Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a 
copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and 
private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without 
the permission of the Author. 
 



 
 

  

 

 

When and How Managerial Ties and Institutional Distance Matters For Export 

Venture Performance In A Digital Age: An Emerging Market Perspective 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A thesis presented in fulfilment of  

the requirements for the degree of 

 

 

 

 

 

Doctor of Philosophy 

in 

Marketing 

 

 

 

At Massey University, Albany 

New Zealand 

 

 

Herbert Sima 

2022 



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iii 
 

Abstract  

Despite the recent research on export performance, research is still unclear about what and how 

drives export performance in the digital age, especially for firms from emerging markets. Given 

the unprecedented and rapid environmental changes globally, exporting firms from emerging 

markets have encountered serious strategic issues. To overcome the challenges caused by 

cross-market institutional environment distance, social networking theory suggests that 

emerging market export firms need to rely on different managerial ties (host market business 

and political ties, home market ties and intrafirm ties) when conducting business in foreign 

host markets. Drawing on resource integration and innovation, social networking theory, digital 

technology, social media, institutional theory and export venture performance literature, in this 

thesis I have developed a series of conceptual models that have addressed the key research gaps 

in the extant literature. This thesis consists of three papers. Paper 1 is a conceptual study that 

outlines the contingent role of managerial ties in the resource integration-export venture 

innovation framework concerning emerging market export ventures. Paper 1 provides a 

platform for further empirical exploration, in relation to resource integration, managerial ties 

and export venture innovation. In Paper 2, I explore and examine the contingent effect of 

managerial ties in the digital market technology-export venture performance framework. In 

Paper 3, I further uncover the contingent effect of the institutional environment in the social 

media platform-export venture performance framework. The studies in Papers 2 and 3 are 

conducted based on the empirical evidence of 251 Chinese manufacturing firms’ export 

ventures. The results suggest that digital marketing technology has a direct impact on export 

venture economic and channel performance. In Paper 2, it is found that host market managerial 

ties (business and political) can positively impact the effect of digital marketing technology on 

export venture performance, whereas home market managerial ties either have no impact or 

have a negative contingent effect on digital marketing technology-export venture performance 

conceptualisation. In Paper 3, my research findings confirm that a firm’s social media platform 

has a direct and significant effect on export venture economic and channel performance. The 

institutional environment has both dark and bright side effects in the social media platform-

export venture performance framework. Collectively my empirical research offers substantial 

new and novel insights into social networking theory, institutional theory, digital marketing 

technology, social media platform, and export venture literature. The outcomes of my research 

also provide insightful managerial implications for export ventures, especially for those from 

the emerging markets operating in foreign host markets. 



iv 
 

Keywords:  

Managerial ties, export venture; economic and channel performance; institutional theory; 

marketing strategy; dark and bright side effect; digital marketing, social networking, home 

market managerial tie; host market managerial tie; innovation; resource integration; emerging 

market; social media platform.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



v 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 

This Ph.D thesis is dedicated to my father, Chao Rong MA.  Unfortunately, my father passed 

away at the last stage of my Ph.D journey.  Growing up in a little village without power and 

clean water, how to survive became the only hope in people’s life. My parents have taught me 

how to fight for life and become a real human being! 

In the first instance, I would like to thank my primary supervisor, Associate Professor Henry 

F. Chung, for assisting me through my Ph.D journey.  He has not only taught me about 

academic knowledge but also life skills; especially, how to get through the lowest point of my 

life. How to regain strength! I have been so lucky to have you as my supervisor and friend. 

Thank you for your ongoing support and encouragement! You become my true friend when 

my whole world had gone out! I would also like to thank my second supervisor, Dr. David Liu. 

Thank you for believing and supporting me during my Ph.D journey. Thanks for all your 

wonderful support and constructive feedback! 

I would also like to thank all the academic and professional staff at the School of 

Communication, Journalism and Marketing at the Massey Business School for your excellent 

support. Massey University is my second home. I am so lucky to know many good teachers 

and friends, particularly Dr. Flora Hung-Baesecke and Professor Xiaoming Li, as well as 

Professor Nattawat Visaltanachoti. 

I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues in the Department of Marketing, Business 

School of the University of Auckland. Thanks for your ongoing support. Your efforts in 

assisting me have been greatly appreciated. 

Other good friends have shared their lives and love, and have supported me during my Ph.D 

journey. For this, I thank Dr. Daniel Gruszynski,and Jerry Ma. 



vi 
 

I would also like to thank my sister, Jing Yu MA, and my brother, Jin Wen MA. Thanks for 

looking after our parents when I was away from them. Thanks for supporting me throughout 

my life! 

Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Jessy Ren, and my children, Aubrey, Clara and Nathan 

Sima. I know how lucky I am. You guys are my source of inspiration and life. My wife you are 

the fighter! Thanks for being so strong! Thanks to my beautiful children, without your support, 

my Ph.D journey would have been meaningless! I love you all! 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



vii 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



viii 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………iii 

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………...…v 

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………...viii 

List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………..xii 

List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………...xiii 

State of Current Outputs from the Thesis and Other Research Achievement…………xiv 

Chapter 1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………....1 

1.1  Research questions and contributions……………………………………………………..3 

1.1.1 Problem statement……………………………………………………………...3 

1.1.2 Contributions…………………………………………………………………..5 

1.2 Outline of the thesis ……………………………………………………………………….7 

1.3 Chapter summary ………………………………………………………………………….8 

1.4 References …………………………………………………………………………………9 

Chapter 2 Resource Integration, Managerial Ties and Innovation: The Case of Emerging 

Market Export Ventures……………………………………………………………………16 

2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………17 

2.2 Theoretical background…………………………………………………………………..21 

 2.2.1 Resource integration……………………………………………………………22 

 2.2.2 Innovation………………………………………………………………………22 

 2.2.3 Managerial ties……………………………………………………………..…..23 

 2.2.4  Emerging market………………………………………………………………23 

2.3 Conceptual framework and research proposition………………………….………….….24 

 2.3.1 The influence of resource integration on export venture innovation (P1)…..…24 

 2.3.2 Resource integration, home market ties and export venture innovation (P2)….25 

2.3.3 Resource integration, intrafirm ties and emerging market export venture      

innovation  (P3)………………………………………………………………26 

2.3.4 Resource integration, host market business ties and emerging market export  

venture innovation (P4 )………………………………………….…………..27 

2.3.5 Resource integration, host market political ties and emerging market export  

venture innovation (P5)……………………………………………….…..….28 



ix 
 

2.4 Concluding remarks……………………………………………………………….…..…29 

2.5 Limitations and future research …………………………………………….…….…...…30 

2.6 Chapter summary………   ……………………………………………..…..….…….…..31 

2.7 References………………………………………………………………..….….…….….34 

Chapter 3 Digital Marketing Technology and Export Venture Performance: The 

Contingent Effect of Host and Home Market Managerial Ties………….………………45 

3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………....46 

3.2 Theoretical background…………………………………………………………..………50 

 3.2.1 Digital marketing technology…………………………………………………..50 

 3.2.2 Export venture performance………………………………………………..…..51 

 3.2.3 Managerial ties………………………………………………………………....51 

3.3 Conceptual framework and research hypotheses ………………………………………..53 

3.3.1 Digital marketing technology and export venture economic performance (H1) 53 

 3.3.2 Digital marketing technology and export venture channel performance (H2)…54 

3.3.3 Digital marketing technology, host market business ties, and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H3a & H3b)…………………………...55 

3.3.4 Digital marketing technology, host market managerial ties and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H4a & H4b)……………………….…..57 

3.3.5 Digital marketing technology, host market managerial ties and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H5a & H5b)…………………………...59 

3.3.6 Digital marketing technology, home market business ties and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H6a & H6b)……………………….…..61 

3.3.7 Digital marketing technology, home market political ties and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H7a & H7b)…………………………...63 

3.3.8 Digital marketing technology, home market professional ties and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H8a & H8b)…………………………..66 

3.4 Research method……………………………………………………………….….……..68 

 3.4.1 Sample and data collection………………………………………………...…..68 

 3.4.2 Measurement scales……………………………………………………….…...70 

 3.4.3 Control variables……………………………………………………………….71 

 3.4.4 Common method bias assessment……………………………………………..72 



x 
 

 3.4.5 Reliability and validity…………………...……………………………………73 

 3.4.6 Results……………………………………………………………………...….74 

3.5 Discussion and conclusion……………………………………………………………….75 

 3.5.1 Theoretical implications………………………………………………….…….76 

 3.5.2 Managerial implications………………………………………………………..79 

 3.5.3 Limitations and future research…………………………………………..….…80 

3.6 Chapter summary………...…………………………………………………….……..….81 

3.7 References……………………………………………………………………….……….82 

3.8 Appendix……………………………………………………………………….……….102 

Chapter 4 Social Media Platform and Export Venture Performance: The Dark and 

Bright Side Effect of Institutional Distance……………………….........................……..103 

4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….…….104 

4.2 Theoretical background………………………………………………………………....108 

 4.2.1 Social media platform………………………………………………………...108 

 4.2.2 Export venture performance…………………………………………………..109 

 4.2.3 Institutional environment……………………………………………………..110 

4.3 Conceptual framework and research hypotheses ……………………………………....110 

4.3.1 The influence of social media platform on export venture economic and channel  

performance (H1 & H2)……………………………………………………110 

4.3.2 Social-cultural environmental distance, social media platform and export  

venture economic and channel performance (H3 & H4)………………..…112 

4.3.3 Customer environment distance, social media platform and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H5 & H6)……………………..…….114 

4.3.4 Infrastructure environmental distance, social media platform and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H7 & H8)…………….……………..116 

4.3.5 Competitive environmental distance, social media platform and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H9 & H10)………………….……….118 

4.3.6 Political-legal environmental distance, social media platform and export venture  

economic and channel performance (H11 & H12)…………………...…….121 

4.4 Research method………………………………………………………………………..123 

 4.4.1 Sample and data collection……………………………………………..……..123 



xi 
 

 4.4.2 Measurement scales…………………………………………………………...125 

 4.4.3 Control variables……………………………………………………………...127 

 4.4.4 Common method bias assessment………………………………………...…..127 

 4.4.5 Reliability and validity………………………………………………….…….128 

 4.4.6 Results………………………………………………………………………...129 

4.5 Discussion and conclusion………………………………………………………..…….131 

 4.5.1 Theoretical implications………………………………………………...…….131 

 4.5.2 Managerial implications…………………………………………………...….134 

 4.5.3 Limitations and future research…………………………………………….…135 

4.6 Chapter summary……………….………………………………..……………………..136 

4.7 References………………………………………………………..……………………..137 

4.8 Appendix………………………………………………………..………………..……..162 

Chapter 5 Conclusions………………………………………………………………...…..163 

5.1 Research purpose and issues……..……………………………………………………..163 

5.2 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………..163 

5.3 Managerial implications………………………………………………………………...166 

5.3.1 Managerial contributions from paper 2……………………………………….166 

5.3.2 Managerial contributions from paper 3……………………………………….167 

5.4 Limitations and future research……………………………………………………..…..168 

5.5 Chapter summary……..………...…………………………………………..…………..169 

5.6 References…………………………………………………………………..…………..171 

5.7 Appendix…………………………………………………………………..……………172 

 

 

  



xii 
 

List of Tables 

Table 1a: Measurement - Managerial ties……….…………………………………...…....…95 

Table 1b: Measurement - Digital Marketing Technology …………..………………………96 

Table 1c: Measurement - Export Venture Performance…………....………..……….….......96 

Table 2: Correlation Matrix………………………………………………………….………97 

Table 3: Regression Results for Export Venture Economic Performance……………….…..98 

Table 4: Regression Results for Export Venture Channel Performance……………………..99 

Table 5a: Measurement - Institutional Environment………………………………………..154 

Table 5b: Measurement - Social Media Platform ………………………………………….155 

Table 5c: Measurement - Export Venture Performance…………...………...……...…..…..155 

Table 6: Correlation Matrix……………………………………...………………………….156 

Table 7: Regression Results for Export Venture Economic Performance …………………157 

Table 8: Regression Results for Export Venture Channel Performance………………...….158 

Table 9: Hypotheses Testing Summary…………………………………………………….159 

  



xiii 
 

List of Figures 

Figures 1: Resource Integration, Managerial ties and Export Venture Innovation………..…42 

Figures 2: Digital Marketing Technology and Export Venture Performance: The Contingent  

Effect of HOST and HOME Managerial Ties……………………………………..…94 

Figures 3: Social Media Platform and Export Venture Performance: The Dark and Bright  

Effect of Institutional Distance…………………………………………….…….….153 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



xiv 
 

State of Current Outputs from the Thesis 

Sima, H; Chung, F.L.H., & Liu, Y. (2019). Conceptualizing exporting firms’ resource 

integration impact on innovation: a moderation role of managerial ties in the context of 

emerging market to emerging market, Academy of International Business Southeast Asia, 2019 

Chapter Conference, Cebu, Philippines. 

Sima, H; Chung, F.L.H., & Liu, Y. (2021). Digital marketing technology and export venture 

performance: the contingent effect of host and home market managerial ties. Submitted to 

European Journal of Marketing, April, 2022. 

Sima, H; Chung, F.L.H., & Liu, Y. (2021). Social media platform and export venture 

performance: the dark and bright side effect of institutional distance. This paper will be 

submitted to Industrial Marketing Management, December, 2022. 

Other Research Achievements During my PhD Journey 

This PhD journey has strengthened my research knowledge. It has created some great 

opportunities for me to apply my PhD knowledge to my academic research. I have achieved 

2A* and 1A publications during my PhD journey. See the following publish record: 

Kingshott, R. P., Chung, H. F., Putranta, M. P., Sharma, P., & Sima, H. (2021). Religiosity 

and psychological contracts in Asian B2B service relationships. Industrial Marketing 

Management, 98, 138-148. 

 

Kingshott, R. P., Sharma, P., Sima, H., & Wong, D. (2020). The impact of psychological 

contract breaches within east-west buyer-supplier relationships. Industrial Marketing 

Management, 89, 220-231. 

 

Carrie, D. G., Mulla, P., Patterson, A., Kilkolly-Proffit, M., Brookes, R., Sima, H., & Agee, T. 

(2017). Adding value to first-year undergraduate marketing education: team-based learning as 

a strategic response to changing modern educational environments. Journal of Strategic 

Marketing, 25(2), 138-151. 

 

 

 

 

 



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1 
 

Chapter 1 

INTRODUCTION 

Exporting has remained the most popular approach for small to medium-sized enterprises 

(SMEs) to engage with international markets (Chung et al., 2019; Leonidou & Katsikeas, 2010; 

Morgan et al., 2004; Spyropoulou et al., 2010), particularly, for emerging markets. According 

to the International Monetary Fund (2021), emerging markets have accounted for 57% of total 

global GDP, and this trend is expected to continue to grow. Given the importance of exporting 

to the global economy, this topic has attracted extensive research in the export marketing 

literature. Scholars have called for a comprehensive understanding of exporting (Cavusgil & 

Zou, 1994; Chung, 2003; Chung, 2011; Chung & Ho, 2021; Lages et al., 2008; Morgan et al., 

2004), especially in emerging markets.  

Emerging market export ventures often face significant challenges when operating in a foreign 

host market due to limited knowledge and resources, and also massive changes in institutional 

environments (Chung, 2012; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Li et al., 2009; Wang & Chung, 2020; Yang 

et al., 2012; Zhou et al., 2006). According to Cavusgil and Zhou (1994) and Morgan et al. 

(2004), an export venture is defined as a single product or product line to a specific foreign 

host market. To better understand emerging market export ventures, extant literature suggests 

that a product-market (i.e., the export venture) conceptualisation can be a good approach to 

conducting this study (Cavusgil & Zou,1994; Chung, 2012; Chung & Ho, 2021; Chung & Kuo, 

2018; Morgan et al., 2004).  

Prior exporting research suggests that exporting firms need to carefully consider various 

resources and knowledge, that influence a firm’s innovation (Grant, 1996; Liebeskind, 1996; 

Nonaka, 1994). Studies from resource-advantage theory show that a firm’s innovation is the 

outcome of a firm’s ability to integrate various resources and knowledge (Gummesson & Mele, 

2010; Hunt & Morgan, 1995; Hunt & Morgan, 1997; Madhavaram & Hunt, 2008). Knowledge-

based theory also suggests that the degree of knowledge can drive a firm’s innovation (Grant, 

1996; Grant & Baden-Fuller, 1995). Through the resource integration process, firms can build 

up their strategic resources and innovate their products, systems and administration (Chung et 

al., 2019). However, the extant research has not explored how resource integration impacts 

emerging market export venture innovation (Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Kleinaltenkamp et 

al., 2012; Lusch & Nambisan, 2015; Mele et al., 2010).  



2 
 

Recent studies on digitisation recognise the revolutionary impact on firms’ internationalisation 

process through digital marketing technology (Cassetta et al., 2020; Hamill & Gregory, 1997; 

Kanne & Li, 2017). Digital marketing refers to the technology-based process to collaborate 

with customers and partners for value creation (e.g., Email, website, weblink, and webpage) 

(Kanne & Li, 2017). Even though there are important benefits and huge potential in digital 

marketing technology, studies have not yet explored the impact of digital marketing technology 

on export performance in a Business-to-Business (B2B) context (e.g., exporters vs. foreign 

distributors) (Iankova et al., 2019; Luo et al., 2021), especially for export ventures. To 

overcome challenges faced by emerging market export ventures, many scholars suggest that 

emerging market export ventures should actively rely on managerial (e.g., business, political 

and professional) ties when operating in foreign host markets (Chung & Kuo, 2018; Chung et 

al., 2021; Chung et al., 2015; Li et al., 2009; Peng & Luo, 2000; Tsang, 1998; Zhou et al., 

2014).  

Prior exporting research also suggests that exporting firms need to carefully consider 

institutional distance when operating in a foreign host market (e.g., He et al., 2018; Katsikeas 

et al., 2006; Kostova et al., 2020; Wang & Chung, 2020; Yang et al., 2012). Institutional 

distance refers to the institutional environmental difference between the home and host markets 

(e.g., Cavusgil et al., 1993; Katsikeas et al., 2006). It includes the social-cultural, customer, 

infrastructure, competitive and political-legal environment (Bailey, 2018; Chung, 2005; 

Handelman & Arnold, 1999; Luo et al., 2008; Morgan et al., 2018; Skarmeas et al., 2019; Yang 

et al., 2012). Studies concerning the institutional theory point out that exporting firms should 

exercise caution in developing their marketing strategies and strategic choices when operating 

in a different marketing and institutional environment (e.g., Chung & Ho, 2021; Krammer et 

al., 2018; Liu & Atuahene-Gima, 2018; Luo et al., 2008; Paul, 2019; Yang et al., 2012). Studies 

on social media platforms recognise the important role social media platform can play in 

exporting ventures. However, extant studies have not explored the impact of social media 

platforms and/or the aligned effect of social media platforms and institutional distance on 

export venture performance in a business-to-business (B2B) context (Iankova et al., 2019; Luo 

et al., 2021). 

The above discussion demonstrates that there is a need to conduct further research on export 

ventures’ performance. This is in line with Morgan et al., (2004), Yang et al., (2012), Chung 

and Kuo (2018), and Chung et al., (2021), who have called for more rigorous theoretical and 

empirical development by integrating other explanatory factors such as managerial ties, 



3 
 

institutional environment, digital marketing technology, social media, and export venture 

performance. Therefore, this thesis aims to examine what drives the emerging market export 

venture performance in the digital age, and how this performance is driven 

To achieve the goal of this thesis, I first conduct an extensive literature review and explore the 

role managerial ties play in the export venture’s resource-integration-innovation 

conceptualisation. Details of this process are outlined in Chapter 2 (Paper 1) of the thesis. 

Second, I investigate the contingent effect of host and home market managerial ties’ in the 

digital marketing technology - export venture performance framework (Chapter 3, Paper 2). 

Finally, I explore the moderation effect of the institutional environment in the social media 

platform-export performance framework (Chapter 4, Paper 3).  

1.1 Research questions and contributions 

1.1.1 Problem statement   

The primary purpose of this thesis is to explore what drives the emerging market export venture 

performance in a digital age, and how it is driven (Cavusgil & Zou, 1994; Burgess & 

Steenkamp, 2006; Morgan et al., 2012; Sousa et al., 2010). This question remains critical for 

both academics and business practitioners.  

A review of the extant literature on export venture performance shows that resources and 

knowledge play a critical role in firms’ success (Grant, 1996; Grant & Baden-Fuller, 1995; 

Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Hunt & Morgan, 1995; Hunt & Morgan, 1997; Madhavaram & 

Hunt, 2008). From a resource-advantage perspective, Gummesson and Mele (2010) point out 

that resource drives innovation. In addition, from a knowledge-based perspective, Grant (1996) 

argues that knowledge can also influence innovation. Building from resource-advantage and 

knowledge-based theory, Gummesson and Mele (2010) suggest that a firm’s ability to integrate 

various resources and knowledge can impact the firm’s innovation. However, Khanna and 

Palepu (2000) highlight that gaining knowledge and resources for emerging market export 

ventures can be a challenge because, compared to firms from developed markets, emerging 

market export ventures face poorly functioning capital, labour, and information markets, 

among other resources. Given the resource constraints, international marketing scholars on 

social networking theory argue that emerging market export ventures can rely on their social 

networks (Chung & Kuo, 2018; Chung et al., 2012; Peng & Luo, 2000; Zhou et al., 2007).  

Extant literature suggests that managerial ties play a critical role and can influence export 

venture performance (Boso et al., 2013; Chung, 2012; Chung & Ho, 2021; Chung & Kuo, 



4 
 

2018; He et al., 2018). However, prior research mainly focuses on the effect of managerial ties’ 

impact on international competitive strategy and export performance (e.g., Chung & Kuo, 

2018) and the moderation effect of managerial ties on the relationship between export market 

orientation and export performance (e.g., Chung, 2012). Recently, studies on international 

marketing strategies indicate that digital marketing technology can enhance marketing 

activities, augment communication and engage with foreign distributors (e.g., Glavas et al., 

2017; Li & Ogunmokun, 2000; Racela & Thoumrungroje, 2020). Despite this development, it 

is still unknown whether managerial ties can impact the effect of digital marketing technology 

on export venture performance. 

In addition, the institutional literature reveals that emerging market export ventures are 

constrained by a set of institutional environments including social-cultural norms, cognitive 

beliefs, infrastructure, and competitive and political-legal factors (e.g., Lin & Wang, 2008; 

Wang & Chung, 2020; Yang & Wang, 2011; Zhou et al., 2017). Therefore, it is crucial for 

emerging market export ventures to establish a sound understanding of when and how the 

institutional impact on the performance of emerging market export ventures will be felt. 

Moreover, recent studies on social media platforms point out that emerging market export 

ventures can improve communication, facilitate greater collaboration and sustain customer 

satisfaction and loyalty (Hughes et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2021; Sashi, 2012; Wang & Kim, 2017). 

However, it is unclear how social media platforms can enhance export venture performance 

when operating in a foreign host market (Bianchi & Mathews, 2016; Gregory et al., 2019; Lu 

& Julian, 2007; Rialp-Criado & Rialp-Criado, 2018).  Taken all together, this thesis explores 

the role of key contingent factors such as managerial ties, and institutional environments and 

their impact on export venture performance. 

Hence, the main research statement of this thesis is to examine: 

What, and how do, managerial ties and institutional distance impact export venture 

performance in the context of emerging markets? 

Specifically, the key research questions for this thesis are: 

RQ1: Within the export venture’s resource integration-innovation conceptualisation, what role 

do emerging market export ventures’ managerial ties play?  

RQ 2: When, and how, do home and host market managerial ties impact the relationship 

between digital marketing technology and emerging market export venture performance? 



5 
 

RQ3: When, and how, does institutional distance impact the relationship between social media 

platforms and emerging market export venture performance?  

1.1.2 Contributions 

This research will make substantial theoretical and managerial contributions to academics and 

business practitioners interested in the research field of export ventures, exporting strategies 

and emerging markets. It will specifically contribute to the discipline of international 

marketing, social networking, digital marketing technology, social media, institutional 

environment and export ventures. The contributions are spread out through three papers (Paper 

1, Paper 2, and Paper 3) 

Theoretical contributions from Paper 1 (Chapter 2) 

My Paper 1 has made several novel theoretical contributions. First, by exploring the impact of 

resource integration on emerging market export venture innovation performance, I extend the 

recent research scope, which has mainly focused on developed market export ventures into 

emerging markets (e.g., Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Gu et al., 2008; 

Sheth, 2011; Yamakawa et al., 2008). My study extends the existing research scope on export 

ventures to emerging market export venture’s global operations. This approach offers a new 

theoretical insight to existing export venture research (e.g., Australasian export ventures to the 

Greater China region) (e.g., Chung, 2003; Chung & Kuo, 2018). 

Second, Paper 1 also offers a comprehensive conceptualisation model consisting of resource 

integration, managerial ties, and innovation. This model shows how emerging market export 

ventures can use managerial ties to gain new knowledge and resources, and integrate these to 

improve their firms’ innovation performance (Chung, 2012; Chung et al., 2016; Peng & Luo, 

2000; Wang & Chung, 2013) 

Third, to the best of my knowledge, I am the first to examine different managerial ties’ (host, 

home-based, and intrafirm) impact on emerging market export ventures. This holistic view 

helps to compensate for previous studies which only focused on one or two managerial ties 

(e.g., host market business and political ties; Chung, 2012; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Sheng et al., 

2011). 

Fourth, this study also theoretically contributes to existing managerial ties literature by 

postulating both positive and negative impacts of managerial ties on emerging market export 

ventures’ resource integration and innovation performance (Chung & Kuo, 2018; Chung et al., 

2016; Wang & Chung, 2020). Specifically, the host market political ties are postulated to 



6 
 

negatively moderate the effect of resource integration on emerging market export ventures’ 

innovation. However, the host market business ties, home-based managerial ties (e.g., business 

and political ties in China), and intrafirm ties are postulated to positively moderate the resource 

integration- export venture innovation framework. 

Theoretical contributions from Paper 2 (Chapter 3) 

My Paper 2 has also made a group of theoretical contributions. First, I contribute to the 

literature with a new theoretical foundation by considering digital marketing technology 

theorisation as a conceptual foundation for export venture exploration. This study extends the 

existing research which has only focused on resource and capabilities-export venture 

performance, adaptation strategy-export venture performance, and market orientation-export 

venture performance framework (Chung, 2012; Lages et al., 2008; Morgan et al., 2004)  

Second, my study (Paper 2) sheds new light on social networking and organisational 

networking theory by examining how host and home market managerial ties moderate the 

effect of digital marketing technology on emerging market export venture performance (e.g., 

Chung, 2012; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Gu et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009; Park & Luo, 2001; Zhou et 

al., 2007).    

Third, I also advance the social capital theory and literature by considering whether 

professional ties contribute to the digital marketing technology and export venture performance 

link. By integrating business, political and professional ties all at once, this study can make the 

extant managerial ties research and theorisation (e.g., social capital and networking theory) 

more complete and valuable (Chung & Kuo, 2018; Li et al., 2009; Geletkanycz & Hambrick, 

1997; Park and Luo, 2001). 

Theoretical contributions from Paper 3 (Chapter 4) 

My Paper 3 has offered four theoretical contributions. First, this study extends the prior 

research on social media platforms from B2C (Business-to-Consumers) to B2B, particularly in 

the context of the emerging market export ventures (Chang et al., 2016; Hudson et al., 2015; 

Iankova et al., 2019; Luo et al., 2021). 

Second, by examining the contingent effect of institutional distance in the social media-export 

venture conceptualisation, my study helps to advance the contemporary institutional distance 

theory, which is a core research element of export ventures (Chung & Ho, 2021; Deng et al., 

2018; Rialp-Criado & Rialp-Criado, 2018; Yang et al., 2012). 



7 
 

Third, Paper 3 explores both the dark and bright sides of the institutional environment in the 

social media-export venture performance framework. Based on the empirical evidence, my 

study sheds light on the social media-export venture performance framework. Research can 

determine whether export ventures should consider both dark and bright side effects of the 

institutional environment, based on the outcomes of my study. 

Fourth, I advance the export venture literature by exploring exporting businesses from an 

emerging market perspective. Through this focus, my research findings significantly extend 

the existing export research from organisational learning and decision-making governance 

strategies to social media, institutional environment and emerging export venture performance 

(e.g., Chung et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2012). 

1.2 Outline of the thesis 

This thesis examines the research questions across three research papers (one conceptual paper 

and two empirical papers)  that are presented in Chapter 2 (Paper 1), Chapter 3 (Paper 2), and 

Chapter 4 (Paper 3). The first paper (Chapter 2) explores the role of the export ventures’ 

managerial ties (host market business and political ties, home market ties and intrafirm ties) in 

the export venture’s resource integration-innovation conceptualisation. This chapter is based 

on a comprehensive and in-depth literature review. Through exploring the literature 

extensively, I develop a new and comprehensive conceptualisation and build a foundation for 

the two subsequent studies (Paper 2 and Paper 3). This paper (Paper 1) was accepted by the 

Academy of International Business Southeast Asia, 2019 Chapter Conference, Cebu, the 

Philippines. This paper has also been presented at the AIB 2019 conference by myself. The 

second paper (Chapter 3) addresses the contingent effect of host and home market managerial 

ties on the relationship between digital marketing technology and export venture performance. 

Based on the data collected from 251 Chinese manufacturing firms’ export ventures, this paper 

empirically explores the moderation effect of managerial ties on digital marketing technology 

and the export venture performance link. The paper’s results are beneficial and interesting, as 

outlined in the Paper. This paper is prepared for submission to the top B2B journal, Industrial 

Marketing Management (A* journal in ABDC list). The third paper (Chapter 4) empirically 

explores the contingent effect of the institutional environment in the social media platform-

emerging market export venture performance conceptualisation. Using data from 251 Chinese 

manufacturing firms’ export ventures, I assess the dark and bright side contingent effect of 

institutional environmental distance between home and host markets on the social media 

platform-export venture performance framework. This paper is also prepared for submission 



8 
 

to Industrial Marketing Management. Finally, the last chapter of this thesis (Chapter 5) 

concludes and highlights managerial implications, as well as limitations and future research.   

1.3 Chapter summary 

This introductory chapter outlined the problem statement, research goal and the research 

contribution, thus providing an overview for the study under investigation. The thesis consists 

of five chapters, outlined as follows: 

1. Introduction: a background to the research motivation, the problem statement, the 

research goal and the contribution of the research. 

2. Paper 1: a conceptual paper building from a systematic literature review, providing 

foundational knowledge and highlighting major research concerns in the field, which 

leads to further empirical studies in the two subsequent chapters. 

3. Paper 2: a presentation and analysis of the first empirical study. 

4. Paper 3: a presentation and analysis of the second empirical study 

5. A discussion of the research conclusions, managerial implications and limitations and 

future research. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



9 
 

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12 
 

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13 
 

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15 
 

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Studies, 38(4), 673-690. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



16 
 

Chapter 2 

RESOURCE INTEGRATION, MANAGERIAL TIES AND INNOVATION: THE 

CASE OF EMERGING MARKET EXPORT VENTURES  

 

 

Abstract 

The research on emerging market export ventures remains under development, and strong 

conceptualisation concerning emerging market export ventures is still very much needed. In 

this study, I focus on the main question – What role does the export venture’s managerial ties 

(host market business and political ties, home market ties and intrafirm ties) play in the export 

venture’s resource integration-innovation conceptualisation in the context of emerging market 

export ventures? Building on resource integration theory (e.g., resource advantage theory, 

knowledge-based theory), social networking theory, and innovation literature, this critical 

question is addressed by establishing a novel and comprehensive understanding of resource 

integration, managerial connections, and export venture innovation. Based on an extensive 

literature review, I postulate that managerial ties play a crucial moderation role in explaining 

the relationship between resource integration and emerging market export venture innovation. 

In this study, a series of propositions are theorised to explore the underlying logic behind the 

export venture’s resource integration, managerial ties and innovation, from the context of 

emerging markets. It is suggested that studies should examine the role of varied types of 

managerial ties separately in the resource integration-innovation conceptualisation so that each 

tie’s influence can be identified.  

 

Keywords: Innovation, managerial ties, resource integration emerging market, export venture. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



17 
 

2.1 Introduction 

Exporting has become one of the most popular ways for firms to engage in international 

markets (e.g., Chung et al., 2019; Leonidou & Katsikeas, 2010). According to the World Bank 

(2018), exporting from emerging markets accounted for more than 43% of the world’s gross 

domestic product in 2017.  This trend is expected to grow further in the future. Out of this total 

exporting from emerging markets, more than half of this trade occurs with other 

developing/emerging economies. Hence, a comprehensive understanding of exporting from 

emerging markets to foreign host markets is much needed by academics, managers and 

policymakers (e.g., Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006; Cavusgil & Zou, 1994; Morgan et al., 2012; 

Sousa et al., 2010).  

Due to their limited resources and knowledge, emerging market export ventures often face 

significant uncertainty when exporting to a foreign host market. An export venture is defined 

by Cavusgil and Zou (1994) and Morgan et al. (2012) as the firm’s effort to market a single 

product or product line to a specific foreign market. This product-market conceptualisation is 

widely used in research on export management (e.g., Chung & Ho, 2021; Morgan et al., 2004). 

It has been noted that innovation plays a key role in export ventures in improving their quality, 

reducing their cost of production, and also gaining a competitive advantage in the global 

marketplace (Bruns & Stalker, 1961; Damanpour, 1991). Moreover, research also suggests that 

resources and knowledge drive innovation. Extant research from resource-advantage theory 

(Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Hunt & Morgan, 1995; Hunt & Morgan, 1997; Hunt et al., 2006) 

and knowledge-based theory (Grant, 1996; Grant & Baden-Fuller, 1995) suggests that a firm’s 

ability to integrate various resources and knowledge can influence the firm’s innovation (Grant, 

1996; Liebeskind, 1996; Nonaka, 1994). Therefore, a firm’s innovation could be an outcome 

of integrating various resources and knowledge.  Likewise, according to Khanna and Palepu 

(2000), emerging market export ventures face poorly functioning capital, labour, information 

markets, and other resources compared to firms from developed markets. Given the resource 

constraints, many emerging market export ventures have to rely on their social networks 

(Chung & Kuo, 2018; Chung et al., 2012; Peng & Luo, 2000; Zhou et al., 2007) and tap into 

varied resources in order to improve their competitiveness. When exporting to other foreign 

host markets, emerging market export ventures need to build up their strategic resources and 

innovate their products, systems, and administration (Chung et al., 2019) to maintain their 

competitive advantage in their exporting activities. 

Research on emerging market export ventures has recently captured the interest of scholars 

(e.g., Chung & Kuo, 2018; Morgan et al., 2012). Despite this importance, research concerning 



18 
 

emerging market export ventures is still under development. For example, a review of the 

extant literature shows that, for the past 50 years, research on export marketing has covered 

several key areas, including export venture performance, marketing management, and export 

marketing strategy (Chung & Kuo, 2018; Gatignon & Robertson, 1985; Kotler & Zaltman, 

1971; Mahajan et al., 1990; Morgan et al., 2012). A variety of theoretical perspectives and 

frameworks have been developed in the literature, including organisational learning (Lages et 

al., 2008), contingency theory (Zeithaml et al., 1988), and institutional theory (Luo et al., 2008).  

In summary, despite widespread academic investigation and representation in the literature, the 

emerging markets’ export venture phenomenon remains under-explained and developed in the 

case of the emerging market to other foreign host markets (Cavusgil & Zou, 1994; Katsikeas 

et al., 2000; Morgan et al., 2012). A review of recent research shows that several gaps need to 

be filled.  

First, to date, exporting research has primarily focused on developed market export ventures 

(Cavusgil & Zou, 1994; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Lages et al., 2008; Morgan et al., 2004). An 

influential stream of research based on developed market export ventures has argued that 

exporting marketing strategy implementation and export marketing capabilities can have a 

direct influence over export venture performance (Lages et al., 2009; Kaleka, 2011; Morgan et 

al., 2012). However, this argument is unlikely to be relevant for emerging market export 

ventures because the business environment is very different between developed and emerging 

markets. In addition, this argument simply assumes that the concept of “implementation” is the 

same as “integration”. According to Paul (2019), implementation is about transforming a 

decision/plan into effect/execution, while integration requires more in-depth knowledge and 

skills, focusing on the business’ success rather than the deployment of a plan. Thus, to fill this 

gap, research specifically focusing on the effect of the resource integration of export ventures 

is much needed.  

Second, research focusing on emerging economies reveals that managerial ties play a 

moderation role in the marketing strategy and innovation linkage (e.g., Wang & Chung, 2013). 

Extant research has also identified the common issues faced by emerging market export 

ventures such as minimal capital markets, weak infrastructure, limited resources, and lack of 

market-supporting institutions when conducting business internationally (Johnson & Tellis, 

2008; Peng & Luo, 2000; Sheng et al., 2011; Sheth, 2011). Despite this development, the 

existing literature has not explored how managerial ties can influence the relationship between 

resource integration and innovation. This lack is significant, as the integrative effect of 



19 
 

managerial ties and resource integration theories (e.g., resource-advantage and knowledge-

based) on innovation can advance the theoretical conceptualisation of the extant literature (e.g., 

Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Hunt et al., 2006; Hunt & Morgan, 1995; Mele et al., 2010).  

Hence, in this study, I postulate the role of managerial ties in the organisational resource 

integration and innovation paradigm. The postulated conceptualisation can be examined 

empirically. Studies can determine when and how managerial ties matter in resource integration 

and export venture innovation based on the empirical outcomes.  

Third, a comprehensive study on managerial ties in emerging market export ventures is still 

needed. Prior research has mainly focused on host market business ties (e.g., Brazil) (Boisot & 

Child, 1988; Peng & Luo, 2000; Tsui & Farh, 1997; Yueng & Tung, 1996) and host market 

political ties (Hillman et al., 1999; Li et al., 2009; Park & Luo, 2001; Siegel, 2007). Yet other 

research indicates that more comprehensive research on managerial ties should also include the 

home market ties (e.g., China) (Zhou et al., 2007) and ties within the firm (e.g., intrafirm ties) 

(Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998). The need to examine the host market, home market, and intrafirm 

managerial ties is illustrated in the literature. Emerging market export ventures are a complex 

phenomenon, as emerging market export ventures are constantly facing the challenge of 

gaining access to resources within their firm, and in their home and host markets (Chung & 

Kuo, 2018; Zhou et al., 2007). Prior research already asserts that managerial ties may facilitate 

a firm’s ability to improve its performance (Chung, 2011; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Li et al., 2009; 

Luo et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2014). However, extant research has not explored how varied 

managerial ties of emerging market export ventures (host market business and political ties, 

home market ties and intrafirm ties) moderate the relationship between resource integration 

and emerging market export venture innovation (Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Kleinaltenkamp 

et al., 2012; Lusch & Nambisan, 2015; Mele et al., 2010).  

To address these key gaps in the extant literature, I aim to make four key contributions. First, 

my study provides a new context (emerging market export venture) and construct (resource 

integration) by examining whether resource integration impacts innovation in the context of 

emerging market export ventures.  By exploring the impact of resource integration, I extend 

the prior research scope, which narrowly focused on developed market export ventures’ 

capability and implementation into resource integration (Gummesson & Mele, 2010; 

Kleinaltenkamp et al., 2012; Mele et al., 2010; Morgan et al., 2012). This contribution fills a 

key gap left in the existing research conceptualisation, which has mainly focused on developed 

market export ventures. Emerging market export ventures are an area of research that requires 



20 
 

much further investigation (e.g., Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Gu et al., 

2008; Sheth, 2011; Yamakawa et al., 2008). According to Burgess and Steenkamp (2006, 

p.338), “emerging markets’ institutional contexts present significant socioeconomic, 

demographic, cultural, and regulative departures from the assumptions of theories developed 

in the Western world and challenge my conventional understanding of constructs and their 

relations.” Therefore, I argue that theories derived from developed markets might not apply 

directly to emerging market export ventures due to the substantial difference between the 

developed and emerging markets. Hence, by focusing on the resource integration-export 

venture innovation framework of emerging market firms, my study will advance the body of 

knowledge on export ventures. 

Second, I have developed a comprehensive conceptualisation model of resource integration, 

managerial ties, and innovation. This model helps to better understand how emerging market 

export ventures build their firms’ competitive advantage in other foreign host markets. This 

framework builds on existing export venture studies that have focused on organisational 

learning (Chung et al., 2019a), export market orientation (Chung, 2012) and innovation (Wang 

& Chung, 2013). Specifically, my study’s conceptualisation shows how emerging market 

export firms can use their home and host managerial ties to overcome resource constraints 

when competing internationally. Therefore, my study shows a way that emerging market export 

ventures can integrate their resources with their managerial ties to improve their firms’ 

innovation outcomes (Chung, 2012; Chung et al., 2016; Peng & Luo, 2000; Wang & Chung, 

2013).  

Third, this study contributes to the organisational networking, social capital, and resource 

integration and innovation literature by considering varied managerial ties at once (host market 

business and political ties, home market ties, and intrafirm ties). To the best of my knowledge, 

I am the first to examine and consider whether managerial ties – host, home-based and intrafirm 

– are equally important in their influence on the resource integration decision on the innovation 

of emerging market export ventures. This wider coverage of home and host managerial ties 

helps to compensate for the narrower approach of prior research, which has only focused on 

one or two managerial ties (e.g., host market business and political ties; Chung, 2012; Chung 

& Kuo, 2018; Sheng et al., 2011). Due to its shallower focus, prior research has limited our 

understanding of how emerging export ventures can utilise managerial ties to overcome their 

resource constraints when competing internationally. Therefore, my study is an attempt to 

provide a holistic view of the moderation role of a wider range of managerial ties. 



21 
 

Finally, this study also contributes to existing managerial ties literature by postulating both 

positive and negative impacts of managerial ties on emerging market export ventures’ resource 

integration and innovation (Chung et al., 2016; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Wang & Chung, 2020). 

These two directions of effect can extend existing managerial ties research that has only 

focused on the relationship between export market orientation and export venture performance, 

and international competitive strategy and export performance (Chung, 2012; Chung & Kuo, 

2018). Based on the extensive literature review, in my study, I postulate that host market 

political ties negatively moderate the effect of resource integration on an emerging market 

export venture’s innovation, whereas the home market ties and intrafirm ties, as well as the 

host market business ties, are theorised to have a positive effect in the resource integration-

export venture innovation framework.  

In line with the theorisation of export ventures’ international expansion as a process of resource 

configuration through networking strategies (Ellis, 2000; Harris & Wheeler, 2005; Zhou et al., 

2007), I postulate a moderating mechanism of managerial ties underlying the relationship 

between firms’ resource integration and innovation. I draw on the resource-advantage 

(Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Mele et al., 2010) and knowledge-based (Hunt et al., 2006; Hunt 

& Morgan, 1995) view of resource integration, and managerial ties literature to derive a novel 

conceptualisation of innovation implications of emerging market export ventures. The 

conceptualisation is depicted in Figure 1.  

2.2 Theoretical background 

Firms constantly seek new resources, build their capabilities, and integrate them into their 

practices to build a competitive advantage.  Firms with stronger resources and capabilities are 

more likely to be more productive and innovative (Boehe & Cruz, 2010; Cassiman & Golovko, 

2011; Love & Mansury, 2009). Resource integration has become an important concept in the 

marketing literature (Edvardsson et al., 2014; Gummerson & Mele, 2010; Kleinaltenkamp et 

al., 2012; Vargo & Lusch, 2004). From a resource-advantage theory perspective (Hunt & 

Morgan, 1995), Madhavaram and Hunt (2008) defined resources as tangible and intangible 

entities. In a similar vein, Vargo and Lusch (2004) recognise two types of resources: operand 

resources, which are typically physical; and operant resources, such as human, organisational, 

informational, and relational. Within a service-dominant (S-D) logic, Lusch et al. (2010) argue 

that resource integration is the key to firm performance. The resource integration view is 

supported by Zimmermann (1951). Through the resource integrating process, emerging market 

export ventures can build their competitive advantage in other host markets. 



22 
 

2.2.1 Resource integration 

Emerging market export firms need to constantly integrate existing and new resources to create 

new or better products.  Resource integration is recognised as key to business success 

(Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Vargo & Lusch, 2008). The resource-advantage theory suggests 

that a firm’s resources include relational, physical, monetary, and non-monetary aspects (Hunt, 

2002; Hunt & Madhavaram, 2006; Mele, 2010; Morgan & Hunt, 1994). It further claims that 

emerging market export ventures can enter into “relational resources” and boost their market 

competitiveness. This is in line with Tsai and Ghoshal (1998), who suggest that interpersonal 

networks can contribute to a firm’s ability to create value in the form of innovation. However, 

from a knowledge-based view, Hunt and Morgan (1995) suggest that gaining existing and new 

knowledge is fundamental to improving firm performance. Furthermore, Mele et al. (2010) 

argue that emerging market export ventures can improve firm performance by integrating 

different knowledge and resources. Building on the existing literature (Gummesson & Mele, 

2010; Hunt & Madhavaram, 2006; Mele, 2010; Vargo & Lusch, 2004) for this study, I define 

resource integration as the process and forms of interaction and collaboration through 

integrating different resources such as knowledge, skills, financial, legal, informational and 

relational. This definition offers a distinct perspective by focusing on interaction and 

collaboration with a diversity of other resources. Most emerging market export ventures are 

constrained by limited knowledge and resources about their foreign host markets. When 

operating in a foreign host market, to build a competitive advantage, emerging market export 

ventures need to constantly interact and collaborate with other partners in order to integrate 

resources and knowledge. This resource integrating process will enhance emerging market 

export ventures’ performance. 

2.2.2 Innovation 

Innovation is considered a critical source of competitive advantage for firms’ 

internationalisation (Crossman & Apaydin, 2010; Dess & Picken, 2000; Tushman & O’Reilly, 

1996). It becomes extremely important for emerging market export ventures as, compared to 

their counterparts (e.g., firms from developed markets), emerging market export ventures tend 

to face more challenges to access and acquire different types of resources (e.g., human, money 

and social capital) (Jiang et al., 2016). For the purpose of this study, I follow the definition in 

the latest literature on innovation, which defines “enterprise innovation as the combination of 

product, process, and administrative innovation” (Chung et al., 2019b, p.3). Innovation 

includes radical (breakthrough innovation) and/or incremental changes (product modification 



23 
 

and improvement) (Atuahene-Gima, 1996; Robertson, 1971), or the adoption of any new 

product, process or administrative changes (Damanpour, 1991; Jimenez-Jimenez & Sanz-

Valle, 2011). As limited strategic resources constrain most emerging market export ventures, 

this type of innovation becomes extremely weak (Hobday, 1995). To compete with firms from 

developed markets, emerging market export ventures need to consider all sorts of innovative 

activities; for example, constant new product and process development and improvement, and 

new administrative systems’ refinement and restructuring. This broad focus helps deepen 

export ventures’ understanding of the impact of resource integration on innovation.  

2.2.3 Managerial ties 

In this study, I have postulated that managerial ties include the host market business ties, host 

market political ties, home market ties and intrafirm ties (Chung, 2012; Peng & Luo, 2000; 

Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998; Zhou et al., 1997). The host market business ties are defined as 

executives’ personal connections and ties with business communities (Chung, 2012; Peng & 

Luo, 2000). The host market political ties are regarded as export managers’ social networks 

and connections with governmental officials at various levels of the local and central 

government in the host and home markets (Chetty & Holm, 2000; Chung, 2012; Chung et al., 

2016; Li et al., 2009; Johanson & Mattsson, 1988; Wang & Chung, 2013). Apart from 

managerial ties from the host market, two other types are available in the social network 

context. The home market ties are home-based social networks (Zhou et al., 2007), representing 

the informal structure of personal connections and networks bounded by geographical, social, 

or institutional space within the domestic market (Hitt et al., 2002; Sorenson, 2005). The last 

type of managerial tie is referred to as intrafirm ties (Lester, 2013; Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998). It 

focuses on the internal social connections among export managers from different business 

units/departments within the same organisation (Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998). The social interaction 

between units has a significant effect on export performance and product innovation. 

2.2.4 Emerging market 

Academics and practitioners recognise the growing importance of emerging markets. This has 

become a popular research topic in recent years. Many publications have appeared to accelerate 

this research area, including journal articles and books; for example, Cavusgil et al. (2012), 

Estrin and Meyer (2004), Hooker (2004), Mathews (2002), and Peng (2000). According to 

Hoskisson et al. (2000, p.249), an emerging market is defined “as a country that satisfies two 

criteria: a rapid pace of economic development, and government policies favouring economic 



24 
 

liberalization and the adoption of a free-market system”. Examples of countries meeting this 

definition are China, India, Brazil, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the 

Philippines.  

To advance academic disciplinary knowledge and enhance practical relevance, it is essential to 

conduct more research into emerging market export ventures (e.g., Dekimpe, 2009; Sheth, 

2011). Compared to developed markets, the key characteristics of emerging markets’ export 

ventures include institutional and infrastructural deficiencies (Arnold & Quelch, 1998; 

Hoskisson et al., 2000; Li et al., 2008; Roth & Kostova, 2003), limited human, financial or 

other resources (Chung et al., 2019b; Peng & Heath, 1996), weak communication and lack of 

technological development (Miller, 1998).  

2.3 Conceptual Framework & Research Propositions 

2.3.1 The influence of resource integration on export venture innovation 

Studies on export management suggest that resource integration can positively affect the export 

venture innovation of emerging market firms (Barki & Pinsonneault, 2005; Gummesson & 

Mele, 2010; Mele et al., 2010; Storbacka, 2019; Wang & Ma, 2018). Resource integration 

refers to the process and forms of interaction and collaboration by integrating different 

resources such as knowledge, skills, financial, legal, informational and relational (Findsrud et 

al., 2018; Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Hunt et al., 2006). The resource-advantage theory, the 

main theory of resource integration, argues accessing relational resources from other firms, 

customers, suppliers, and employees can boost a firm’s ability to integrate resources. This can 

be achieved via “dialogue”. According to Ballantyne (2004), a dialogue is an interactive 

process that plays a critical role in export ventures. People involved in the process exchange 

information and make and create new knowledge. This is in line with Grönroos (2004), who 

states that people can benefit from the process not only for themselves but also for others. 

Dialogue fosters constructive interaction and resource integration. In turn, this leads to superior 

innovation. By utilising these advantages, the resource integration of emerging market export 

ventures is likely to result in superior innovation in the host market.  

Another aspect of resource integration is resource transfer. By interacting with other members 

of the network, emerging market export ventures can access money, technology, and both 

tangible and nontangible resources (Hunt et al., 2006). Through the transferring process, 

emerging market export ventures will be able to analyse, evaluate, and select the proper 

knowledge and resources to fit their strategic purpose. In a similar vein, studies on 



25 
 

configuration fit perspective (Coreynen & Matthyssens, 2017; Das et al., 2006; Storbacka & 

Nenonen, 2011) also note that “the more precise the potential matching of resources, actions 

and aims within and among these processes, the greater will be the potential value” (Andreu et 

al., 2010, p.244). Hence, transferring and sharing resources shapes export ventures’ social 

capital, which becomes a source for resource integration. In sum, the resource transferring 

process can lead to a product, process, and administrative innovation for emerging market 

export ventures. 

P1: Resource integration has a positive effect on emerging market export ventures’ 

innovation in the host market. 

2.3.2 Resource integration, home market ties and export venture innovation 

Extant social networking literature suggests that home market ties can enhance resource 

integration in emerging market export ventures’ innovation (Adler & Kwon, 2002; Bjorkman 

& Kock, 1995; Chen, 1994; Chung, 2012; Chung & Kuo, 2018). According to Zhou et al. 

(2007), home market ties refer to a web of social relationships and connections embedded in 

the home market’s geographical, social or institutional space (e.g., ties with home market 

business associations, home market political entities). They argue that home market ties are 

vital for emerging export ventures to identify market opportunities and obtain new knowledge 

of foreign host market opportunities. New knowledge gained will enhance emerging market 

export ventures to integrate existing and new knowledge together to innovate their product or 

process in the host market. These home market ties are particularly important for Chinese 

export ventures operating in foreign host markets that are also emerging markets (Luo, 2000; 

Redding, 1990; Zhou et al., 2007), as export ventures are vulnerable to the host market's 

turbulent environment. Such constraints can be a daunting challenge to most Chinese export 

ventures. Therefore, home market ties offer an alternative approach to overcome resource and 

capabilities deficiencies. This process can enhance Chinese export ventures’ resource 

integration. As a result, Chinese export ventures’ innovation in the host market is enriched.   

In addition, home market business ties can also enhance emerging market export ventures' 

exploitative learning (Chung et al., 2015; Kim & Atuahene-Gima, 2010; March, 1991). 

Exploitative learning refers to the acquisition and learning of marketing intelligence, and 

experiences of others within current market boundaries (Levitt & March, 1988). The extant 

organisational learning literature notes that exploitative learning can help export ventures refine 

and extend their existing knowledge, technologies and competencies (March, 1991). When 



26 
 

home market business ties are strong, emerging market export ventures can enhance their 

learning capabilities internationally. This occurs because emerging market export ventures can 

learn from other suppliers and competitors in the home market to avoid any mistakes when 

operating in the same or similar foreign host market. Through home market business ties, 

emerging market export ventures can integrate their resources and knowledge to refine their 

system and marketing strategies incrementally. This finding is endorsed by Luo et al. (2008) 

and Chung et al. (2015). According to these studies, a close relationship/network with home 

market business ties means that emerging market export ventures can better integrate their 

resources and knowledge for their export marketing strategy and administrative system. 

Collectively, I propose that home market business ties can positively moderate the effect of 

resource integration on emerging market export venture innovation.  

P2: Home market ties positively moderate the effect of resource integration on 

emerging market export ventures’ innovation in the host market. 

2.3.3 Resource integration, intrafirm ties (ties with internal department heads) and 

emerging market export venture innovation 

Studies on social capital theory suggest that intrafirm ties can positively moderate resource 

integration and emerging market export venture innovation links (Lester, 2013; Tsai & 

Ghoshal, 1998).  Intrafirm ties are defined by Tsai and Ghoshal (1998) as the social connections 

and relationships among department heads or strategic business units’ managers. Emerging 

market export ventures can benefit from positive intrafirm ties. Extant literature suggests that 

trust can be built through positive intrafirm ties. As outlined by Uzzi (1996), trust reflects 

relational social capital. When the two managers of each department have trust in each other, 

they can share their knowledge and resources without worrying that the other manager might 

take advantage of this. Such trust relationships built from intrafirm ties can enhance 

cooperative activities among departments. Integration of knowledge and resources will drive 

new ways of exchanging and combining resources. Tsai and Ghoshal (1998) posited that this 

trust relationship among department heads could stimulate product innovation. 

The cognitive social capital theory also suggests that positive intrafirm ties can facilitate and 

enhance a shared vision among intrafirm managers (Lester, 2013; Singh, 2005; Tsai, 2014; 

Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998). Shared vision refers to the collective goals and aspirations of the 

participants within the firm (Tsai & Ghosha, 1998). A shared vision allows participants to 

develop a trusting relationship. Ouchi (1983) noted that a shared vision including values and 



27 
 

beliefs provides positive guidelines and reduces the possibility of opportunistic behaviour. 

Several studies have shown that members of the firm can minimise possible misunderstandings 

in their communication and gain more opportunities to share ideas or resources when they share 

the same vision (Ghoshal et al., 1993; Lester, 2013; Orton & Weick, 1990; Tsai & Ghoshal, 

1998). Furthermore, a shared vision enables them to see the potential value of their resource 

integration. This would subsequently increase the emerging market export venture’s innovation 

in the host market. Hence, I postulate that a shared vision arising from intrafirm ties can 

positively moderate the effect of resource integration on emerging market export venture 

innovation. 

P3: Ties among the internal department heads (i.e., Intrafirm ties) positively moderate 

the effect of resource integration on emerging market export ventures’ innovation in 

the host market.  

2.3.4 Resource integration, host market business ties and emerging market export 

venture innovation 

Host market business ties may have a positive impact on emerging market export venture 

innovation. Host market business ties refer to export ventures’ managers’ social connections 

with their partners such as suppliers, distributors and industry customers (Peng & Luo, 2000). 

A strong connection with host market business ties can provide an excellent opportunity for 

emerging market export ventures to overcome the liability of foreignness. According to Zou 

and Cavusgil (2002) and Yang et al. (2012), the liability of foreignness means additional costs 

when operating in a foreign host market. Institutional theory research suggests that the 

institutional distance can create the liability of foreignness for emerging market export ventures 

in the host market (He et al., 2016; Kostova et al., 2020; Wang & Chung, 2020; Yang et al., 

2012), as emerging market export ventures are not familiar with the host market business and 

institutional environment. To overcome the liability of foreignness, emerging market export 

ventures can build strong business ties with the host market business institutions because such 

business ties can enhance emerging market export ventures to gain local knowledge, share 

learning and exchange resources (Chung, 2012; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Wang & Chung, 2020). 

This knowledge gaining, sharing, and resource exchange will enable emerging market export 

ventures to better integrate their firms’ resources for the host market. Subsequently, this will 

enhance emerging market export ventures’ innovation (e.g., product innovation or process 

innovation) in the context of emerging market export ventures. 



28 
 

Furthermore, the extant literature on international marketing strategy suggests that host market 

business ties may strengthen emerging market export ventures’ competitive positions (Chung, 

2012; Chung et al., 2021; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Wang & Chung, 2020). Operating in another 

foreign host market can be challenging for export ventures because of unfamiliarity with the 

host market environment (Zaheer, 1995). The lack of host market knowledge and resources can 

limit emerging market export ventures’ resource integration and innovation. When emerging 

market export ventures have intrinsic deficiencies in resources, information, market 

intelligence and capabilities, this can constrain their capability to develop the right products for 

the host market, which will affect their competitiveness in the host market.  To overcome this 

issue, social networking theory argues that host market business ties can enable emerging 

market export ventures to gain insightful knowledge about the host market, and access to 

valuable resources from the host market. The new knowledge and resource will enhance 

emerging market export ventures’ ability to integrate their resources more efficiently (Chung 

& Kuo, 2018; Li et al., 2009; Sheng et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2007). In turn, this can lead to 

more resource integration and innovation.  

P4: Host market business ties positively moderate the effect of resource integration on 

emerging market export ventures’ innovation in the host market. 

2.3.5 Resource integration, host market political ties and emerging market export venture 

innovation 

Extant literature suggests that host market political ties can negatively moderate the effect of 

resource integration on emerging market export venture performance in the context of 

emerging market export ventures (Chung et al., 2016; Gu et al., 2008; Sheng et al., 2011). Li 

et al. (2009) suggested that a high level of dependence on host market political ties might 

demotivate emerging market export ventures from being more innovative in their operations. 

Emerging market export ventures might sacrifice their independent decision-making and 

tolerate government officials’ rent-seeking activities to access scarce resources controlled by 

the government (Sheng et al., 2011). The degree of government intervention can reduce export 

ventures’ management incentives to effectively communicate (Chen & Wu, 2011). Poor 

communication might lead to the wrong interpretation of market needs. Consequently, this can 

impact emerging market export ventures’ ability to integrate resources. The lack of incentives 

through resource integration will consequently lead to poor innovation, such as wrong product 

design or inefficient administration processes.  



29 
 

Moreover, previous studies on political ties also reveal that a strong connection with host 

market political ties might negatively impact the hiring quality of employees (Barney, 1991; 

Chung et al., 2016). When there is a robust host market political tie, the local or central 

government might interfere with the recruitment of export ventures. For example, the local or 

central government might recommend unqualified staff to join the emerging market export 

venture. Under organisational resource theory, Barney (1991) states that a high-quality 

management firm influences the quality of the internal communication system. A lack of fully 

qualified staff can be a detriment to the internal management capacity (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 

1998). Without fully qualified staff, emerging market export ventures cannot successfully 

integrate resources (Li et al., 2007; Luo et al., 2008). This will result in poor resource 

integration. Accordingly, a negative impact on export ventures’ innovation can result. 

P5: Host market political ties negatively moderate the effect of resource integration on 

emerging market export ventures’ innovation in the host market.  

2.4 Concluding remarks 

Research concerning emerging market export ventures has received wide attention over recent 

years. Yet, the research has established inconsistent empirical results. Extant research 

concerning emerging market export ventures can benefit from a comprehensive 

conceptualisation that captures the complexity of how emerging market export ventures obtain 

and integrate resources through their social networks and achieve their firms’ innovation goals 

in a foreign host market (Chung et al., 2016; Park & Luo, 2001; Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998; Zhou 

et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2007).   

To advance the conceptualisation that is postulated in this study, an empirical investigation is 

required. To achieve this, it is crucial to acquire and assemble data from multiple sources, 

including multiple respondents, archival data and other essential information, to fully maximise 

reliability and triangulate my findings. As emerging market export ventures face unprecedented 

market and institutional changes, they should focus their attention on network-based resources 

(e.g., managerial ties). Due to the complexity of the exporting business, emerging market 

export ventures can draw resources from multiple channels such as external and internal 

networking. To fully capture and understand the process of resource integration, a robust data 

collection process needs to be established. It might involve clarification with firms to develop 

detailed narrative histories of how they access resources. According to Campbell (1975) and 



30 
 

Yin (1994), it is necessary to involve qualitative research, which can match theory and data. In 

this way, research will be able to evaluate the conceptual model that is described here.  

Emerging market export ventures’ contribution to a nation’s employment and wealth 

generation is well documented (e.g., OECD, 2018). However, the mainstream research has 

solely focused on the phenomenon from the developed to emerging markets, and emerging to 

developed market perspectives. It is rare to find studies investigating emerging market export 

ventures from the emerging market perspective. In particular, emerging market export ventures 

are often constrained by resource poverty that limits strategic options. Ghemawat (2011) points 

out that emerging market export ventures confront a world that has already witnessed dramatic 

improvements in communications, technology and infrastructure. Emerging market export 

ventures face even more intense competition than export ventures from developed markets 

(Luo & Tung, 2007). Burgess and Steenkamp (2006) have argued how research in emerging 

markets advances marketing science and practice. Therefore, Chabowski et al. (2018) have 

called for more research on the impact of resource integration on emerging market export 

venture innovation. A well-founded conceptual model that can be successfully operationalised 

to capture the complexity of the resource integration processes of emerging market export 

ventures is required. The present conceptual model in this paper is based on the resource 

integration and managerial ties theory (e.g., resource advantage, social networking) and 

literature to derive a novel conceptualisation of innovation implications of emerging market 

export ventures. This new conceptualisation is in line with the theorisation of export ventures’ 

international expansion as a process of resource configuration through networking strategies 

(Chung & Ho, 2021; Morgan et al., 2004). 

2.5 Limitations and future research 

This study has various limitations that may encourage future research. First, although the 

moderation role of managerial ties is recognised here, it is premature to theorise about the link 

with firm performance. The current study has only focused on the moderation effect of 

managerial ties on resource integration and emerging market export ventures’ innovation link. 

It remains unknown whether it can be extended into export venture economic and channel 

performance (Chung et al., 2021; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Yang et al., 2012). Thus, it is worth 

conducting empirical studies on the effect of resource integration and managerial ties on 

emerging market export venture performance. 



31 
 

Second, in this study, I have only focused on emerging market export ventures to other host 

markets by exploring the moderation role of managerial ties (Chung & Kuo, 2018; Chung et 

al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2014). It is still unknown whether the managerial ties can influence co-

creation/engagement in emerging market export ventures (e.g., how managerial ties enhance 

the co-product development between Chinese exporters and their customers in Middle-East 

and South-East Asian markets) (Chung et al., 2019b). These initiatives might be interesting 

and fruitful areas for further research (Chung & Kuo, 2018; Li et al., 2009; Sheng et al., 2011; 

Yang et al., 2012).  

Finally, this study has explored the impact of resource integration on emerging market export 

ventures’ innovation. However, recent studies on digitalisation suggest that firms can benefit 

from the application of digitalisation (Kannan & Li, 2017; Lu & Julian, 2007; Prasad & 

Ramanurthy, 2007; Rialp-Criado & Rialp-Criado, 2018). Digital-related technology is also 

viewed as an important element for export ventures’ resource integration. Whether different 

forms of digitalisation such as digital marketing technology and social media have any impact 

on emerging market export ventures’ performance is worth exploring. It is also important for 

future research to explore the effect of resource integration, managerial ties and innovation 

from a business-to-business (B2B) context because of the increasingly important role of B2B 

in exporting business (e.g., Chung et al., 2021; Chung & Kuo, 2018; Kahiya, 2018; Katsikeas 

et al., 2018; Sharma et al., 2020). This focus is echoed by recent research on the importance of 

B2B; “the nature of change, the impact of business relationships and the problem identification 

related to these changes require appropriate theoretical lenses fine-tuned for a B2B context” 

(Pagani & Pardo, 2017, p.185). Collectively, research findings on the effect of digitisation of 

resource integration on emerging market export ventures will be a very interesting addition to 

the body of literature in this field. Researchers may also consider the B2B context in their 

investigation scopes.   

2.6 Chapter Summary 

Based on a review of the literature, this chapter provides some foundational knowledge for 

further empirical studies. The research put forwards that managerial ties (host and home market 

business and political ties, and home market intrafirm ties) can help explain how emerging 

market export ventures overcome challenges when they operate in a host market. Building on 

resource integration, social networking and innovation literature, the study proposes that home 

market business, political and intrafirm (i.e., ties with the internal department head) ties can 

positively moderate the effect of resource integration on emerging market export ventures’ 



32 
 

innovation in the host market; host market business ties can also positively moderate the effect 

of resource integration on emerging market export ventures’ innovation in the host market.  

From a resource-advantage perspective, Gummesson and Mele (2010) suggest that a firm’s 

integration capability of various resources and knowledge can impact the firm’s innovation 

performance. In addition, scholars like Grant and Baden-Fuller (1995), and Grant (1996) have, 

from a knowledge-based perspective, argued that gaining existing and new knowledge from 

the market is fundamental to improving firm’s performance.  Building on social networking 

theory, resource integration theory and innovation literature, this study postulates a moderating 

mechanism of managerial ties underlying the relationship between firms’ resource integration 

and innovation.  However, host market political ties might negatively moderate the effect of 

resource integration on emerging market export ventures’ innovation in the host market.  This 

study further suggests that emerging market export ventures need to examine the role of 

different types of managerial ties separately and identify their impact on the resource 

integration-innovation conceptualisation. 

However, as we know, research is a constantly evolving process. After I completed my 

conceptual paper, to better understand my research direction, I engaged with five emerging 

market export venture managers. Through my interaction with them, I have gained some 

valuable advice.  Based on their practical experience, they suggested that I provide some 

insightful information about export venture performance rather than innovation performance. 

As an export