Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Because We're Family A Study of Kinship Care Of Children in New Zealand A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Soc;ial Work at Massey University, Albany Campus Jill M. Worrall February 1996 0 ii ABSTRACT Since 1989 child welfare policy and practice in New Zealand has been guided by the Children, Young Persons, and their Families Act (1989). This Act mandates placement with kin as the option of first choice for children in need of care and protection. However, there is an absence of New Zealand research on this practice. The few recent overseas studies showed that children placed in kin-based care have similar levels of physical, emotional and educational difficulties as children in stranger foster care and that the personal consequences for caregivers and their families are significant. The 1989 Act defines family in the widest sense and includes members of the extended family. Definitions of family serve different political interests, and this thesis compares the current structure of New Zealand families with the ideological constructs of family/whanau inherent in the 1989 Children, Young Persons, and their Families Act. This qualitative study describes the experiences of five families who have cared for abused and/or neglected kin children. The thesis develops an understanding of the transitions occurring in kinship care for the children and their families through both ecological and feminist theories, and focuses on the gendered, economic, and political environment in which kinship care is performed in New Zealand. The feminist caregiving literature comments on the social expectation that women will assume the caregiving role, and the effect that this has on their lives. This study shows that the task of caring for a kin child who has suffered abuse and neglect is taxing on both caregivers and the whole caregiving family, and not made easier by virtue of a biological relationship. Children placed with extended family and children placed in foster care with strangers are treated as two distinct populations in terms of both practice and policy, kinship care families being considerably under-resourced. This thesis shows that such a dichotomy is not justifiable, and that the knowledge gained from foster care research should be transferred to the kinship population. The 'invisibility' of kinship care allows the particular needs of this group to remain unaddressed. Data is urgently required in regard to numbers of children placed with kin, and the longterrn outcomes for both the children and their families. A reconstruction of kinship care, using a critical theory framework, concludes the thesis and provides recommendations for policy, social work practice and future research. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been written without the support and encouragement of my family, friends and colleagues. I thank you. I am most grateful to my mentors and colleagues at Massey University. I particularly wish to thank Dr. Rajen Prasad for his supervision of this thesis. Dr Prasad's knowledge of the field has been invaluable, and his theoretical critique has been enlightening and challenging. I must also thank Dr. Jocelyn Quinnell for reading and commenting on the many drafts, and Dr Marilyn Waring, Dr Mike O'Brien and Dr. Michael Belgrave - for their time, advice on various issues and support. I would also like to express my appreciation to Dr. Robyn Munford for her encouragement, constructive critique and sensitive review. To my friends - thank you for understanding my preoccupation with the task. I particularly thank Diane Hawken, whose comradeship on the journey has kept me going to the end, and Dr. Valda Youdale for her gift of editorship and critique. I also owe a debt of gratitude to my New Zealand Family and Foster Care Federation friends, Ngahuia, Barbara, Pat, Vema and the late Mary Moodie - you have each offered support and encouragement in different ways. Thank you. Most importantly I thank my family - (in the widest sense) - for your patience, tolerance and encouragement. In particular, I thank my husband, John, who has supported me in so many ways, not only through this endeavour, but through my whole academic career. It is not easy to be the partner of a thesis writer. I have returned! Finally I am indebted to the caregivers and their families- I thank you sincerely for trusting me with your family stories. I also thank you for giving of your time when so many people demand it. I feel most privileged and admire your courage and commitment. This thesis is for you. Acknowledgements Abstract CONTENTS i 11 Chapter One Introduction : Siting the Study Organisation of the Thesis The Researcher 1 5 9 Chapter Two Chapter Three The Historical, Cultural and Social Context of Kinship Care 11 Introduction 1 1 The History of Child Protection Law in New Zealand 12 Social Attitudes and the Legal Response 13 Towards a New Act 17 State Control versus Family Rights 20 The Influence of the Economy 22 The New Zealand Family in Reality 24 Family Responsibility - Concepts and Constructs of the 1989 Children, Young Persons, and their Families Act 29 Summary 31 A Review of the Literature 32 Introduction 32 Sent to Live with Strangers: The Foster Care Literature 33 - Lack of stability 33 - Abuse in Care 34 - Return to Biological Parents 35 - The Importance of Family to Children in Care 35 Sent to Live with Aunty: The Kinship Care Literature 38 - Early Studies 39 - More Recent Studies 40 - Stability of Placement 42 - Contact with Biological Parents 43 - Characteristics of Children in Kinship care 44 -Characteristics of Caregivers 45 -Support 47 - Formal and Informal Support 48 - Financial Support 49 - Practice Issues 50 - Assessment and Training of Kin Caregivers 50 - Permanency Planning and Legal Status 52 Summary 53 Chapter Four Chapter Five An Ecological and Feminist Integration Introduction An Ecological Analysis of Kinship Care - Ontogenic Influences - Microsystem Influences - Mesosystem influences - Exosystem Influences - Macrosystem Influences A Feminist Analysis of Kinship Care -Women's Work - Women and Welfare -Women, Power, Money and Class -Is There a Caregiving Crisis? Summary Methodology • Hearing the Voices Tell the Stories Introduction - The Research Question The Role of Feminist Methodology The Participants Data Collection The Interview Process Data Analysis Validity and Reliability Ethical Issues Summary Chapter Six Within the Microsystem and Mesosystem - Family Matters Introduction Relationships witin the Extended Family and the Route to Care giving Making the Decision to Care Profiles of the Children Contact with Parents and Siblings The School Environment Moving within the Extended Family Moving back to Foster Care The Caregiving Families and the Personal Cost Lifestyle Changes The Physical Cost The Emotional Cost The Cost to Family Relationships Support within the Micro/Mesosystem Family support Friends and Neighbours Mutual Support Summary 55 55 57 59 60 62 63 66 67 70 71 73 75 76 79 79 80 81 83 84 87 88 89 91 93 93 94 96 100 104 108 110 112 113 114 116 118 121 123 124 127 129 129 Chapter Seven Exosystem Influences 131 Introduction 131 Exosystem Supports and Risks 132 The Children and Young Persons Service 134 Family Assessments and Preparation for the Task 137 Caring for Abused Children - The Risk 139 Kinship Care and the Law - Issues of Permanency 140 The Financial Cost 142 Caring and Working 149 Housing 152 Macrosystem Risks 154 Summary 154 Chapter Eight Implications for Policy and Practice 156 Introduction 156 A Theory of False Consciousness 158 A Theory of Crisis 161 A Theory of Education 164 A Theory of Transformative Action 167 Recommendations for Policy 168 Recommemdations for Practice 171 Alternative Models of Kinship Care 175 Limitations of the Study 176 Future Research Needs 176 Conclusion 178 Appendices 1. Glossary 180 2. Letter to Caregivers 182 3. Information Sheet 183 4. Consent Form 184 5. Interview Guide 185 6. Standards of Approval for Kinship Caregivers 187 Bibliography 189 Table 1. Table 2. Figure 1. Figure 2. List of Tables Proportion of Children with Mothers working Full or Part-time- Two Parent families, 1991 Comparative Table of Unsupported Child and Foster Care Allowances List of Figures Ecological Multi-level Analysis of Influences Impacting on Kinship care for Pakeha Families. Kinship Care Stressors. vi 26 143 58 179