realized I needed even more practical experience. If I wanted to understand their way of looking at life, I would have to adapt my thinking to match theirs. This experience in the remote village inspired me to gain more formal knowledge which could be applied to practical methods for these people to use. I decided to continue my studies by taking an MA. in Community Development at Thammasat University. There, I spent one and half years of the two year program taking courses, including the subjects: Theories in Community Development, Management in Community Development and a Seminar Course in Community Development. The other six months I spent in field work in Roi-et Province, also a part of the Isan Region . My dissertation was on 'The Evolution of a Community Development Organization: A Case Study of a Rice Mil12 Cooperative. The cooperative I chose was in the Phonesai Sub-district of Roi-et Province and had a membership of 13 villages. Its activities were buying unhusked rice from its own members, milling the grain, putting it into sacks and selling it . This cooperative helped the farmers in this area to sell rice and make a good profit. Even though this cooperative was very successful for the villagers, there were frequent problems concerning its functioning, especially in the area of communication: the farmers did not understand how the committee worked. I concluded that this problem could be reduced if they had more meetings but I also discovered differences in other areas. The experiences identified in this case study needed more analysis so I could make suggestions for other cooperatives. Since finishing my MA, I have been working as a lecturer at Mahasarakham University, which is located in the central part of Isan. I have also continued to work with rural communities . As a Lecturer in Community Development I have had many opportunities to formulate and supervise the field studies of my students. From their research, I gained a great quantity of field data, much of which I found helpful in my own areas of interest. I also participated in many research projects including 'Civil Society and Participatory Planning at the Provincial Level', 'The Social Capital and Self - sufficient Economy in the Chi River Basin', 'The Factors of Civil Society at the Sub -district Level', 'A Study of the Slums of Maha Sarakham, and 'The Conceptual System Management of Villagers for the Conservation of Community Forests in Thailand' . 2 Rice mill is a machine for removing the husk for harvested rice XIX The experiences I had in these projects inspired me to seek more answers around the concept of civil society. The Thai practice of 'civil society' seemed to be different from the theory coming out of the West . Thai civil society was not horizontally organized, and it needed to work with the government sector at some level in order to achieve its objectives. It desired legitimacy for its activities . These attributes contrasted with the characteristics of civil society as defined in Western literature, which explained civil society as horizontally organized, and separated from the state and market CRooy, 1998). I had questions about how civil society might be interpreted in rural communities. I participated in a number of seminars on local development projects and developed a proposal for an action research project to develop and refine these questions for this study. My focus was 'Civil Society in the Chi River Basin in Northeast Thailand' and employed participatory action research as the methodology . I believed that community development was a process and that participatory action research would be tool to empower the people in the area af my study. I could learn from them, they could learn from me , and we could both learn from the process. When I did my field work in 2003 in the local communities, I felt as if I had travelled back to the time that I had spent working as an NGO community development worker in poor rural communities . I selected two communities in the Chi River Basin, and the villagers and I worked together through the PAR process. A number of problems in the two communities were solved through the working process, such as flooding, deforestation and chemical use in agriculture . We enhanced our knowledge and experiences from working together to deal with the villagers' hardship. The research process and the outcomes of the project also were very useful for me to understand civil society in Thai rural communities. Although my research project is finished, I intend to continue with my ongoing research interest with people in the region in which I was born. I fully intend to work with them in order to improve their way of life .