Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for 
a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and 
private study only.  The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without 
the permission of the Author. 
 
TERTIARY EDUCATION LEADERSHIP PROGRAMMES IN 
TANZANIA AND NEW ZEALAND: HIGHER EDUCATION FOR 
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 
BY 
NDIBALEMA RWEKAKA ALPHONCE 
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION, MASSEY 
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PALMERSTON NORTH, NEW 
ZEALAND 
2000 
(i) 
Dedication 
To my mother, Amina Shabani and the more than one thousand people, whose l ives 
were cut short by the sinking of M. V. Bukoba in Lake Victoria on 21 st May 1 996. 
May their lives not be lost in vain. 
(ii) 
Acknowledgements 
In accompli shing this work I came into contact and got involved with many people to 
whom I am deeply grateful . In particular I would l ike to thank the various educators 
from both Tanzania and New Zealand who provided me with information and material 
without which thi s  thesis would have remained a figment of imagination. For reasons 
of anonymity and confidentiality, these educators remain unnamed. Apart from these, 
I cannot mention by name, al l  the people who were part of the making of this thesis  
because of the l imitation of space and human folly. However, I would l ike to single 
out a few people and some institutions whose special roles and influence enabled me 
to undertake and finalise this study. 
My thanks to the New Zealand Government and its Commonwealth Scholarships and 
Fellowships Plan, Massey University, the Tanzanian Government and the University 
of Dar es Salaam for the financial support that enabled me to study in New Zealand. 
During my stay in New Zealand I was also a beneficiary of the Clem Hill Memorial 
Fund; to whose Trustees I would like to extend my gratitude. 
Apart from the physical health, I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to 
those who contributed to my intellectual well-being during my studies. In many ways  
I am genuinely indebted and forever grateful to Professor Wayne Edwards, my chief 
supervisor, who believed in  me beyond belief and worked with me, untiringly ,  to 
actualise and transform a dream into reality. I would also wish to extend my thanks 
and gratitude to Professor John Codd, who provided insight into my work not only as 
my second supervisor but also as my teacher in policy analysis.  I would, particularly ,  
want to mention the encouragement and support I received from him, as the Head of  
Department, to attend conferences and other intellectually nourishing engagements 
which made my studies all the more worthwhile. 
Various groups, including the invigorating but short l ived, Phenomenography Group 
spearheaded by Dr Janet Burns; the Reading Group and the Policy Response Group in  
the Department of Education Studies and Community Support at Massey University, 
provided valuable insight into my work and offered me non-threatening avenues to air 
my formative ideas and receive constructive and (although not always) amenable  
response. 
On a personal front, there are many friends, relatives and acquaintances who made my 
work bearable through their contributions in different and varied forms. I would l ike 
to, specifically, thank Professor Justinian Galabawa, Mr and Mrs Kaimukilwa, Mr and 
Mrs Mpelasoka, Mr Fletcher Msuya, Dr David Mutoro, Mr and Mrs Ngoza, Mr and 
Mrs Parsons, Mr and Mrs Rashid, Mr and Mrs Rwegerela, Dr and Mrs Senelwa, Prof 
and Mrs Studman, Dr and Mrs Webster, the Family at All-Saints Church i n  
Palmerston North and others, not mentioned here, for their support and well wishes. 
I would also like to thank members of my family, dead and living, and in all its 
extensions. Specifically, I would like to thank my children, Kabyemela, Sophia,  
Rweyemamu, Mwemezi and Rwezaura, for understanding and enduring the long 
spells of parental 'absence' .  Cornelia, a fellow traveller in this odyssey, was more than 
a wife and a friend; she was an intel lectual critic (a gentle one at that), a confidant and 
a prodder. To you, I would like to say - "thanks, the second twin is out". 
My parents taught me to understand that, as stumbling and fall ing is part of the 
process of learning to walk, so is standing up after every fall .  To them I am eternally 
grateful ,  even though, regretably, they didn ' t  l ive long enough to see the completion 
of the journey for which they prepared me. 
( i i i) 
Abstract 
This thesis, about educational leadership development, explores selected tertiary 
programmes of educational leadership in New Zealand and Tanzania. The aim of the 
study was to explore whether, and how, Tanzanian programme development could 
benefit from the experience of programme development which has been acquired by 
New Zealand's tertiary institutions. For the purpose of the study, five programmes 
offered by tertiary institutions in New Zealand and courses from the, then,  only 
tertiary educational leadership programme in Tanzania, were selected for examination. 
The study examined the context of educational leadership in both Tanzania and New 
Zealand, with particular reference to the contemporary reforms in education in the two 
countries and their influence on educational leadership development in recent years. 
The specific contents of the programmes were also examined in respect to their 
organisational, cognitive and affective aspects. Employing an eclectic qual itative 
research methodology, the study was underpinned by critical theory assumptions i n  
advocating a framework for educational leadership programme development i n  the 
context of Tanzania, based on the concept of power diffusion, allowing for a more 
broad based democratic participation of teachers in leadership programmes. 
Premised on the assumption that educational leadership is central to the success or 
fai lure of any educative process in its conception of leadership, the thesis advocates 
the development of democratic, dialogic, partic ipative and reflective leadership as 
opposed to leadership based on autocratic and power-wielding authority . The main 
thrust of the arguments rest on the understanding that, without the teachers ' 
enthusiasm to teach and the learners ' willingness to learn, schools would be nothing 
but "a wilderness of wasted logic". It is  argued that educational leadership can 
contribute significantly towards the real isation of the ideal , albeit not necessarily  
clinical, environment for the educative process to take place. 
It is  contended that, in the context of the contemporary social and political structures, 
especially in developing countries, such as Tanzania, educational leadership can either 
be for liberation or domination. Based on the findings from various New Zealand and 
Tanzanian programmes of educational leadership, examined in  thi s  study , i t  i s  
underscored that, i n  order to be liberative, educational leadership requires the support 
of a socially critical phi losophy. 
The findings of the thesis highlight the centrality of the role of tertiary education 
institutions in the development of leadership in educational places. Thus,  it i s  
concluded that, for a developing nation, l ike Tanzania, the need for tertiary 
programmes for educational leadership cannot be overemphasised. 
(iv) 
Table of Contents 
Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  i 
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . i i  
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . i i i  
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  iv 
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  ix �� and Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. x 
Part I ................................................................................................................................. 1 
Chapter One .................................................................................................................... 1 
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 
Background to the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1 
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3 
The Purpose of the Study . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4 
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 
Lines of Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5 
Rationale for Tertiary Education Leadership Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6 
Justification for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13 
Limitations to the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14 
Thesis Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14  
Part 11 ............................................................................................................................. 16 
Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 16 
Chapter Two .................................................................................................................. 17 
Educational Leadership Development 
Some Conceptual Considerations .................................................................... 17 
Expertise in Educational Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1 7  
Development of Expertise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1 8  
Educational Leadership Knowledge Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  20 
Leadership as Moral Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24 
Values and Ethics in Educational leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26 
Leaders as Educators . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28 
Leadership Development as Teachers ' Professional Development . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29 
Teachers' Professional Development in Tanzania and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  32 
Managerialism and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35 
Development of Pedagogic Technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  40 
Educational Leadership Development in Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .... . . . ... . . . . . . . .  .46 
Overview . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  49 
Chapter Three ............................................................................................................... 50 
Educational Leadership 
Paradigms and Approaches .............................................................................. 50 
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  50 
The Relationship Between Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5 1  
Perspectives in Educational Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  52 
The Positivist Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  53 
The Interpretive Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  62 
The Critical Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  , . . . ... 65 
(v) 
Implications for Educational Leadership Development . .  ................................................ 79 
Part III Methodology .................................................................................................... 82 
Chapter Four ................................................................................................................. 83 
Methodological Issues I :  
Theoretical Aspects ........................................................................................... 83 
The Quantitative-Qualitative Dichotomy ...... ................................ ... ............................... 83 
The Qualitative Approach in Educational Research ................................. ...................... 85 
Strands in Qualitative Approaches ............................................................................. ..... 87 
Values and Facts in Research .......................................................................................... 88 
Critical Qualitative Research .............................................................. ........... ................. 89 
Issues of Validity in Qualitative Research ...................................................................... 9 1  
The Multi-Site Case Study Approach ............................................................................. 93 
Interviews in Qualitative Research ....................................................................... .......... 94 
The Case for the Eclectic Approach .................................................... .................. .. . . . .... 95 
Application of Qualitative Research in Developing Countries .................................... ... 99 
Chapter Five ................................................................................................................ 1 01 
Methodological Issues 11 
Practical Aspects .............................................................................................. 101 
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 0 1  
The Choice of Programmes ...................... ............... ...................................................... 1 04 
The Choice of Participants ............................................................ .. .............................. 1 05 
Entry into the Field ....................................................................... ................................ 1 07 
Some Ethical Issues ...................................................................... ................................ 1 09 
Data Sources ................................... .......... .................. .......................... ........................ 1 09 
Data Collection ..................................... ........................................................................ 1 1 0 
Approach to Interviews ....................... .......... ................................................................ 1 1 3 
Data Analysis ............................................... .......................... ....................................... 1 14 
Data Interpretation .................................. ...................................................................... 1 20 
Report Writing ................ ................. ............................................................................. 1 20 
Part IV .......................................................................................................................... 121 
Data Presentation and Discussion ............................................................................. 121 
Chapter Six .................................................................................................................. 122 
Presentation and Discussion I :  
Educational Leadership Development in Tanzania ..................................... 122 
The Context of Educational Leadership Development in Tanzania ............................. 1 23 
The Contemporary Context .......................................................................... ................. 1 24 
Leadership Programmes and Bodies of Central Agency .............................................. 1 33 
Tertiary Education and Educational Leadership in Tanzania ....................... .. . ............. 1 39 
Reforms in Tertiary Education in Tanzania .................................................................. 1 42 
Tertiary Education and Educational Leadership Development ........................ ............ 1 46 
Description of Educational Leadership Courses in Tanzania .... ................................... 1 5 1  
Organisational Aspects of Educational Leadership Courses in Tanzania ..................... 1 52 
The Cognitive Aspects of Selected Educational Leadership Courses .......................... 1 56 
Suggestions by Tanzanian Educators .......................................................................... .. 1 59 
Envisaged Affective Aspects for Programmes in Tanzania .......................................... 1 66 
Conclusion ............... ........................................... .......................................................... 1 73 
(vi) 
Chapter Seven ............................................................................................................. 178 
Presentation and Discussion 11: ................................................................................. 178 
Programmes' Contextual Aspects 
Changing Policies, Bodies of Central Agency and Tertiary 
Education Reforms in New Zealand .............................................................. 178 
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 78 
Reforms and Leadership Development in New Zealand ........................................... .. .  1 78 
Policy Reforms and Change in Educational Leadership Roles ................................... . .  1 79 
Educators' Perspectives on the Contextual Aspects ..................................................... 1 86 
Policy Changes and the Leadership Environment ........................................................ 1 88 
Policy Reforms and Tertiary Education Environment in New Zealand ....................... 1 9 1  
Bodies of Central Agency . .................. .......................................................................... 1 98 
The Statutory Agencies in New Zealand ...................................................................... 1 98 
Non-Statutory Agencies in New Zealand ..................................................................... 207 
Overview of the Contextual Aspects of the Programmes ............................................. 208 
Chapter Eight .............................................................................................................. 210 
Presentation and Discussion Ill: ................................................................................ 210 
Programmes' Organisational Aspects 
Types, Eligibility, Delivery and Quality Assurance ..................................... 210 
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 210 
Types of  Programmes .......... .... . . . . . . ................................................... ............................ 21 0 
Eligibility Criteria 
Qualifications, Positions and Experience ........................................................ .. 2 13  
Positions of Responsibi lity ............................................................................................ 220 
Cross Crediting and Recognition of Prior Learning ....... . ............................................. 223 
Modes of Programme Delivery ..................................................................................... 226 
Extramural Delivery of Programmes ............................................................................ 226 
Implications for Tanzania ............. ................................................................................ 230 
Programme Development ............................................................................................. 23 1 
Inter-Institutional Co-operation ................................................................................... .  237 
Inter-Programme Co-operation 
Lessons for Tanzania ......................................................................................... 241 
The Programmes' Language of Instruction ..................................................................  242 
Programme Costs ..................... . .. .. . . .............................................. . ............................... 252 
Overview of the Organisational Aspects of the Programmes ....................................... 253 
Chapter Nine ............................................................................................................... 256 
Presentation and Discussion Ill: 
Programmes' Cognitive Aspects 
Objectives, Knowledge and Skills .................................................................. 256 
Programme aims and objecti ves ................................................................................... 257 
Education and Training in Educational Leadership ...................................................... 26 1 
Skills and Competencies ............................................................................................... 263 
The Practical and Academic Di vide .............................................................................. 274 
Research and Educational Leadership Programmes ..................................................... 276 
Reflection and Experiential Learning ................. . ......................................................... 279 
Remarks and Implications for Tanzania ....................................................................... 286 
Overview of the Cognitive Aspects ............................................................................. .  292 
(vii) 
Chapter Ten ................................................................................................................. 294 
Presentation and Discussion IV: ................................................................................ 294 
Programmes' Affective Aspects 
Values, Professionalism, Culture and Social Relations ................................ 294 
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 294 
Programmes and Values, Ethics and Moral Issues ....................................................... 295 
Values in the Selected New Zealand Programmes ....................................................... 295 
Programmes and Teacher Professionalism ................................................................... 304 
Teacher Professionalism in New Zealand ..................................................................... 304 
Programmes and Issues of Social Differentiation ......................................................... 309 
Issues of Differences in the New Zealand Programmes ............................................... 309 
Cultural Aspects 
Programmes and the Language of Instruction ................................................... 315 
Implications of the Affective Aspects to Programmes Development in 
Tanzania ....................................................................... ................................................. 319 
Values and Programme Development in Tanzania ....................................................... 319 
Teacher Professionalism in Tanzania ........................................................................... 324 
Social Differentiation in Tanzania ................................................................................ 325 
Education Language Policy in Tanzania ...................................................................... 328 
Conclusion on the Programmes' Affective Aspects ...................................................... 331 
Overview of Data Presentation and Discussion ............................................................ 341 
Part V ........................................................................................................................... 343 
Chapter Eleven ............................................................................................................ 343 
Summary, Conclusions and a Framework for Liberative Educational 
Leadership Programmes in Tanzania ....................................................................... 343 
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 343 
Summary: 
Reviewing the Objectives of the Study .......................................................... 344 
Approaches to Educational Leadership ......................................................................... 344 
Tertiary Education and Educational Leadership Development .................................... 346 
The Context of Educational Leadership ........................................................................ 347 
Programme Portrayal .................................................................................................... 349 
The Programmes' Emancipatory Potential .............................. ..................................... 354 
Some Conclusions and Remarks ................................................................................ 357 
The Nature of Educational Leadership ......................................................................... 357 
"Kiongozi" 
The Guide by the Side ....................................................................................... 357 
Educational Leadership Development .................. . ....................................................... 360 
The programmes ........................................................................................................... 368 
Tertiary Education 
Beyond the Ivory Towers .................................................................................. 371 
A Framework for Liberative Education Leadership Development in 
Tanzania ....................................................................................................................... 374 
Introduction .................................... . . ............................................................................. 374 
Critical Philosophical Outlook ...................................................................................... 374 
Situational Analysis .................... .................................................................................. 376 
Types of Programmes ................................................................................................... 378 
Participants .................................................................................................................... 378 
Mode of Delivery .......................................................................................................... 379 
The Language of Instruction ......................................................................................... 381 
(viii) 
Content .......................................................................................................................... 3 8 1 
Resourcing and Costs ...... . ............................................................................................. 3 87 
Programme Evaluation . ................................................................................................. 388 
The Ongoing Nature of Leadership Development ........................................... ............. 3 89 
A Note on Methodology .............................................................................................. 389 
Appendices .................................................................................................................... 392 
Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 423 
(ix) 
List of Figures 
Figure 2. 1 :  Experts and non-expert performance characteristics . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . ..... .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... 1 9  
Figure 2.2: Substituting ethical leadership to managerial mystique . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .  27 
Figure 3.1  Knowledge constitutive interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  68 
Figure 4. 1 Strategies of minimising bias in qualitative research . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . .  92 
Figure 5 . 1 :  Time-frame for the study ......... ............... ....................................... . . . . . ............................. 102 
Figure 5.2:  New Zealand participants in the study ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . .  106 
Figure 5.3 : Tanzanian educators participating in the study . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ........ . . ........ ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . 1 07 
Figure 5.4: Formation of data categories . ... . . . . . ............. . . . .. . .. . .... . . . . . ...... . . .. . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . .. . . . .  1 1 5 
Figure 6: 1 :  Headings, categories and themes for Tanzania data . . . . .......... . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .  123 
Figure 7 . 1 :  New Zealand education administrative structure . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . .  1 79 
Figure 8 .1 :  Organisation category, themes and sub-themes . . . ...... . . . . . . .. ........ . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . ... 2 10 
Figure 8.2 Some programmes' properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .. . . . . . .  254 
Figure 9: 1 Cognitive aspects of educational leadership programmes . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .  256 
Figure 9.2 The two strands of competencies for the Mast2NZ Programme ......... . . . . . ..... . .... . . . . . . .... . . .... 268 
Figure 10.1 Affective aspects of the programmes . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  294 
Figure 10.2: The Percentage of girls enrolment at various levels of schooling in Tanzania. .. . . . . . . . . . .  326 
Figure 1 1 .1 Headings, themes and sub-themes ......... .. . . ........ . . . . . . . . . .. . . ........ . . ........... ... . . ...... . . ... . . . . ... . . . . .  343 
Figure 1 1 . .2: A framework for educational leadership development in Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  .374 
Abbreviations and Glossary of Terms 
Abbreviations 
CIDA - Canadian International Development Agency 
DoDs - Developers of developers 
DANIDA - Danish International Development Agency 
DSE - Germany Foundation for International Development 
ERNES A - Educational Research Network for Eastern and Southern Africa 
ESR - Education for Self-Reliance 
IMF - International Monetary Fund 
MoEC - Ministry of Education and Culture (Tanzania) 
NZ - New Zealand 
NZARE - New Zealand Association of Research in Education 
OUT - Open University of Tanzania 
PMS - Performance Management Systems 
SIDA - Swedish International Development Agency 
ToTs - Trainers of trainers 
TZ - Tanzania 
UDSM - University of Dar es Salaam 
UNESCO - United Nations Education, Science and Cultural organisation 
UNICEF - United Nation International Children and Education Fund 
URT - United Republic of Tanzania 
WB - World Bank 
Kiswahili Terms 
Elimu - Education 
lamhuri - Republic 
Kiongozi - Leader 
Mapendekezo - Recommendations 
Mfumo - System 
Mkutano - ConferencelMeeting 
Mkuu - General 
Mtawala - Administrator 
Muungano - UnionlUnited 
M waka - Y ear/Annual 
Na - and 
Raisi - President 
Ripoti - Report 
Taarifa - Report 
Tume - Commission 
Ujamaa - Communalism (Tanzanian brand of socialism) 
WalYa - Of 
Waziri - Minister 
Wizara - Ministry 
Maori Terms 
Aotearoa - New Zealand 
Iwi - Tribe 
Hapu - Clan 
Hui - Meeting/gathering 
(x) 
Kaumatua - Elders 
Kohanga Reo - Total Maori immersion pre-school 
Kura Kaupapa - Total Maori immersion primary school 
Kura Tuarua - High School 
Maoritanga - Maori culture 
Marae - Meeting place (normally gathering place for Hapu (cIan)) 
Matauranga - Philosophy 
Noho - Period of residence 
Pakeha - New Zealander of European descent 
Reo - Language (used commonly for Maori language) 
Tangata - People 
Taonga - Treasure 
Tapu - Holy 
Tumuaki - Principal 
Whakahaere - Manage/manager 
Wananga - Maori institution of higher education 
Whanau - Family 
Whenua - Land 
(Note that in Maori "wha" is pronounced "fa") 
(xi) 
Prologue 
It is the position of the researcher that social development entails the evolution of social processes that 
ensures that people are happy, healthy and productive. It follows that exploited and dominated people 
cannot be happy; people without knowledge, skills and appropriate techonolgy cannot be properly 
productive; likewise people lacking proper nutrition, adequate housing and security cannot be healthy. 
In this, it is argued that education has a signjficant role to play. However, for education to play its role, 
it needs to be nurtured, harnessed and organised in such a way that the necessary attributes for a 
healthy productive and happy society are reflected and accentuatated. Such organsiation of human 
intentionality, jt js argued, may be acrueved through the strength and position taken by the leadersrup of 
education in each and every society. The reader will find it postulated that leadershjp development is 
imperative for the leaders to acrueve greater awareness and insight into their internal and external 
contexts, their orgarusational mainstay, their cogrutive understanding as well as the norms and values 
espoused in their educational establishments. 
Employing a qualitatitve critical theory approach in examining the notjon of leadershjp, the researcher 
has, by design, refrained from offering, yet, another defirution of the term, deciding instead, to describe 
and give attributes surrounding the notion. The reluctance to define the term, leadersrup, stems from the 
researcher's  prulosopillcal inclination that definitions are 'snapshots' that capture, consign and confine 
social phenomena in time and location, thus, effectively denying and ignoring the dynamism and flux 
that, invariably, attends to all human organisations and processes. The diagram below, call it a diamond 
if you will, indicates the researcher's  notion of leadershjp in flux, it may be instructive for the reader to 
come back to it from time to time. 
The interactive attributes through which leadership is concieved 
and described in this thesis. 
Affective 
Attributes 
Contextual 
Attributes 
Cognitive 
Attributes 
Organisational 
Attributes 
It is the researchers view that one would be hard pressed to fmd any fundamental human process that 
stands still, long enough, to warrant an acurate and valid definition. In the same vein, in grapling with 
the notion of the methods and approach to research, the researcher is of the view that the greater 
balance of hum a activity and intentionality is difficult to capture in numbers and models. Thus a choice 
for the qualitative approach was made. However, even witilln the quahtative approach one is 
confronted wjth a plethora of choices amongst opposing and counter-opposing methodologies and 
techniques. In the present case, the researcher was of the view that what is important is to tell one's  
story; rather than to  haggle and despate one's  energy on deciiling and clairrung royalty to  any one given 
approach. Thus, an eclectic approach of methods and techniques witrun the qualitative paradigm, was 
employed by the researcher in order to tell rus story authentically and credjbly.  Since tills is a 
comparative work, the researcher felt the need to include appendicies willch provide useful 
backgrounds for the understanding of Tanzania's  educational hjstory and New Zealand' s  educational 
setting, with specific reference to Maori education. It is the researcher's hope that thjs brief prologue 
would set the reader in the right direction to understand and place the thesis in its proper perspective. 
11