Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Towards an Understanding of the Way Chemistry Students Relate to Teaching Software, Using Stereochemistry as the Vehicle A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment ofthe requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Slavica Pavlinic Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand, 2002 2 ABSTRACT The aim of the project was to identifY features crucial for the effective software-based learning of chemistry. The project involved four connected studies using two methods: one developed for evaluation of student-software interaction (videotaping and stimulated recall interviewing); the other, phenomenography for investigating student conceptions related to their understanding of stereochemistry, a concept addressed by the developed tutorial. The main insights fall into two categories: the development of chemistry educational software and teaching and learning of chemistry specifically the concepts of stereochemistry. The original stereochemistry tutorial employed multiple representations, free navigation and model progression. Students' ideas were used to modify the tutorial. This resulted in the learning tasks covering the properties of enantiomers, using the animation and guided discovery. The use of computers in chemistry has two advantages over the traditional educational tools. Using 30 interactive ball and stick models helped students to visualise molecules and animation assisted to visualise aspects (properties), which are impossible to observe under laboratory conditions. Learning chemistry is strongly influenced by the way chemistry is taught. Students experienced chemistry in two worlds separated from one another - the world of body of chemistry knowledge and the world of real substances (dream world-real world concept). This insight contributes to an understanding of how learning chemistry takes place. 3 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge the contribution of my supervisors Dr Tony Wright, Assoc. Prof Janet Davies and Assoc. Prof. Paul Buckley to the development of this project and to my own development. I wish to thank Dr Tony Wright who initiated the project. His enthusiasm in chemistry education and particularly the software learning and teaching is an example of how the vision can become a reality; much software-based chemistry is offered to the first year undergraduates at Massey University thanks to Tony. In addition, I appreciate Tony's contribution in the development of the method suitable to exploring software-based learning and to all the comments aimed to improve the thesis. I am thankful to Assoc. Prof Janet Davies who raised many educational issues. Janet ' s contribution in the development of my own educational-based understanding of the research was enormous (ethics, sampling, phenomenography etc.). Thank you Janet for the encouragement you gave me at the different stages ofthe project, and when I needed it the most. I am especially grateful to Assoc. Prof. Paul Buckley who started to become involved in chemistry education at the same time as I did (and maybe because of me). Thank you Paul for your involvement in this project by heart, for your thoughts and the cheerful encouragement. Thank you for sharing the excitement that arose from the readings of the interview transcripts and sharing your wisdom with me. Thank you for reading the draft chapters ofthe thesis. Thank you for being a friend. I wish to thank for kindness to all IFS people and particularly the members of Chemistry Department; for the support and trust I felt during my employment as a GA. Thanks to the Graduate Research Fund Committee who supported me in attending the international conferences and to the MU DRC that showed understanding for my position and delay in writing. Also, I am grateful to all who were involved in the proof reading, particularly to Mrs Evelyn Camplin in the first and to Ms Betty Livingston in the emended version of the thesis; and to all who gave me technical and any other help on an almost daily basis. Most of all, I wish to thank all the participants who contributed in the four studies, without them this project would not be possible. 5 Finally. as an appreciation of the time that was taken away from them many times over the years of completing tllis thesis and as a small token of my love for them, I dedicate this thesis to my children Tin and I vica. 6 TITLE PAGE ....................................................................... 1 ABSTRACT ..................... ................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................... 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................... 7 LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................. 15 LIST OFT ABLES ................................................................ 17 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 21 2. LEARNING AND TEACHING .................................................... 26 2.1. THEORIES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING ..................................... 26 2.1.1. Piagetian Model .......................................................................................... 27 2.1.2. Prior Conceptions ....................................................................................... 28 2.1.3. Constructivism ........................................................................................... 29 (i) Constructivism- Philosophy and Psychology .......................................... ..... 30 (ii) Forms of Constructivism ... ... ....... .... ... .... ............. .. .............. ... ..... ....... .......... 31 (iii) Constructivist-Based Learning .................... ...... .................. .... .......... ... ........ 35 (a) Learning by Discovery/Scientific Discovery .. .. .... .. ..................... .. ............. .. . 35 (b) Postmodern Semiotics Constructivism and Learning Abstract Science Concepts ....... .. ...... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ........... ... ......... ........ .. ..... ..... ..... .... ... .... ... 38 (iv) Constructivism as an Educational Method ........... .. .................................... ... 41 (a) The Aim of Education ................................ ........ ... ... .. ........ .. ..... .. ... .... .. ..... .. .. 41 (b) Constructivism - The Role of the Teacher and Instructional Design .............. 42 (v) Constructivism- The Right Choice? .... .................... ... ............................. .. .. 43 (vi) Constructivism- Summary ............... .................................... .. .......... ........... 46 2.1.4. Phenomenography ...................................................................................... 47 (i) Phenomenography-Based Research- Contribution in Understanding of Learning - Teaching Relationship ................... ......................... .. .................. 50 (a) Approaches to Learning and Learning Outcomes ..... .. .... .... .... ...... ... ... .... ...... 50 (ii) Phenomenography - Summary ....... ............................ ... ..... .... ... ..... .... ..... .. ... 52 2.1.5. Information Processing Model for Learning (Theory of Working Memory) ..................................................................................................... 52 (i) Dual - Processing Theory ........................................................................... .. 54 (ii) Information Processing Model - Summary ..... ............. ................... ....... ....... 58 2.2. TEACHING TO FACILITATE LEARNING .......................................... 58 2.2.1. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) .................................................... 60 (i) PCK- Summary .......................................................................................... 63 2.2.2. Teaching Strategies .................................................................................... 64 (i) Teaching as Telling or Transmission ............................................................ 64 (ii) Teaching as Organising Student Activity ... ....... .. .. ... ... ...... .. .... ........ ... ........... 64 (iii) Teaching as Making Learning Possible ......................................................... 65 (iv) Teaching Support Strategies .............................. ........................................... 66 (a) Scaffolding .... .... ......... ................. ... ................... .. ........... .. ... .. .. ..................... 66 7 rh) ( 'hunking ...................................................................................................... 68 (v) Teaching Strategies- Summary .................................................................... 69 2.3. SlFl\1M,\RY ................................................................................................ 69 3. TEACHING AND LEARNING CHEMISTRY ........................... 71 3.1. SCIENCE DISCIPLINE- CHEMISTRY ................................................. 71 3.1.1. Chemistry - Intrinsic Nature of the Discipline .......................................... 72 (i) Multiple Nature of Chemistry- Johnstone's Triangle ................................... 72 (ii) Abstract Concepts of Electrons, Atoms and Molecules ................................. 73 3.1.2. Chemistry -The Scientific Language ......................................................... 74 3.1.3. Chemistry - Spatial Visualisation Requirements ...................................... 77 3.1.4. Stereochemistry - Abstract Concepts, Spatial Requirements and Scientific Language ..................................................................................................... 80 (i) Learning and Teaching of Stereochemistry ................................................... 83 3.2. METHODS AND SUPPORTIVE TOOLS/ STRATEGIES EFFECTIVE FOR 'fE ... \CHING CHEMISTRY .............................................................. 85 3.2.1. Lectures ...................................................................................................... 86 (i) Demonstrations ............................................................................................ 86 3.2.2. Tutorials ...................................................................................................... 86 3.2.3. c:hemistry Laboratories ............................................................................. 87 3.2.4. Supportive Tools/Strategies Effective for Teaching Chemistry ................ 88 (i) Molecular Models ........................................................................................ 89 (ii) i\nalogics ..................................................................................................... 90 (iii) Diagran1s ...................................................................................................... 91 (iv) Socially Supported Collaborative Construction of Science Concepts ............ 92 (v) Multiple Teaching Approaches ..................................................................... 93 3.3. SlfM.l\1ARY ................................................................................................ 95 4. COMPUTER SUPPORTED LEARNING AND TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY ................................................................................ 96 4.1. PHILOSOPHICAL BACKGROUND OF COMPUTER SUPPORTED LE.t\RNING AND TEACHING ................................................................. 98 4.1.1. Learning by Computers: A Constructivist-Based Approach ................... 98 4.1.2. Matching the Software Development with Educational Theory ............... 98 (i) Computer-Assisted Cooperation ................................................................. 10 I 4.2. COMPUTER SUPPORTED LEARNING AND TEACHING EVALUATION ......................................................................................... 102 4.3. COMPUTER USE IN CHEMISTRY ...................................................... 106 4.4. RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................. 109 5. METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 115 5.1. RATIONALE FOR A QUALITATIVE APPROACH ............................ 115 5.1.1. Triangulation ............................................................................................ ll7 (i) Triangulation- Combination of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods ....... 118 8 5.2. RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................... .......... 119 5.2.1. Sample Selection ....................................................................................... 120 5.2.2. Techniques of Data Collection ................................................................. 122 (i) Study One, Study Two and Study Four Data Collection .... .......... .. ........ ..... 124 (a) Stimulated Recall Interviews .... .... ..... ....................................... .................. 124 (b) Observation Techniques .......... ..... .. ........... ..... ...... ........... .... ........ .. ... ... ... .... 127 (c) Document Analysis ............ ......... .. ......... .................................. .... ... ......... ... 128 (ii) Study Three- Phenomenographica1 Data Collection ............ .... .......... .... .... 129 (a) Phenomenographical Interviews .. .. ......................... ..... ............. ....... .... ...... 130 (b) Document Analysis ....................... ... ..... ... ............ ............... ........................ 131 (c) Observation. ............... .. ...... ... ........... .......... ........ ............ ...... ...................... 132 5.2.3. Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 132 (i) Study One Data Analysis ..... .. ..... ....... .... ... .... .. .. .. ... ... ... ......... .. ... ... ..... ... .... .. 133 (ii) Study Two Data Analysis ........................... ................................................ 135 (iii) Study Three Data Analysis .. ..... ... ........ ..... .. .. ....... ..... .............. ..... ............... 135 (iv) Study Four Data Analysis .... ........ ... .. .... ...... ..... ... ... ...... ..... ...... .... .......... .. .. .. 137 5.3. ETffiCAL ISSUES ................................................................................... 138 5.3.1. Protection of the Participants Involved in the Thesis ............................. 139 (i) Ethics in the Data Collection ......... ..... .................... .. ..... .. .. ..... ........... ... ...... 141 (ii) Ethics in the Data Analys is and Dissemination ... ... .... .... ... .... ... ...... .. .. .. .. ..... 142 5.3.2. Participants - Researcher Relationship: Discussion ............................... 143 5.4. LIMITATIONS TO THE RESEARCH DESIGN .... .......................... .... 146 6. STUDENT USE OF COMMERCIAL SOFTWARE IN A FIRST YEAR CHEMISTRY COURSE- STUDY ONE ....................... l49 6.1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF STUDY ONE ............................................ 149 6.2. SETTING OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 150 6.2.1. Tasks ........ ................................................................................................. 150 6.2.2. Students and Sampling ............................................................................ 154 6.2.3. Techniques in Data Collection ................................................................. 155 6.2.4. Coding of Data .......................................................................................... 157 6.2.5. Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 157 (i) Step-by-Step Process .... .... ...... ........ ..... ....... .... ... .... .... .. .. .... .. ...... .. .. ..... ... .. .. . 157 6.3. RESULTS ..................................................................................................... 174 6.3.1. Student Achievement of Intended Learning Outcomes .......................... 174 6.3.2. Factors that Affected Student Achievement of Intended Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................. 177 (i) Insights into Student Characteristics that Affected Student Achievement of Intended Learning Outcomes .... .. .. .... ......... .... .. ... .... .. ...... ..... ... .. ....... ........... 178 (a) Prior Knowledge .... ...... .... ... ..... .............. ... .... ....................... .............. ....... . 178 (b) Student-Student Interactions ............... ... ....... .. .. ..... .. ... ............ ........ .. ....... .. . 181 (c) Computer Familiarity ..... .... ....... ..... .. ........ .. ...... ... ... .. ... ..... .. .. .. .. .... ..... ......... 183 (d) Satisfaction ... ...... .. ... .. .......... .... ... ..... .. .. ... ......... .... .... ........ .... ...... ... ..... ... .. .. . 183 (ii) Insights into the Software Design that Affected Student Achievement of 9 Intended Learning Outcomes ...................................................................... 184 (a) Feedhack .................................................................................................... 184 (h) Navigation. .............................................................................. .................. 186 (c) Guessing .................................................................................................... 187 (d) Type (~{Software Application. ..................................................................... 187 (e) Errors. Omissions and Implementation ....................................................... 188 6.4. J)ISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 189 6.4.1. Consequences for Software Design .......................................................... 190 (i) Linear vs. Branching Design ....................................................................... 190 (ii) Feedback .................................................................................................... 193 6.4.2. Consequences for Laboratory Dcsign ...................................................... 195 (i) Silnulations ................................................................................................ 195 (ii) Software in Assisting Learning ................................................................... 199 6.4.3. Other Insights ........................................................................................... 200 (i) (}roup \York ............................................................................................... 200 (ii) Evaluation ofCAI ...................................................................................... 200 (a) S'timulated Recalllnterrie>ring ....... ........................................................... 202 6.5. CONCLUSI()NS ........................................................................................... 202 7. STUDENT USE OF THE IN-HOUSE DEVELOPED STEREOCHEMISTRY TlJTORIAL- STUDY TWO .............. 204 7.1. DEVELOPMENT OF IN-HOUSE AUTHORED STEREOCHEMISTRY TUT()RIAL .............................................................................................. 204 7.1.1. Selection of the Topic for the Tutorial. .................................................... 205 7.1.2. Designing of the Computer-Based Stereochemistry Tutorial.. ............... 206 (i) Multiple Representations ............................................................................ 209 (ii) Content Structure ........................................................................................ 210 (iii) Branched Design Involving Adaptive Feedback .......................................... 212 7.2. INVESTIGATION OF STUDENT USE OF THE TUTORIAL ................. 214 7.!.1. Research Questions for Study Two .......................................................... 214 7.3. SETTING OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 215 7.3.1. Students and Sampling ............................................................................. 215 7.3.2. Techniques in Data Collection and Data Administration ....................... 216 7.3.3. Analysis of Student Interaction with the Tutorial.. ................................. 217 (i) Step 1 -Student Use of the Tutorial ............................................................ 217 (ii) Step 2 - Student Achievement of Intended Learning Outcomes ................... 219 (iii) Step 3 -Factors that Affected Student Achievement oflntended Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 221 7.4. RESULTS ..................................................................................................... 223 7.4.1. Students' Use of the Tutorial ................................................................... 223 (i) Manipulation of On-screen Models ............................................................. 223 (ii) Multiple Representations ............................................................................ 225 (iii) Feedback/Hints ........................................................................................... 228 (iv) UseofColour ............................................................................................. 230 10 (v) Sin1plicity .... ....... ...... .. ........... ........ ....... .... ....... ............ ... ............................ 231 (vi) Type of Isomerism ....... ............... ............. .............. ....... .. ... .. ... ..... ...... ........ 233 7 .4.2. Student Achievement of Intended Learning Outcomes .......................... 234 7.4.3. Factors that Affected Student Achievement oflntended Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 236 (i) Effectiveness of Model Progression .. ............... ... .. ...... .... ...... .. ... ........ ...... ... 236 (ii) Effectiveness of Representations ........... ............ .......... ..... .... .... .... ..... ..... ... . 241 (iii) Effectiveness ofNavigation to Glossary and the Use of Hints ......... .... ....... 242 7.5. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 244 7.6. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................... 248 8. STUDENTS' CONCEPTIONS UNDERPINNING THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF STEREOCHEMISTRY- STUDY THREE ......................................................................................... 251 8.1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................... 252 8.2. SETTING OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 253 8.2.1. Students and Sampling ............................................................................ 253 8.2.2. Techniques in Data Collection .................................................................. 255 (i) Phenomenography .... .. ..... ........ .. ..... ............. .... ........ .. .............. .. ........ .. .... ... 255 (a) Interviews ... ... ...... ........ .... ... ..... .... ..... ...... ............. .... .......... ... .... ..... ..... .... .. .. 255 (b) Students ' Drawings ..... .... ... .... .. ... .. ...... ........ .. ....... .. ... ...... ...... .. ... ... .. ...... ..... 256 (c) Supplementary Sheets ....... ..... .. .. ...... ... ........ .. ..... ... ..... ... ... ..... ... ...... .... .. .... ... 257 (d) Other Instruments ... ..... ....... .. .. ..... ... .... .... ... .... .. ....... ...... ... ......... .. ......... ...... 258 8.2.3. Analysis of Data in Study Three ............................................................... 258 8.3. VISUALISATION OF MOLECULES .................................................... 259 8.3.1. Analysis of the Ways Students Visualise Molecules ................................ 259 8.3.2. Visualisation of Molecules -Results ........................................................ 270 (i) Categories of Description ....... ..................... ... .................................... .... .... 271 (ii) Student Approaches to Learning of Stereochemistry ....... ............................ 279 (iii) Category Distribution Across the Sample of the Participants ...................... 283 (iv) Discussion ........ ...... ....... ...................... ....................................................... 284 (a) Visualisation - The Use of Multiple Representations .............. .... .... ........ .... 285 (b) Student Visualisation - Reflection of Chemistry Instruction ....................... . 286 (c) Student Visualisation - A Dimension of Different Approaches to Learning. 288 (v) Conclusions .. .... ... ....... ................ .... .. ......................... ..... ....... ..................... 2S·9 8.4. VISUALISATION VERSUS MACROSCOPIC SAMPLE OF THE SUBSTANCE ........................................................................................... 290 8.4.1. Analysis ..................................................................................................... 290 8.4.2. Students Relate Their Representations of a Molecule to a Macroscopic Sample of the Substance- Results ........................................................... 294 (i) Categories of Description ........................................................................... 295 (ii) Category Distribution Across the Sample ofParticipants ............................ 303 (iii) Discussion .. ................................ .... ..... ... ... .. .......... ...... ..... ..... ........ ....... ...... 304 (a) The Power of the Liquid Appearance .......................................................... 306 11 (b) Des·cription of Liquid Based at the Molecular Level ................................... 307 (c) Links to the Laboratory Classes ..................................................... ........... 309 (d) Nev.· Insight from the Study: Dream World- Real World. ........................... 3I 1 (e) Problems in Linking the Macroscopic Nature of the Substance to Student Visualisation I Predicting Properties of a 'Real' Liquid. ............................ 315 (iv) Conclusions ................................................................................................ 317 8.5. CONCEPTUALISATION OF DIFFERENT ISOMER TYPES ............ 319 8.5.1. Analysis of Students' Responses to Each Isomer Type ........................... 319 8.5.2. ( i) (a) (b) (ii) (a) (h) (iii) (a) (b) (iv) (a) (b) (v) (a) (b) (c) (vi) 8.6. Students Describing Each Isomer Type- Results .................................... 322 Structural Ison1crs ...................................................................................... 322 Categories of Description ........................................................................... 323 Category Distribution Across the Participants ................................ ........... 327 Conformational Isomers ............................................................................. 328 Categories ofDescription ......... .................................................................. 329 Categmy Distribution Across the Participants ................................. ......... 332 Enantiotners ............................................................................................... 333 Categories of Description ........................................................................... 33-1 Categmy Distribution Across the Participants ............................................ 337 ('is-Trans Ison1ers ...................................................................................... 338 Categories (~[Description ........................................................................... 339 Category Distribution Across the Participants ............................................ 3-13 Discussion .................................................................................................. 344 Language .................................................................................................. 346 Isomers ~The Big Conji ....................................................... 367 Why Animation? ......................................................................................... 368 The Model Progression .............................................................................. 3 71 STUDENT USE OF THE REVISED TUTORIAL ................................. 372 9.2.1. Research Questions .................................................................................. 372 9.3. SEl'TING OF THE STUDY .................................................................... 373 9.3.1. Students and Sampling ............................................................................ 373 9.3.2. Techniques in Data Collection ................................................................. 374 9.3.3. Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 374 9.4. RESULTS ................................................................................................. 375 9.4.1. Responses to Amended Tasks: Exercise One- Exercise Three .............. 375 (i) Discussion ....... ...... ....... ........ .. .. ........ ..... .... .... ... ...... .. ... ............... ... .. ....... .... 380 (a) Effectiveness of the Minor Amendments .. .... .... .... ... ..... ..... .... ..... .... ..... .... .... . 380 (b) Effectiveness of Model Progression ........ ...... .... .... ... ........ .... .. ... .... ... ........ ... 382 (c) Student Achievement of Intended Learning Outcomes ...... .... ..... ...... .. ... ... ... . 383 9.4.2. Responses to Exercise Four ...................................................................... 384 (i) Design of Exercise Four ..... ......... ... .. .... .... .. .... ...... .. ... ..... ...... .. .... ... ..... ........ 384 (ii) Properties of Stereo isomers ... ... ........ .... .... ..... .. ... .... ... ........ ... ..... ...... ...... ..... 389 (a) Properties of Cis-Trans Isomers ... ...... ..... ... ..... ..... ....... ..... ... .... ... ... ... .... ..... . 393 (iij) Discussion ....... .. ........ ... ... .. .. .... ... ..... ........ .. .. .... ....... ..... .. .. .... ..... .... ..... .. .. ..... 396 (a) Different Prop erties of Stereo isomers - Importance in Our Life ....... ... .... .... 397 (b) Student Reasoning/Understanding Gained in Exercise Four ... ... ... .... ... ...... . 399 9.5. CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................... . 402 9.5.1. Study Four- Outcome of the Research in Previous Studies of the Thesis402 9.5.2. Guided Discovery with Computer Animation ......................................... 403 1"0. FINAL DISCUSSION ................................................................. 4·05 10.1. FOUR STUDIES-THE COMPLETE PROJECT .................................... 405 10.1.1. Contributions from Study One ............................................................... 405 10.1.2. Contributions from Study Two ............................................................... 406 10.1.3. Contributions from Study Three ............................................................ 407 10.1.4. Contributions from Study Four .............................................................. 409 10.2. IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESULTS IN TEACHING CHEMISTRY AND CHEMISTRY SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT ........................... 410 10.2.1. Teaching Chemistry and Stereochemistry .............................................. 410 10.2.2. Teachers Choosing or Developing Chemistry Software ......................... 413 10-.3. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ......................................... 413 11. REFERENCES ............................................................................ 416 CD ROM APPENDICES CD ROM STEREOCHEMISTRY TUTORIAL 13 14 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1. The time sequence and the links between the studies described in this thesis. The curled arrows indicate that the findings of preceded study/ies were used as a rationale for a later study .. ..... .. .......... .... ... .... ....... ........ ......... .... ........ .. 24 Figure 2.1. Possible learning difficulties in communicating science ideas ...... ..... ... .. .... 55 Figure 3.1. The threefold nature of chemistry integrated by the use oflanguage . .... .. ... 76 Figure 5.1. Combined video of students performing the task and the computer screen image .. ..... ... ...... ... ... ...... ...... ....... .. .. ...... .. .. .... ............ ..... .... .. .... ... ........ ..... 126 Figure 5.2. Student talks reflectively during the stimulated reca ll interviewing .... ... ... 126 Figure 6.1. One ofthe screens in Task 1, showing the apparatus for the simulated measurements ofthe relationship between pressure and volume and the type of controls that allowed for interaction with students . .... ..... ...... .. .... .. ... ... 152 Figure 6.2. One ofthe screens in Task 2, showing the absorbance plot for the Cu(en)/ + ion, together with the superimposed band of colours from the visible spectrum. The type of controls that allowed for interaction by the students is also shown ... .... .. ...... ........ .... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..... .. ... ......... .... .... ....... .... ... .... .... 152 Figure 6.3. One of the screens in Task 3, showing the kind of questions and the type of controls that allowed for interaction with the students ..... ... .... .... .. ........... 153 Figure 6.4. The capture of two screens of video clips in Task 4, left showing the unit cell ofNaCI and right showing octahedral cavity in the same structure. The computer generated animations were available to students as a supplement to the laboratory session on solid-state structures ... ... ..... .... ...... ... ... .... .. ... 154 Figure 6.5. Deficiencies of a linear task design ..... .. .. ..... .... .. ... .. ... ....... ... .... .... .... ... ..... 193 Figure 7.1. The front page ofthe Stereochemistry tutorial. ... ... ... ... ... .... .. .. ............ .... . 209 Figure 7.2. A copy of the screen showing the task of exploring stereoisomers in Exercise Two . ...... ...... ......... ......... .. ... .. ...... .... ... ... .... ... .... .......... ....... ........ 226 Figure 7.3. The capture of the screen from Exercise Two in the tutorial showing the question which caused the participants the most difficulties ... ... ... .......... . 239 Figure 8.1. The supplementary sheets with different representations of2-butanol that were shown to the students to collect additional responses at the end ofthe interviewing process ....... ..... ........ .. .... .. ... .... .... .. ...... .................. ........... .. . 261 Figure 8.2. A change in concept of understanding chemistry based on the results of Study Three, from Johnstone's (1991) micro-symbolic-macro concept of equally treated dimensions of chemistry to the 'dream world'- 'real world' concept in which the two worlds are separated from each other.. ............. 313 Figure 8.3. A copy ofthe supplementary sheet that was used to collect the participants' 15 conceptions of conformational isomers ................................................... 328 Figure 8.4. A copy ofthe supplementary sheet that was used to collect the participants' conceptions of enantiomers ..................................................................... 3 34 Figure 8.5. A copy of supplementary sheet that was used to collect the participants' conceptions of diastereomers .................................................................. 338 Figure 9.1. The questions in Exercise Two exploring- a) stereoisomers and b) structural iso1ners .................................................................................... 361 Figure 9.2. The introductory page to Exercise Three before and after the revision ..... 362 16 LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1. The triangulation based upon multiple techniques involved in the research and across different studies .......... ..... ............ ............... ...... ............ .. ....... 119 Table 6.1. A description for the Chemistry I(b) course (Chemistry I(b ), 2001 ) ......... . 150 Table 6.2. Student participation in the four different tasks (Study One) ..... ......... ..... .. 155 Table 6.3 . Preliminary list of items from the analysis of one set of Task 1 data . .... .... 159 Table 6.4. List of items found in another set of Task 1 data . ... .... ........... .. .... .... ... ... ... . 160 Table 6.5 . Final list of items for different tasks ....... .. .. ... .. .... .... ...... .. ... ... ... ....... .. .... .. .. 162 Table 6.6. The emerged themes resulted from the step of analysis in which the items of all sets of data and from all tasks were combined . ... ....... ... ... ....... .... ... ..... 164 Table 6.7. Formulated target objectives for different tasks ....... ... ... .. .. .... ....... ........ ..... 165 Table 6.8. Student achievement of task objectives ...... .......... .. ...... .... .. ....... ... .. ....... .. .. 175 Table 6.9. Insights into student characteristics .... .. .. ... .. ........... .. ......... .. ................... .. 178 Table 6.1 0. Insights into software instructional design and implementation ............ ... 185 Table 6.11. The summary ofthe research questions and main insights given from Study One ....... ... ... ...... ... ..... ........ ........ ..................... ......... ...... .. .. .. .. ......... ... ...... 189 Table 7. 1. A list of the objectives stated in Part 6 of the study guide Chemistry I (a).2ll Table 7.2. The summary ofthe features employed in designing of the stereochemisty tutorial. .... .... ........ .. ... ... .... ....... ... .. ........... .. ... ...... .... .. .. .... ..... ... .. .... ... ... ..... 214 Table 7.3 . Participants volunteered in a study exploring students' use of computer-based stereochemisty tutorial (Study Two in 1998) ... ............ ... ......................... 216 Table 7.4. Final list of items for the student interaction with the stereochemistry tutorial.218 Table 7.5. Thinking strategies employed and the responses collected from Amy in problem solving tasks ofthe tutorial ....... ..... ... ..... .... .... .. ................. ........ 220 Table 7.6. Preferences for the use of2D/3D representations in understanding types of isomerism .... ......... ........ .... ... ... .......... .. .. ... .... .................. ... ..................... . 233 Table 7.7. Themes in the student use ofthe stereochemistry tutorial.. ....................... 234 Table 7.8. Student achievement of intended learning outcomes (task objectives) ....... 235 Table 7.9. The student/group progress through the tutorial recorded as number of attempts used to reach a correct solution per type of stereochemical concept tested ......... .. ... ........ .. .. ...... ....... ....... .................. ... .... ..... .. ........................ 237 17 Table 7.1 0. The participants' use and preferrence for the representations in the tutorial depending on the concept and complexity of the task being investigated. 240 Table 7.11. Student use ofball and stick models and skeletal structures in the tutorial.242 Table 7.12. Student use ofthe glossary and the hints in the tutorial. .......................... 242 Table 8.1. Participants in Study Three ....................................................................... 254 Table 8.2. Components of the interview employed in the study ................................. 257 Table 8.3. The summary ofthe phenomena under investigation related to the research questions ................................................................................................. 258 Table 8.4. The initial step of the analysis of individual data ....................................... 260 Table 8.5. The additional data that vvere considered in the analysis of student visualisation ............................................................................................ 262 Table 8.6. The consistency between the initial student visualisation and student responses to the supplementary sheets for the selected participants (when Table 8.4. and Table 8.5. were combined) ............................................... 263 Table 8. 7. The consistency between the participants' initial visualisation and the responses collected later during the interviewing process ........................ 271 Table 8.8. Hierarchical order of categories of description showing student approaches to visualisation/representation of molecular structure .................................. 2 73 Table 8. 9. The identiJicd approaches to learning for the selected participants ........... 283 Table 8. 10. The distribution ofthe categories across the sample ofthe participants .. 284 Table 8.11. The dif1erent meanings that emerged from the participants discourse in the initial step ofthe analysis process ............................................................ 291 Table 8.12. A summary ofthe step ofthe analysis, in which different meanings were analysed according to similarities and ditlerences between them ............. 293 Table 8.13. The hierarchically ordered categories of description with the allocated meanings, showing increasing students' ability to associate the macro nature of2-butanol (liquid) to their visualisation of the 2-butanol molecule described earlier .................................................................................... 295 Table 8.14. The distribution of the categories across the participants ......................... 303 Table 8. 15. The initial step of the analysis of student awareness of isomerism. ......... 321 Table 8.16. Students' awareness of structural isomers distributed to different means of responding .............................................................................................. 323 Table 8.17. Categories of description for structural isomers ....................................... 324 18 Table 8.18. The category distribution for the concept of structural isomers across the participants . ....................................................... ..................................... 327 Table 8.19. Selected participants' awareness of conformational isomers distributed to different means of responding ................................................................. 329 Table 8.20. Categories of description for conformational isomers ............................. 330 Table 8.21. The category distribution for conformational isomers across participants.332 Table 8.22. Selected participants' awareness of enantiomers distributed to different means of responding ............ .................... ............... ................................ 334 Table 8.23. Categories of description for the concept of enantiomers ................... ..... 335 Table 8.24. The category distribution for enantiomers across the participants .... .. .. .... 338 Table 8.25. Selected participants' awareness of cis-trans isomers distributed to different means of responding ............................... .... ............................ .. .............. 339 Table 8.26. Categories of description for diastereomers ............................................ 340 Table 8.27. The category distribution for diastereomers across the participants . ........ 344 Table 8.28 . The summary of the students' main responses to different types of isomerism . ........ .. ................... .. ...... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ............ .... .. .. .. ... .. ..... . 345 Table 9 .1. The summary of the minor amendments in the tutorial. .. .............. ............. 363 Table 9.2. Design features employed in designing Exercise Four. ............................. 367 Table 9.3. Profile ofthe participants in Study Four ......................................... .. ......... 374 Table 9.4. The summary of the results related to the Research Question 4 a) ........... . 376 Table 9.5. The student/group progress through amended tutorial recorded as a number of attempts used to reach a correct solution per type of stereochemical concept tested . ..... .. .... ...... .. .......................... .. ...... ..... ..... .......... .. ..... ........ 3 77 Table 9.6. Student achievement of intended learning outcomes (Exercise One- Exercise Three) in Study Four.. .. .... ..... .. .. ... ............................................. 379 Table 9.7. Students' responses to the design ofExercise Four distributed to different means of responding ............................................................................... 385 Table 9.8. The identified awareness ofthe properties ofstereoisomers distributed according to different means of responding ............................................. 390 Table 9.9. The identified awareness of the properties of cis-trans isomers distributed according to different means of responding ............................................. 394 Table 9.10. The reasoning employed in dealing with the tasks in Exercise Four and the evaluation of achievement of intended learning outcome of this exercise. 400 19