Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Sustainability of Agroforestry in New Zealand. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Regional Planning, at Massey University. Tania L. Bray 1995. Abstract. The aim of this thesis is to assess the concept of sustainability and apply it in a practical sense to New Zealand agroforestry. Sustainable management of natural resources is fast becoming recognised as necessary for the long term survival of our species. The agricultural communities prominence as the major user and steward of New Zealand's natural resources requires change in the values placed on these resources by farmers, and the incorporation of the principle of sustainable management at the farm level. The concept of sustainability is broken into three component parts; economic, environmental and social sustainability. Each of these components is broken again into specific measurable principles. Through literature research and a case study, the principles are applied to agroforestry, and a conclusion reached. It is found that given good management practices and normal business risks, agroforestry had the potential to maintain the natural capital stock and remain relatively profitable. Agroforestry is also found to have the potential to maintain the life support systems and biodiversity of the environment. Finally agroforestry is found to positively impact on rural societies, and provide the necessities of life and is relatively robust to political change. This thesis concluded that agroforestry as practiced in New Zealand is a profitable enterprise which improves the environment and increases the viability of many rural communities. 11 Acknowledgements. Thank you to my supervisor Mr D. Will iams, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Planning, Massey University, for his academic guidance. Thank you to Mr D. Hocking, who a llowed his life and land to be put both under the microscope and on paper, and thank you to Mr H. Kidd, who gave English support. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr M. Roche, Dr M. Tuohy and MrS. Laghai for offering a wandering eye over my work. Finally my thanks for the support of my parents, family and friends, who listened patiently to the joys and woes of my research. lll Table of Contents. Acknowledgements ....................................................... .... .... ... ........................... iii List Of Figures ... ....... ............. ........ .... ........................ .. ....... .. ... ............................... vii List Of Abbreviations ..... ......... ................................................... ... ........ ................ ix Chapter 1. 1 . 1 1.2 1.3 Chapter 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 Chapter 3. Chapter 4. 4.1 4. 1.1 4.1.2 4. 1.3 4.1.4 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.1.1 4.2.1.2 4.2.1.3 4.2.1.4 4.2.1.5 4.2.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.2 4.3.3 Introduction .... ................. ........................................................... .. 1 Background ... .... ....... ... ....................... ....... .. ... .. .............. .. ............. 1 Aims And Objectives .................................................................... 6 Study Organisation ..... ............. .... .... ............ ..... ...... ........... ........... 6 Agroforestry .. .... ..... .... .. ... ...... ...... .. .... .. ... ......... .... .... ....................... 7 Agroforestry: The World Perspective ............. .............................. ? Agroforestry: New Zealand Perspective .................................. 10 Definitions ...... .. ................. ............... ................................. .. ......... . 12 Sustainability ...... .. ..................................... ......................... ... ....... 16 Measures Of Sustainability .............................................. .......... 20 Economic Sustainability .. .................... ... ........................... ... ...... 20 Sustainable Yield Harvesting ...... ................ ..................... ... .. .... .21 Sustainable Waste Disposal. ......... ............................... ...... ....... 22 Depletion Of Non-Renewable Resources ..... .......................... 24 Economic Return ...... ...... ......... .................................... ......... ... ... 25 Environmental Sustainability ..... .. ..... ............. ............................ 26 Conserving Life Support Systems ............................................... 26 Energy ........... .................. ....................................................... .... ... 26 Nutrients .................................. ................................ ................. .. .. 27 Air Medium ............... ............................................. ..................... . 29 Water Medium .... ................................................................... ..... 30 Soil Medium .. ........................................................................ ........ 30 Biodiversity .................................................................................... 31 Social Sustainability .................................................................... 33 Respect, Care, And Equality Within The Community ........... 34 Sharing Of Benefits And Costs ................................................... 34 Adequate Participation .................. ................... ....................... 34 Quality Of Life .............................................................................. 34 Cultural Sustainability ................................. ................................ 35 lV 4.3.4 Chapter 5. 5.1 5.1 '1 5. 1.2 5.1 .3 5.1 .4 5. 1.4. 1 5.1 .4.2 5.2 5.2. 1 5.2.2 5.3 5.3. 1 5.3. 1.1 5.3. 1.2 5.3. 1.3 5.3. 1.4 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.4. 1 5.3.4.2 Chapter 6. 6.1 6.1 '1 6. 1.2. 6. 1.2. 1 6. 1.2.2 6. 1.3 6.2 6.2. 1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.3. 6.3. 1 6.3. 1.1 v Political Sustainability ................................................................. 35 Results Of Other Studies ............................................................. 37 Economic Sustainability ............................................................. 37 Sustainable Yield Harvesting ..................................................... 37 Sustainable Waste Disposal ...................................................... 39 Depletion Of Non-Renewable Resources ............................... 41 Economic Return ........................................................................ 42 Factors Effecting Profitability ..................................................... 42 Agroforestry Economic Case Studies ........................................ 47 Environmental Sustainability ... ....... ........................................ ... 52 Conserving Life Support Systems ............................................... 52 Biodiversity .................................................................................... 68 Social Sustainability .................................................................... 72 Respect, Care And Equality Within The Community ............ 72 Sharing Of Benefits And Costs Of Agroforestry ........................ 72 Equitable Distribution Of Resources ......................................... 7 6 Equal Access To Participate In Agroforestry ........................... 78 Adequate Participation ...... ...................... ................................ 78 Quality Of Life .............................................................................. 80 Cultural Sustainability ................................................................. 80 Political Sustainability ................................................................. 83 Central Government ................................................. ............. .... 83 Local Government .................................. ....... ..... ...... ...... ........... 87 Case Study, Rangitoto Farm, Bulls ............................................ 89 Methodology ............................................................................... 89 Economic Sustainability Methodology .................................... 89 Environmental Sustainability Methodology ............................ 90 Life Support Systems Methodology ........................................... 91 Biodiversity Methodology ........................................................... 93 Social Sustainability Methodology ........................................... 93 Rangitoto Farm, Bulls .................................................................. 94 Introduction ................................................................................. 94 Rangitoto Farm ........................................................................... 94 The Four Dunes ............................................................................ 95 Case Study Results ...... .............................................................. 1 01 Economic Sustainability ........................................................... 101 Sustainable Waste Disposal .................................................... 101 6.3.1.2 6.3.1.4 6.3.2 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.4 6.3.2.5 6.3.2.6 6.3.3 6.3.3.1 6.3.3.2 6.3.3.3 6.3.3.4 Chapter 7. 7.1 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.2 Depletion Of Non-Renewable Resources ............................. 1 03 Economic Return ...................................................................... 104 Environmental Sustainability ................................................... 107 Soil Erosion .................................................................................. 107 Organic Matter ......................................................................... 11 0 Physical Properties .................................................................... 111 Chemical Analysis ..................................................................... 114 Botanical Composition ............................................................ 117 Soil Fauna ................................................................................... 118 Social Sustainability .......................................................... ........ 121 Respect, Care And Equality Within The Community .......... 121 Quality Of Life ..................... ....................................................... 124 Cultural Sustainability ............................................................... 127 Political Sustainability ............................................................... 128 Summary And Conclusion ....................................................... 130 Summary .................................................................................... 130 Economics .................................................................................. 130 Environmental.. ......................................................................... 132 Social. ......................................................................................... 134 Conclusion ................................................................................. 135 Appendix A: A.E.M. Input Data ...................................................................... 138 Appendix B: PCSTANDPAC Data .......... ......................................................... 144 Appendix C: A.E.M. Output Tables ............................................................... 145 Appendix D: Environmental Data .................................................................. 148 Appendix E: Social Data ................................................................................. 158 Glossary .............................................................................................................. 168 Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 164 vi Vll List of Figures. Figure 1: Agroforestry Nutrient Cycle ...................................... .. ........... .. ........... 53 Figure 2: Soil Nitrogen At Tikitere ... ................. .. ............. ............................. ... ..... 54 Figure 3: Soil Phosphorus At Tikitere .... ... ............................................................ 55 Figure 4: Soil Sulphur At Tikitere ........................................................... ............... 56 Figure 5: Soil Calcium At Tikitere ........................................................................ 56 Figure 6: Calcium Concentration Changes .................................................... 57 Figure 7: Soil Magnesium At Tikitere ............................. ..................................... 58 Figure 8: Magnesium Concentration Changes ......... ..................................... 58 Figure 9: Soil Potassium At Tikitere ............. ........................................................ 59 Figure 10: Potassium Concentration Changes .. ........................... .................. 60 Figure 11: Soil Sodium At Tikitere ........................................................................ 60 Figure 12: Sodium Concentration Changes .................................................... 61 Figure 13: Soil Minor Elements At Tikitere ............................ .... ........................... 61 Figure 14: Daily Wind Run At Tikitere ................................................................ 63 Figure 15: Mean Annual Soil Moisture At lnvermay ........................................ 64 Figure 16: Soil Organic Matter .......................................................................... 65 Figure 17: Trends In pH At Tikitere ................................... .................................. 66 Figure 18: Changes In Soil pH ............................................................................ 66 Figure 19: Biodiversity .......................................................................................... 68 Figure 20: Soil Fauna AtTikitere, 1991.. ............................................................. 71 Figure 21: Brandon Hall Dune .... .. ........................... ...................... ..................... 98 Figure 22: Rangitikei Dune .......... .. ........... ....... ............. ................. .................... . 98 Figure 23: Rangitoto Farm, Bulls, New Zealand ............................................... 99 Figure 24: No. 1 Dune .......................................................................... .............. 100 Figure 25: Rangitoto Dune ............................................................................... 100 Figure 26: Farm Cash flow - Using Own Labour ..... ... ...................................... 105 Figure 27: Net Present Value- Using Own Labour ........................................ 106 Figure 28: Slumping On Rangitikei Dune ........................................................ 108 Figure 29: Eastern Slope Of Rangitikei Dune ................................................. 108 Figure 30: Gouging Caused By Skidder ......................................................... 1 09 Figure 31: Organic Content ......................................... ... ................................. 11 0 Figure 32: Moisture Differences ...................................... .. ................................ 112 Figure 33: Bulk Density ....................................................................................... 113 Figure 34: Soil Profiles ...... .... ............................................................................... 114 Figure 35: Soil Fertility .. ........... ... .. ....................................... ................................ 116 Figure 36: Comparison Of Data ...................................................................... 117 Figure 37: Botanical Composition ........................................ ........................... 11 8 Vlll Figure 38: Soil Fauna ....... ........ ...... ........... .......... .... ........ ........ .......... ..... .. .. ........ 119 Figure 39: Four Different Mushroom Species At Rangitoto Dune ...... .. .. .. .... 120 Figure 40: Moss's, Lichens, Etc At Rangitikei Dune ........................................ 120 Table A 1: Area Planted And Area Felled .......................... ........................... 138 Table A2: Constants Used .... 0 .... 0 ..... 0. 0 .. 0 .. 0 .. 0 0 0. 0 .. 0 .. 0 ... 0 .. 0 ......... 0 0 0 ...... .. 0 0 ...... 0. 0. 0 0 0 139 Table A3: Labour Requirements And Costs .................................................. 139 Table A4: Spreadsheet Values ...... o .. o .. .. o .. oo ....... .... ooooo .. ... ...... .. o ...... oooooooo•o• .... o140 Table A5: Livestock Units .. 0 ....... 0 .... 0 0 0 .. 0. 0 .. 0 0 .............. 0 ...... 0 0 ..... 0 ........ 0 .. 0 0 .. 0 ..... 0 0 .. 0 141 Table A6: Log Aggregation Table ........... ....................................................... 141 Table A7: Farm Accounts .... oo .... o ....... o ...... o ...... o ....... o .. o ....... o .. oo .. .. ... o .. oo ... o .. o ..... 142 Table B 1 : Parameters Used For Stand Growth .............................................. 144 Table B2: Farm Forestry Regime ........................ ... ............................................ 144 Table C 1: Net Present Value Of Marginal lnvestment ................................ 145 Table C2: Total Farm Cashflowooooooooooooo ....... o ........................... o .. .. ............. ..... 146 Table C3:. Internal Rate Of Return ...................... ........................................... 147 Table D 1: Organic Matter ......... 0 .. 0 0 .. 0 0 .. 0 0 .............. 0 .. 0 0 ................ 0 ...... 0 0. 0 .... 0 0 0 ... 0 148 Table D2: Statistics For Organic Matter .... ........ ............. .... ............................. 149 Table D3: Moisture Content ......... o ........ o ... ...... .. .. oo ..... o ....... o .............. .......... ... . 149 Table D4: Statistics For Moisture Content .......................................... ............. 150 Table D5: Dry Bulk Density .................................... ............................................ 150 Table D6: Statistics For Bulk Density ................... .. .... ........................................ 151 Table D 7: Humus Content. 0 .. 0 .............. 0 ........... 0 .. 0 .................... 0. 0 .............. . 0 ..... 151 Table D8: Statist ics For Humus Content.. ....................................................... 152 Table D9: Black Sand Content ....................................................................... 152 Table D 10: Statistics For Black Sand ......... .. .................................................... 153 Table D 11 : Soil Fertility Results .......................................................................... 153 Table D 12: Botanical Composition ................................................................ 154 Table D13: Soil Fauna ....................................... o ............................................... 156 Table D14: Historical Values For Foxton Sand Soil. ........................................ 157 Figure E 1 Bulls Population 1981-19910 ......... .......... 0 0 ...... .................................. 158 List of Abbreviations. A.E.M. = CCA= DSIR= EEC = EPA= GATT= GDP= ICRAF = LSU = MAF= MOWD= NPK = NZFS= PCP= ppm= RMA= SPH = Agroforestry Estate Model Copper-Chrome- Arsenic Department of Scientific and Industrial Research European Economic Community Environmental Protection Agency General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs Gross Domestic Product International Council for Research In Agroforestry Live Stock Units. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Ministry of Works and Development Nitrogen Phosphate Potassium. New Zealand Forest SeNice Pentachlororphenol Parts per Million Resource Management Act 1991. Stems Per Hectare l X