Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for 
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private study only.  The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without 
the permission of the Author. 
 
  
 
Policy and reality: The teaching of oral 
communication by Japanese teachers of 
English in public junior high schools in  
Kurashiki City, Japan. 
 
 
 
 
 
A thesis presented in the fulfilment of the requirements for the 
degree of Master of Arts in Second Language Teaching  
at Massey University, Palmerston North,  
New Zealand. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Douglas James Rapley 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2008 
 
 i 
Abstract 
 
In 2003 the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) 
unveiled their new junior high school (JHS) English as a Foreign Language (EFL) policy, 
which focused strongly on oral communication. Although there is evidence of policy non-
compliance in schools until now there has been no English language research on the 
attitudes or practices of Japanese teachers of English (JTEs), or the views of the students, 
and their parents in regards to teaching/learning English speaking skills. The research, 
based on JHSs in a mid-sized Japanese city (pop. 475,000 approx.), focused predominantly 
on JTEs, but also included students, and their parents. Focus group sessions, questionnaires, 
and one-on-one interviews were used to collect data. The study reveals that learning 
English speaking skills is considered important, but passing the senior high school (SHS) 
entrance examination is the main concern and so, test impact from the SHS entrance 
examination exerts the greatest pressure on JHS JTEs. The JTEs also perceive themselves 
as facing other issues such as student motivation, JTE speaking proficiency, and large class 
sizes. Another finding is that JTEs appear to receive inadequate training– pre- and in-
service– resulting in issues, such as a reliance on traditional methods (yakudoku), which are 
not in accordance with MEXT’s intentions, and JTE proficiency test achievement levels 
lower than those desired by MEXT. As a result of these issues gaps exist between MEXT 
JHS EFL policies and actual teaching practices, and have unfortunately led to a situation 
where JTEs believe that MEXT does not care about or understand the teaching environment. 
The study concludes that implementation of MEXT’s policy require a better match between 
the SHS entrance examination and JHS EFL policy, a decrease in class sizes, and JTEs 
receiving more adequate training. A more positive relationship between MEXT and JTEs 
would result from these two groups working collaboratively when designing JHS EFL 
policies and could better achieve a match between the SHS entrance examination and JHS 
EFL policy.  
 ii 
Acknowledgements 
 
I would like to thank Cynthia White for her direction, honesty, advice, and humour. 
A big thanks also goes to Gillian Skyrme for her constant support, her incredible 
knowledge, and her eye for detail. Together Cynthia and Gillian, I believe, provided me 
with more support and positivity than any student could possibly expect. I am thoroughly 
indebted to Natsuki Shimizu-san for her tireless work on formatting that saved me at the 
11th hour- you are a gem. 
I am grateful to the Japanese teachers of English who participated in the focus 
groups, giving me a clear view of the junior high school EFL environment in Japan. My 
gratitude goes to Uesugi-sensei for her support and for sharing her experiences of teaching 
EFL in junior high school. Ishihara-sensei must be given thanks for her huge effort 
assisting the design of the three questionnaires. Like Uesugi-sensei, Ishihara-sensei also 
provided me with invaluable details on her working environment. 
 I would like to pay tribute to the JTEs of Kurashiki who responded to the 
questionnaires– obviously without them voluntarily giving up some of their scarce free-
time this thesis would not have been possible. It is essential to acknowledge the principals, 
JTEs, students, and students’ parents from Mizushima and Koutora junior high schools for 
their generosity in providing me with student and parent views on JHS EFL education via 
the questionnaires. 
 I am very grateful to the Q-sort judges; Professor Waterbury, Professor Nagita, 
Dorothy Rapley, and Chong Rapley. The questionnaires would have lacked validity and 
reliability without their analysis on potential questionnaire items. I also greatly appreciated 
the translation work completed by Ohara-sensei, Watanabe-san, and Kawai-san. 
Thanks goes to every member of my New Zealand family for their amazing work 
ethic, you often inspired me when I struggled to see a light at the end of this ‘tunnel’. My 
apologies, love, and thanks to my Japanese family– Rie thanks for your unswerving support 
and acceptance of an absentee husband, Lane and Jacy sorry for being an absentee father. 
The three of you were/are a great source of motivation. Finally, I must give my heartfelt 
thanks to my little brother Chong, without whom– I believe– I would not have been in a 
position to receive the opportunity to write this thesis: your generosity is overwhelming.
 iii 
Table of Contents 
 
Abstract........................................................................................................................i 
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................ii 
List of figures.......................................................................................................... viii 
List of tables ..............................................................................................................ix 
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION........................................................................1 
1.1. My Quest For Knowledge...................................................................................... 1 
1.2. The Academic Contribution................................................................................... 2 
1.3. Research Setting And Participants ......................................................................... 3 
1.4. The National Setting .............................................................................................. 4 
1.5. The Research Questions......................................................................................... 5 
1.6. Chapter Summary................................................................................................... 5 
1.7. Summary ................................................................................................................ 7 
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................8 
2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 8 
2.2. Japan’s English Language History......................................................................... 8 
2.3. The Perceived Failure Of Japanese People To Learn English ............................... 9 
2.4. Japanese Views Of Japanese English Speakers ................................................... 10 
2.5. The Need For English Speaking Abilities In Japan ............................................. 11 
2.6. Iwanu Ga Hana..................................................................................................... 12 
2.7. Ethnocentric Excuses ........................................................................................... 14 
2.8. Japanese Junior High Schools.............................................................................. 15 
2.9. Junior High School EFL Policy ........................................................................... 16 
2.10. EFL In Japanese Junior High Schools ................................................................. 19 
2.11. Test Impact........................................................................................................... 22 
2.12. Junior High School JTEs...................................................................................... 24 
2.13. Other Relevant Studies......................................................................................... 26 
2.14. Summary .............................................................................................................. 27 
CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY.....................................................................29 
3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 29 
 iv 
3.2. Kurashiki, Japan....................................................................................................29 
3.2.1. Kurashiki Junior High Schools .....................................................................30 
3.3. Demographics .......................................................................................................31 
3.3.1. Kurashiki JTEs..............................................................................................31 
3.3.2. Students.........................................................................................................31 
3.3.3. Parents...........................................................................................................32 
3.4. Ethical Considerations ..........................................................................................33 
3.5. Questionnaire Design Considerations...................................................................33 
3.5.1. JTE Questionnaire Administration Considerations.......................................33 
3.5.2. Parent And Student Questionnaire Administration Considerations..............34 
3.6. Data Collection Tool Development ......................................................................35 
3.6.1. Inside Experience..........................................................................................35 
3.6.2. Useful Previous Studies ................................................................................35 
3.6.3. Focus Groups ................................................................................................35 
3.6.3.1. Focus Group Session One.............................................................37 
3.6.3.2. Focus Group Session Two.............................................................37 
3.6.4. Item Production.............................................................................................38 
3.6.5. Item Analysis ................................................................................................40 
3.6.6. The Q-sort Process ........................................................................................40 
3.6.7. Back Translation ...........................................................................................42 
3.6.8. Pilot Study Preparation .................................................................................43 
3.6.9. The Pilot Study Process ................................................................................44 
3.7. JTE Data Collection ..............................................................................................44 
3.7.1. Questionnaire Layout ....................................................................................44 
3.7.2. JTE Questionnaire Administration................................................................45 
3.7.3. One-On-One Interviews................................................................................45 
3.8. Student And Parent Questionnaire Administration...............................................46 
3.9. Data Entry .............................................................................................................47 
3.10. Data Collection Issues...........................................................................................48 
3.10.1. Focus Groups ................................................................................................48 
3.10.2. The Q-sort Process ........................................................................................48 
 v 
3.10.3. Back-translation ........................................................................................... 49 
3.10.4. The JTE Questionnaire................................................................................. 49 
3.10.5. The Student Questionnaire........................................................................... 50 
3.10.6. The Parent Questionnaire............................................................................. 50 
3.10.7. General Questionnaire Issues....................................................................... 51 
3.10.8. One-On-One interviews ............................................................................... 52 
3.11. Summary .............................................................................................................. 52 
CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS....................................................................................53 
4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 53 
4.2. The Parents........................................................................................................... 53 
4.2.1. The Importance Of EFL In Junior High School........................................... 54 
4.2.2. EFL For Academia Or Communication (Parent Views).............................. 55 
4.2.3. What JHS Students Should Learn (Parent Views)....................................... 55 
4.2.4. The Need For English Speaking Skills (Parent Views) ............................... 57 
4.3. The Students......................................................................................................... 58 
4.3.1. The Importance And Popularity Of JHS EFL.............................................. 58 
4.3.2. EFL For Academia Or Communication (Student Views)............................ 59 
4.3.3. What JHS Students Should Learn (Student Views)..................................... 60 
4.3.4. The Need For English Speaking Skills (Student Views) ............................. 61 
4.4. The JTEs............................................................................................................... 61 
4.4.1. Difficulties In Teaching Oral Communication In JHS ................................ 62 
4.4.2. Test Impact................................................................................................... 63 
4.4.3. Student Motivation....................................................................................... 66 
4.4.4. English Use By JTEs.................................................................................... 66 
4.4.5. Lesson Methodology.................................................................................... 69 
4.4.6. Class Size ..................................................................................................... 71 
4.4.7. Time Constraints Outside Of Lessons.......................................................... 72 
4.4.8. Textbook Issues............................................................................................ 73 
4.4.9. MEXT Policy And Lesson Content ............................................................. 74 
4.4.10. The Appropriateness Of JHS EFL Policies.................................................. 75 
4.4.11. MEXT – JTE Relations................................................................................ 77 
 vi 
4.4.12. JTE Training .................................................................................................78 
4.4.13. JTE Achievement Of MEXT Directives .......................................................80 
4.5. Summary ...............................................................................................................81 
CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION............................................................................. 83 
5.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................83 
5.2. Research Question One.........................................................................................83 
5.2.1. The Role And Importance Of JHS EFL........................................................83 
5.2.2. What Students Should Learn.........................................................................85 
5.2.3. Communication Skills For The Future..........................................................87 
5.3. Research Question Two ........................................................................................88 
5.3.1. Test Impact....................................................................................................88 
5.3.2. Student Motivation........................................................................................90 
5.3.3. JTE English Speaking Proficiency................................................................90 
5.3.4. Class Size ......................................................................................................92 
5.3.5. Time Constraints Outside Of Lessons ..........................................................93 
5.3.6. Textbook Issues.............................................................................................94 
5.4. Research Question Three ......................................................................................94 
5.4.1. MEXT – JTE Relations.................................................................................94 
5.4.2. MEXT Policy And Lesson Content ..............................................................95 
5.4.3. JTE Training And The Achievement Of MEXT Directives .........................97 
5.5. Summary ...............................................................................................................99 
CHAPTER 6 - CONCLUSION ........................................................................ 101 
6.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................101 
6.2. Research Summary .............................................................................................101 
6.3. Methodology .......................................................................................................103 
6.4. Research Conclusions .........................................................................................104 
6.5. Practical Implications..........................................................................................107 
6.6. Future Research...................................................................................................108 
6.7. Summary .............................................................................................................110 
6.8. Final Statement ...................................................................................................111 
References .............................................................................................................. 113 
 vii 
APPENDIX 1: KURASHIKI JHS EFL CLASS SIZES.....................................121 
APPENDIX 2: KURASHIKI JHS JTE EXPERIENCE LEVELS ...................123 
APPENDIX 3: DOCUMENTS SENT TO  Q-SORT JUDGES.........................125 
APPENDIX 4: COMPLETED Q-SORT CONSTRUCT TABLE ....................136 
APPENDIX 5: QUESTIONNAIRE PACK DOCUMENTS..............................138 
APPENDIX 6: JTE QUESTIONNAIRES IN ENGLISH (NOT 
ADMINISTERED).................................................................................................145 
APPENDIX 7: ONE-ON-ONE JTE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS....................150 
APPENDIX 8: PARENT AND STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES IN 
JAPANESE (ADMINISTERED) .........................................................................152 
APPENDIX 9: PARENT AND STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES IN ENGLISH  
(NOT ADMINISTERED) .....................................................................................155 
 
 
 viii
List of figures 
 
Figure 4.1: Abilities Parents Want Their Child To Gain From JHS EFL Education ...........56 
Figure 4.2: JHS Subject Popularity And Importance Ranking By Students.........................59 
Figure 4.3: Abilities Students Want To Gain From JHS EFL Education .............................60 
Figure 4.4: Handicaps To Teaching Speaking In JHS EFL Education: JTE Views.............62 
Figure 4.5: JTEs And Yakudoku Usage In JHS EFL Education: JTE Views ......................70 
Figure 4.6: Activities Regularly Used By JTEs In JHS EFL Education...............................71 
Figure 4.7: MEXT – JTE Relations ......................................................................................77 
Figure 4.8: JTE Opinions Of Pre- & In-Service Training.....................................................79 
Figure 4.9: JHS JTE MEXT Directive Achievement Level .................................................81 
 
 
 
 
 ix 
List of tables 
 
Table 3.1: Q-sort Ratios ....................................................................................................... 42 
Table 4.1: JHS Subject Importance Ranking: Parent Views................................................ 54 
Table 4.2: JHS EFL Should Be Taught Academically Rather Than  For Future 
Communication: Parent Views ............................................................................................ 55 
Table 4.3: Students Need English Speaking Skills For The Future: Parent Views ............. 57 
Table 4.4: Students Need English Speaking Skills For The Future: Student Views ........... 61 
Table 4.5: JTE Views On Their Lessons Being Oriented Towards The SHS Entrance 
Exams................................................................................................................................... 63 
Table 4.6: Students Are Only Interested In The SHS Entrance Exams: JTE Views ........... 64 
Table 4.7: Parents Are More Interested In Their Child Studying For The SHS Entrance 
Exams Than Practising English Conversation: JTE Views ................................................. 65 
Table 4.8: The Percentage Of English Spoken In Lessons By JTEs: Submitted By JTEs .. 67 
Table 4.9: JTE Views On Their Speaking Proficiency Influencing Their Lessons ............. 67 
Table 4.10: Using Japanese In Class Is Natural For JTEs: JTE Views................................ 68 
Table 4.11: Maximum Class Size For Teaching EFL Speaking Skills (above which teaching 
speaking is impossible): JTE Views .................................................................................... 72 
Table 4.12: JHS EFL Class Sizes In Kurashiki ................................................................... 72 
Table 4.13: Changing Teaching Styles To Match MEXT Policies Is Easy: JTE Views ..... 75 
Table 4.14: JHS EFL Is Taught Academically Rather Than To Provide Students With 
Communication Skills: JTE Views ...................................................................................... 76 
Table 4.15: People In Japan Need English Speaking Skills: JTE Views............................. 76