Exploring New Zealand’s Rural Education Activities Programmes (REAPs): Social capital in a lifelong learning and community development context A thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Education at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand Derek Ryan Morrison 2016 Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 2 Abstract This research explored the extent to which social capital is an approach used by New Zealand’s Rural Education Activities Programmes (REAPs) to contribute to rural education. Social capital was defined for the purposes of this study as the resource residing in networks of individuals, based on mutual trust and shared social norms, which can be brokered and mobilised to achieve social benefits, particularly in the application of knowledge and skills. A conceptual framework lays out four key elements from this definition which were investigated: networks, trust, social norms, and brokerage. Given the lack of published material on REAPs and their work, a primarily qualitative design was utilised. Set within a constructivist epistemology and interpretive phenomenological methodology, in-depth interviews with REAP managers and questionnaires for REAP learners were used to collect data. The aim was to explore the lived experiences of these two REAP groups to identify their views on how REAPs operate so that those views could be considered within the social capital framework above. An inductive-deductive-inductive analysis approach was used to maximise the extent to which findings reflected participant language. Findings from both REAP managers and learners supported the strong presence of the four social capital elements in REAP activity. In many cases the qualitative themes were closely related, both within and across the four social capital elements. Both strong (social) and weak (institutional) forms of trust were described as influencing learner participation in networks, where REAPs played a role in brokering that participation within similar (bonded) and differing (bridged) networks. REAPs made use of trusted relationships and valued-based decision making to gain local community and cultural knowledge to ensure the relevance of responsive learning activities. The result was enhanced confidence and identity of learners to take part in other social activities, including further learning and collective action. Lived examples of these elements supported a social capital approach that fit well with the lifelong learning and community development processes outlined by the REAP mandate. These processes were defined holistically to consider the integration of individuals’ beliefs, viewpoints, and behaviours as much as skills and knowledge. The explored social capital approach within lifelong learning and community development contexts, yields clear recommendations for Government, REAPs, and partner organisations. Flexibility, values/identity-based education, and closing network gaps to facilitate innovation come through as REAP social capital practices that could inform policy and partnerships across the whole of the education sector. Further research is needed to more closely consider the complex relationships of the identified social capital themes. In terms of emergent themes, a deeper exploration of innovation produced through brokerage within REAP activity is highlighted as a key area of research for future. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 3 Acknowledgements Any piece of research that spans five years has to be driven by passion. I have to acknowledge that my passion for REAPs is born out of the dedication and caring I have experienced within these unique and funky organisations over the past decade. To all of those who put learners first, and who work tirelessly to better their rural communities through lifelong learning – thank you. I especially have to thank the REAP leaders and learners who have directly contributed to this study. Your time and insights have helped to tell more of REAPs’ story. Thank you. Along those lines, I must particularly give thanks to the REAPs within which I have worked during this project. It was with much support from Maude Wilkinson, former Chief Executive of Far North REAP, that I began this journey. And with the extensive awhi from John Chemis as Eastbay REAP’s CEO, I have been able to take considerable time to complete the seemingly endless shaping and writing that brought the journey to its successful end. As colleagues and friends, they have helped make this goal a reality. Ka nui te mihi ki a korua - thank you both. I also have to hugely acknowledge the support and humour of my supervisors – Dr. Linda Leach and Dr. John O’Neill. They have provided me with some remarkably insightful moments throughout what has been a long and sometimes painful process. Thank you for your patience, for sharing your wisdom, and most of all for helping me push through the many hurdles as they came up. This has truly been a team effort to create something ‘new’. Cheers to the dynamic duo! Last and by no means least, I must take an enormously shared sigh of relief with my husband, Ike Urlich-Morrison, as this stage of our life comes to a close. A doctoral thesis is not achieved alone by any stretch, and it is so often our partners that take on the stress and pressure of the task with us. Ike has lovingly provided praise and support to help see me through this challenge – and at all the right times, when things seem most impossible. Thank you, Ike. We have done it together and now we can celebrate – the dragon is slain. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 4 Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction: REAPs and Social Aspects of Learning 8 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF 21ST CENTURY LEARNING 8 RURALITY AS A FRAMING CONTEXT 10 RESEARCHER'S BACKGROUND 12 RESEARCH AIM 15 RESEARCHER QUESTIONS 15 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS 16 Chapter 2 Literature Review: REAP Origins, Purpose, and Characteristics 17 LITERATURE REVIEW PROTOCOL, RESULTS & GAPS 17 REAPS IN THE LITERATURE 19 EVALUATION OF SOURCES & IDENTIFICATION OF GAPS 21 INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE & SIMILAR ORGANISATIONS 23 REAPS - A SYNTHESIS OF WHAT WE KNOW 25 POLITICAL BEGINNINGS FOR REAPS 27 REAP ESTABLISHMENT AND EARLY REVIEW 29 NATIONAL CHANGE & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 34 REAPS' MOST RECENT REVIEW & CURRENT WORK 41 LIFELONG LEARNING, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT & GOVERNMENT FUNDING AS CONTEXTS 45 LIFELONG LEARNING 46 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 48 PRESENT GOVERNMENT ENVIRONMENT REALITIES 50 CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY 52 Chapter 3 Conceptual Framework: Social Capital as an Applied Model for REAPs 53 SOCIAL CAPITAL HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT 54 EARLY DEFINTIONS & THEORISING 54 PIERRE BOURDIEU 57 JAMES COLEMAN 60 ROBERT PUTNAM 61 CRITICS, PITFALLS & THE DARK SIDE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL 63 COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN PRACTICE 66 NETWORKS 67 TRUST 71 BROKERAGE 72 SOCIAL NORMS 74 OPERATIONALISING THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL 75 SOCIAL CAPITAL & HUMAN CAPITAL - LINKS IN EDUCATION 77 HUMAN CAPITAL 78 LINKS TO EDUCATION & WELLBEING 80 CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY 85 Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 5 Chapter 4 Methodology: Exploring Socially Constructed Experiences of REAPs 87 PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF RESEARCH DESIGN 88 EPISTEMOLOGY: CONSTRUCTIONISM 89 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE: SOCIAL CAPITAL THEORY 94 METHODOLOGY: INTERPRETIVE PHENOMENOLOGY 97 METHODS: DOCUMENT REVIEW, SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS & QUESTIONNAIRE 102 PRELIMINARY STAGE DOCUMENT REVIEW 104 STAGE ONE SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS 104 STRUCTURING THE INTERVIEW TOOL 105 SELECTING THE SAMPLE POPULATION OF MANAGERS 107 STAGE TWO LEARNER QUESTIONNAIRES 107 STRUCTURING THE QUESTIONNAIRES 108 SELECTING THE SAMPLE POPULATION OF REAP LEARNERS 110 DATA ANALYSIS 111 CODING AS ANALYSIS 112 INTERPRETIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS & TEMPLATE ANALYSIS 114 DATA DISPLAY 116 RESEARCH PROCESS: APPROVAL, ACCESS & DATA COLLECTION 117 ETHICS APPROVAL 117 ACCESSING REAPS 119 CARRYING OUT THE INTERVIEW RESEARCH STAGE 120 CARRYING OUT THE QUESTIONNAIRE RESEARCH STAGE 121 ANALYSING THE DATA 122 CONSIDERATIONS TO RESEARCH DESIGN & PROCESS 125 TRUSTWORTHINESS 125 LIMITATIONS 127 CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY 128 Chapter 5 Findings: Experiences of REAP Leaders and Learners 129 DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE FINDINGS CATEGORIES FROM ANALYSIS 130 NETWORKS CATEGORY 132 NETWORKS THEME: GAINING & SHARING LOCAL KNOWLEDGE 133 NETWORKS THEME: COLLABORATION & PARTNERSHIP 134 NETWORKS THEME: ACCESSING CONNECTIONS (MULTIPLE ROLES) 136 NETWORKS THEME: BUILDING PERSONAL & INSTITUTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS 137 NETWORKS THEME: INCREASING SOCIAL INVOLVEMENT (REDUCED ISOLATION) 139 TRUST CATEGORY 143 TRUST THEME: CREDIBILITY, REPUTATION & PROFILE 144 TRUST THEME: RESPONSIVENESS & MEETING NEEDS 145 TRUST THEME: INCLUSIVITY & BEING NON-COMPETITIVE 147 TRUST THEME: ESTABLISHING TRUST & EXPECTATIONS 149 TRUST THEME: FLEXIBILITY & ADAPTABILITY 151 Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 6 SOCIAL NORMS CATEGORY 156 SOCIAL NORMS THEME: VALUES-BASED ACTION & ROLE MODELING 157 SOCIAL NORMS THEME: CULTURAL AWARENESS & APPROPRIATENESS (RURAL) 159 SOCIAL NORMS THEME: CHANGING BEHAVIOURS, EXPECTATIONS & VIEWPOINTS 161 SOCIAL NORMS THEME: IDENTITY, CONFIDENCE & SENSE OF BELONGING 163 SOCIAL NORMS THEME: SANCTIONS AGAINST SHARED NORMS & VALUES 165 BROKERAGE CATEGORY 169 BROKERAGE THEME: BRINGING GROUPS TOGETHER & FACILITATION 170 BROKERAGE THEME: ENGAGING SPECIFIED GROUPS 172 BROKERAGE THEME: LEADERSHIP & COORDINATION 174 BROKERAGE THEME: SOCIAL COHESION & COOPERATION 176 BROKERAGE THEME: GAP FILLING (COMPLEMENTARITY & SUPPLEMENTARITY) 178 EMERGENT NON-SOCIAL-CAPITAL CATEGORY 182 EMERGENT THEME: LIFELONG LEARNING, KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS 182 EMERGENT THEME: MAKING A DIFFERENCE (COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT) 185 EMERGENT THEME: FUNDING TENSION & GOVERNMENT PRIORITIES 187 EMERGENT THEME: INNOVATION & FINDING SOLUTIONS 189 INTEGRATED THEMATIC RESULTS 192 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY 194 Chapter 6 Discussion: Interpreting Experiences of REAPs in Action 195 STRONG SOCIAL CAPITAL PRESENCE IN REAPS 196 NETWORKS IN REAPS 197 TRUST IN REAPS 200 SOCIAL NORMS IN REAPS 203 BROKERAGE IN REAPS 208 AFFIRMED LIFELONG LEARNING & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 210 GOVERNMENT FUNDING TENSIONS 214 STRONG CONSENSUS AMONG PARTICIPANTS ON POSITIVE REAP ATTRIBUTES 217 CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY 219 Chapter 7 Conclusions: Revisiting Research Aims & Looking to Future Research 221 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE 222 IMPLICATIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 223 FURTHER RESEARCH 225 LIMITATIONS AND AREAS OF IMPROVEMENT TO ENHANCE RESULTS 227 REVISITING PRESUPPOSITIONS & FINAL REFLECTIONS 228 References 231 List of Appendices APPENDIX 1 - INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR REAP MANAGERS 239 APPENDIX 2 - QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LEARNERS INCLUDING RELEASE STATEMENT 240 APPENDIX 3 - MASSEY HUMAN ETHICS APPROVAL LETTER FOR APPLICATION 13/05 243 Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 7 APPENDIX 4 - REAP BOARD CHAIR INVITATION & REQUEST TO ACCESS 244 APPENDIX 5 - RESEARCH PROJECT INFORMATION SHEET FOR MANAGERS 245 APPENDIX 6 - CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH FORM FOR MANAGERS 248 APPENDIX 7 - RESEARCH PROJECT INFORMATION SHEET FOR REAP LEARNERS 249 APPENDIX 8 - REQUEST TO AUDIO RECORD MANAGER INTERVIEWS FOR TRANSCRIPTION 252 List of Figures FIGURE 1 - LITERATURE REVIEW VIA BIBLIOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS (ADAPTED FROM HART, 1998) 18 FIGURE 2 - FORMS OF ACTIVITY TO ACHIEVE THE LISTED ACTIVITIES FROM TABLE 2 27 FIGURE 3 - COVERAGE AREAS FOR REAPS (SOURCED FROM 2007 REVIEW OF REAPS) 43 FIGURE 4 - PROCESS FRAMEWORK FOR REAPS (ADAPTED FROM PHILLIPS & PITTMAN, 2009) 50 FIGURE 5 - REAPS OPERATING THROUGH BOTH BONDING AND BRIDGING SOCIAL CAPITAL 69 FIGURE 6 - COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL THEORY RELEVANT TO THIS STUDY 76 FIGURE 7 - MOBILISING RESOURCES INTO CAPITAL FOR WELLBEING (BASSANI, 2007) 83 FIGURE 8 - SYNTHESIS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL APPROACH FOR REAPS 85 FIGURE 9 - RESEARCH DESIGN OVERVIEW (BASED ON CROTTY, 1998) 103 FIGURE 10 - LEVELS OF CODING FOR TEXTUAL ANALYSIS 113 FIGURE 11 - LEARNER QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONDENTS BY SECTOR 131 FIGURE 12 - LEARNER NETWORK INCREASE RESULTING FROM REAP EXPERIENCES 143 FIGURE 13 - LEARNER RATING OF REAP SERVICE QUALITY 156 FIGURE 14 - LEARNER REPORTED CHANGES IN VIEWPOINT AND BEHAVIOUR 169 FIGURE 15 - LEARNER REPORTED REAP BROKERAGE ACTIVITIES 181 FIGURE 16 - LEARNER VIEWS ON REAP MANAGER STATEMENTS 192 FIGURE 17 - LEARNER RESPONSES TO SOCIAL CAPITAL CATEGORIES 193 FIGURE 18 - WORDS THAT BEST DESCRIBE HOW REAPS WORK FOR LEARNERS 194 List of Tables TABLE 1 - REAP-SPECIFIC PUBLICATIONS FROM LITERATURE REVIEW 20 TABLE 2 - OVERVIEW OF REAP SERVICES BY LEARNER GROUP AND DELIVERY TOPIC 26 TABLE 3 - ARNOTT (1996) ETHNOGRAPHIC CASE STUDY RESULTS SUMMARY 37 TABLE 4 - REAP CHARACTERISTICS FROM THE LITERATURE 45 TABLE 5 - BURR'S (2003) CONSTRUCTIONIST ELEMENTS AND THOSE OF REAPS 92 TABLE 6 - REAP MANAGER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL AND QUESTION RATIONALE 107 TABLE 7 - EXPLORATORY TEMPLATE ANALYSIS PROTOCOL, BASED ON IPA METHOD (SMITH, FLOWERS & LARKIN, 2009) 116 TABLE 8 - KEY ETHICAL PRINCIPLES ASSESSMENT (PER MASSEY CODE OF ETHICS, 2010) 117 TABLE 9 - MASTER CODING LIST OF THEMES FROM EXPLORATORY IPA TEMPLATE ANALYSIS 124 TABLE 10 - CODED DATA CATEGORIES AND THEMES 130 TABLE 11 - CODED 'NETWORKS' REFERENCE COUNT FROM PARTICIPANTS 142 TABLE 12 - CODED 'TRUST' REFERENCE COUNT FROM PARTICIPANTS 155 TABLE 13 - CODED 'SOCIAL NORMS' REFERENCE COUNT FROM PARTICIPANTS 168 TABLE 14 - CODED 'BROKERAGE' REFERENCE COUNT FROM PARTICIPANTS 180 TABLE 15 - CODED 'EMERGENT' REFERENCE COUNT FROM PARTICIPANTS 191 Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 8 Chapter 1 Introduction: Rural Education Activities Programmes (REAPs) and Social Aspects of Learning As rural depopulation continues, outlying New Zealand communities are approaching critical tipping points. Services and resources lost from depopulation are resulting in a lessened ability to meet skill shortages, fulfill labour market demands, and innovate (Spoonley, 2015). As a response to this shift, collaborations between the education sector and outside organisations have become increasingly relied upon to achieve shared learning goals (Dalziel & Saunders, 2014). These efforts are part of an evolving expectation by Government for partnerships to generate “flexibility and innovation” in a “whole-of community” approach to educational success (Ministry of Education, 2015, pp. 4-5). This thesis examines REAPs as an enduring rural policy solution, directly tied to the whole of the education system, and how they carry out collaborative efforts amidst scarce resources. The results are intended to better inform policy, partnerships, and practice related to rural, lifelong learning, and community development settings. Social Aspects of 21st Century Learning Today's education system is intended to provide us with the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes to make sense of the world and fully engage in society. In community education, identity forming is part of learning, enabling fuller participation not only in education, but also within the community itself. This is because identity and confidence gained from successful learning in social spaces enhance self- awareness and informs social disposition (Crick & Wilson, 2005). When we see how we fit into the world, we are best situated to contribute to and become a part of it, achieving the above aim. As such, learning is integral to personal and community Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 9 growth, where each day learners are subjected to a continually altered social world, reshaping their outlook through lived experiences. The breadth of social contexts and experiences referenced above requires an educational model that can cope with not just static skill sets, but knowledge that is both built and applied with social groups in mind. Self-determination and collective action are common examples of shared learning in practice, with the evolving role of education increasingly aligned to concepts like responsible citizenship, family wellbeing, and community resilience (Carneiro & Draxler, 2008). Sought competencies in education that lend themselves to these concepts include those that acknowledge context, shifting everyday knowledge, and learner diversity (i.e. varied backgrounds and viewpoints). The last of those reflects the increased access we have to other cultures, value systems, and ways of life through global technology. With widening social contexts and sharing responsibilities, comes the demand for today's skills to be increasingly collaborative in nature (Hung, Ng, Thiam, & Lim, 2009). Working together is a modern prerequisite to problem solving, as is the ability to adapt to new knowledge and viewpoints as part of that collaborative sharing. This is a critical point that will underpin core aspects of this thesis - that social exchanges are central to learning and acting together in groups. The crux of successful learning that is dependent on social exchange lies in achieving what have been termed 21st century skills. These include broad and integrated skills such as critical thinking, adaptability, self-awareness, innovation, multi-platform communication skills, life and career skills, as well as collaborative and project-based skills (P21: Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2015; Shaw, 2010). These skill sets reflect the increasing complexity of the modern world, requiring regular revision to instill these in a diverse learner audience. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 10 The challenge in enabling this kind of learning is that policy is increasingly based on urban rather than rural needs and infrastructure (Dalziel & Saunders, 2014). Rurality as a Framing Context Since 2008, more people have been living in urban than rural areas globally (The World Bank, 2015). Such a shift in population has affected policy and infrastructure decisions in developed nations, with New Zealand being no exception (Bottrell & Goodwin, 2011). Population levels drive the availability of local, regional, and national resources, leaving rural communities in an increasingly precarious position of looking after their own development and wellbeing as their populations decrease. In the context of a fast-changing information society, these isolated populations require additional support to keep pace in today's world. Education is the means for these increasingly marginalised pockets of society to develop modern competencies. Adaptability and resilience are concepts readily applied to building the capacity of rural communities to maintain their cultural, economic, and identity-based resources (Brown & Schafft, 2011). As Brown and Schafft (2011) point out, supporting rural populations as a growing minority is important so they may continue to be a source of vital natural resources in the global economy, as well as sources of unique historical and cultural heritage - in this case for rural New Zealand. Collaborative efforts have become necessary to achieve rural development and safeguard the resource potential outlined above. This is because rural communities have lacked the local skill, insight, and experience to meet the requirements of modern educational reform in the last 100 years (Schafft & Jackson, 2010). Schools are common examples of hubs for rural social, cultural, and civic activities, with intergenerational engagement a part of those activities (Bottrell & Goodwin, 2011). Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 11 They can serve as an example of place-based identity for rural communities, where social relations and cultural practices are built and adapted to meet the needs of local individuals and families. When well aligned to the local community, schools can also be viewed as constructed social institutions that increase community-based practices and partnerships, as well as social engagement and social cohesion. However, falling rolls and reducing community sizes impact negatively on the ability of schools to provide for all of a rural community's development needs. Much like rural schools, the adult learning sector would note that an increasing range of provision is required to address rural needs across the lifespan, driven by the reality that despite depopulation, rural areas are just as diverse in population makeup as urban areas (Benseman, 2006; Spoonley, 2015). In order to provide access to a range of learning activities to meet those needs, there has been an increasing range of organisations taking on support and development roles. Part of achieving skills for growth in communities, particularly where formal education is not fully geared to achieve them or where students disengaged before attaining them, means relying on other institutions to fulfill that development. The NGO1 sector reportedly operates strongly in that space, more so in New Zealand than most other OECD2 countries (Dalziel & Saunders, 2014). According to Dalziel and Saunders (2014), the goals of these organisations are often targeted at keeping economy going through training for industry and coordinating disparate services to make the best use of resource. It is these shared goals for development and wellbeing that place NGO work in close proximity to education. 1 NGO is an abbreviation for Non Governmental Organisation. 2 OECD is an abbreviation for Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 12 As a rural-focused policy solution to the above issues, New Zealand introduced 13 REAPs in three waves between 1979 and 1982 to support rural children, teachers and families in the early childhood and schooling sectors (including adults in post- schooling stages of learning). Today these non-profit organisations work resolving issues of educational access, resourcing, gaps in best practice and collaboration (see REAP Aotearoa New Zealand, 2015b). As such, REAPs are positioned to make use of both the suggested hubs of rural learning (i.e. schools), as well as other means to support learning across the lifespan. Exploring how these NGOs operate with shared learning and developmental goals directly alongside the education system in New Zealand will better our understanding of resourcing solutions in a collaborative and socially contextual environment. Researcher's Background I am a rurally born-and-raised, first-generation university graduate. Having attended nine different rural schools by the time I graduated high school, I have a strong appreciation for the challenges of limited resources (and transience) in isolated communities. Teachers and family always pressed education as an opportunity for betterment, with higher achievement equated with greater social mobility. As an undergraduate I trained under a new interdisciplinary honours programme, where core general education was team taught by multiple faculty members from four to five different disciplines. The result was an integrative model of critical thinking that encouraged the mixing of disciplinary insights and tools to approach social issues. I have applied this kind of thinking particularly in my methodology chapter, where I have modified the traditional choices of theory and methodology to ensure best fit for my own research design and rationale. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 13 My involvement and interest in REAPs as grassroots organisations have evolved over the last nine years, starting almost as soon as I arrived in New Zealand in search of a way to get to grips with a "new" education system. Currently serving as the Director of Operations for Eastbay REAP, I began as a volunteer at Far North REAP in 2006, providing tertiary learning support to students either interested or enrolled in training courses and extramural qualifications. Over time, that role became a formal and permanent one. After four years in a senior role leading Far North REAP’s education team, I was made Acting Chief Executive for the organisation. I have additionally served as Staff Representative on Far North REAP’s Board of Directors, been the first national Secretariat, and am now in my second term as an elected member of the National Board for REAP Aotearoa New Zealand (REAPANZ). Cumulatively these roles have provided a rounded perspective on REAPs from grassroots delivery to high-level strategy. These experiences, and engagement with communities and passionate staff from the other 12 REAPs, have led me to bring REAPs to the fore in educational research. As I explored REAPs’ place in educational research to understand how these organisations operate, I found there is no peer-reviewed research published on REAPs currently. Despite 30 years contributing to rural education in New Zealand, only a handful of self-published studies, two pieces of case study research, three governmental reports, and a text on informal history are available to those outside the REAP movement. This is a critical gap around a core and unique feature of New Zealand’s education system. With New Zealand Governments regularly reprioritising investments in education, it is essential that REAPs, as a long-standing feature of the Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 14 Ministry of Education, be clearly understood in terms of their contribution in the most rural parts of the country. Ultimately my interest in this type of research revolves around two key points: the need to investigate a significant phenomenon in the New Zealand educational system for which there is little formal research presently; and the desire to highlight and explain models of community-based learning and development that take a learner- centric and adaptive approach to improving the quality of life for individuals and families. These efforts are underpinned by my own views and assumptions about REAPs. Through my extensive involvement in REAPs, I have experienced them to have a strong collaborative and relationship focus in how they operate across all three educational sectors, both through their own provision and by engineering and supporting joint ventures with partner organisations. The utility of these relationships hinges on the established reputation of REAPs in their area to be effective. The overarching purpose of a relational approach is to influence learning and social change. These views have provided useful insight in shaping the goals of this research, namely that of focusing on a social capital approach as a possible description of the REAP model in action. Upon investigating collaborative, social, and relationships-based models of community learning, social capital became an obvious model to apply from the early literature review. Given the exploratory nature of this project, great care was taken during early engagement with participating REAPs and ultimately during data collection to avoid explicit social capital language and suggestions. As a researcher I acknowledge that my experiences and preformed notions around social capital have informed the approach to my research design – specifically my views that trusted Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 15 relationships and the ability to bring groups together are core aspects of how REAPs undertake their work. I have also taken clear steps to allow focus on the language of participants to articulate how REAPs operate and to allow for other views on the REAP approach to come through. Research Aim Noting the social and developmental aspects of learning across the lifespan, an exploratory study that provides insight into these facets of the REAP model and practice was planned. The aim of this study was to use phenomenological methods grounded in a constructionist framework of social capital theory to explore how REAPs contribute to learning in rural New Zealand. Acknowledging the rural context outlined above, this aim provided a targeted investigation of the social spaces of learning relevant to REAP communities. The application of social capital theory also incorporated the relational and exchange-based concepts related to skills development and application, which are aligned to the 21st century and collaborative skillsets necessary for learners to thrive in today's world. An improved understanding of how REAPs, as community- based organisations, operate across the three education sectors in a lifelong learning and community development context provides a better-informed approach to policy, shared community outcomes, and enhanced collaborations. Research Questions A review of the literature revealed a gap in peer-reviewed research and a need for further research on New Zealand’s REAPs generally. Because aspects of REAP historical and cultural elements have been captured at least minimally in the handful of existing sources, the focus for this research is one of approach – how REAPs do what Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 16 they do. Within the context of social exchange, the aim is to explore the approach through which REAPs add value to learning in rural communities. Primary research question: To what extent do REAPs make use of a social capital approach to contribute to education in rural New Zealand? Enabling research questions: What are the characteristics of REAPs as they have evolved over time? What contexts do REAPs operate within based on their characteristics? What are the key elements of a social capital approach? Outline of Chapters Having introduced the scope of, motivation for, and aims of this research, the remaining thesis chapters progress as follows. Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature, particularly around REAPs and concepts related to the defined characteristics of a REAP. Chapter 3 is a conceptual framework that scaffolds the theoretical aspects of a social capital model to explain how REAPs may be described to operate and fulfill their role. This is intended to help delineate the complex variances in social capital definitions, resulting in a clarified and relevant explanation of the concept within this thesis. Chapter 4 explains the methodological approach to the research, from philosophical underpinnings through to methods and issues of validity and ethics. Chapter 5 presents findings from collected data, while Chapters 6 and 7 discuss the implications of those findings and suggest wider significance and further research related to REAPs and social capital. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 17 Chapter 2 Literature Review: A Critical Review of REAP Origins, Purpose, and Characteristics The review of literature aimed to provide a synthesis and critical review of what is known about REAPs, and focused on characteristics of REAPs in terms of how they operate. Background information for lifelong learning and community development as contexts for REAP work was also explored. Hart's (1998) definition of literature review informed the approach taken in this chapter: The selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfill certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being proposed. (p. 13) Consequently, the chapter is divided into three sections that illustrate and evaluate how REAPs are presented in the literature: − Literature review protocol, evaluation of results, and gaps; − Synthesis and critique of what is known on REAPs (e.g. history, services etc.); − Framing the REAP contexts of lifelong learning and community development. Literature Review Protocol, Results and Gaps For this study, an iterative process has been applied since January 2011, across a range of sources to establish a broad spectrum of materials on REAPs for evaluation and refinement. Key sources for review included published texts, peer reviewed articles, published reports and studies, websites (primarily for educational and community-based institutions), theses, conference papers, and national archives material. Results from searches were categorised and scanned for relevance based on Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 18 inclusion and exclusion criteria set by key terms (see below). Those of significance to the research were marked for deeper reading and annotation, with bibliographies used to extract seminal and related research. As all annotated sources from the broad search became incorporated into the thesis in some way, those sources were transferred into the research library (Mendeley) for referencing as necessary. Figure 1 summarises the overall process that informed the ongoing search, taking a bibliographic analysis approach. Figure 1: Literature review bibliographic analysis (Adapted from Hart, 1998) Search terms were focused on two key areas: REAPs generally and phrases designed to capture related organisations, both within New Zealand and globally. Electronic database searches were carried out through a number of educationally relevant sites including (but not limited to): Academic Search Premier, Archives New Zealand, Education Source, ERIC, Google Scholar, and JSTOR. Examples of key specific search terms and criteria for REAPs themselves include: "REAP", "Rural Education Activities Programme", "rural education", "rural education New Zealand", Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 19 "rural learning", "rural learning New Zealand", "lifelong learning organisations", "lifelong education organisations", "community development organisations", and "community education organisations". While this is not an exhaustive list, it captures the core of concepts explored across multiple databases. The ongoing review of literature also acknowledges emerging publications and considers the possibility of near future government reports on REAPs, as well as pending texts, articles, and website updates. Overall results on search terms numbered between 100,000 and 3,000,000 depending on the specificity of the term. Those were filtered through scanning criteria, honing in on community-based learning topics, rurally focused education programmes, and education sector initiatives. Over 3,000 sources were scanned based on inclusion criteria, such as: applied research and texts being within the last 15 years; New Zealand and Australian-based organisations given preference for similar services and contextual aspects (i.e. lifelong learning and community development); and social capital research being in relation to education across the three sectors. Filtering resulted in approximately 750 sources being read and evaluated (around 100 of which are cited). These materials inform the literature review, conceptual framework, methodology, and discussion chapters. REAPs in the literature. Search results for REAPs specifically presented a finite amount of research and evaluative material, demonstrating a considerable gap in the literature even at a glance. An initial scoping of existing literature about REAPs provides a limited number of sources on the history and purpose of these non-profit organisations. A few dozen staffing reports, annual reports, and financial returns for REAPs can be found in Archives New Zealand, illustrating the number of workers and levels of funding for Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 20 each REAP from their establishment between 1979 and 1982 until the early 1990s. Policy documents and founding research on REAPs from the then Department of Education have not been kept. In fact, there are so few results of published research or reports across REAPs’ 35 years, all 13 can be listed in total rather than summarised. Table 1: REAP-specific publications from literature review Substantive results include one external historical case study on the first four REAPs (Nash, 1982), one external case study on two REAPs (Arnott, 1996), one REAP-specific publication timeline based on search results Year Publication Description 1982 Case Study Research on REAPs Nash (Massey University) Case study on the objectives, structure, and operations of the first wave of REAPs. 1990 Review of REAPs Rivers (Ministry of Education) Examination of alignment of REAPs to Tomorrow’s Schools goals. 1991 REAP Handbook Ministry of Education Operational guidelines for REAPs as provided by the funding ministry. 1995 Reading Recovery Evaluation Action Research Easton, Hilson & Wilkinson Action research on the development, implementation, and outcomes of a REAP reading assistance programme. 1996 Rural Services Provision Report Ministry of Education Environmental scan report on early childhood, school-based, and adult learning opportunities in rural NZ. 1996 Case Study Research on REAPs Arnott (Northern Territory University) Case study research on operations of REAPs, with a focus on programmes, processes, and pressures. 1997 Technical Policy Paper Anderson (Ministry of Agriculture) Investigative report on effectiveness and indicators of REAPs in addressing supplementary education needs. 1999 Far North REAP Social Audit Pearce Self-initiated audit report assessing non- financial performance as perceived by stakeholder research. 1999 Māori Needs in Central Otago Te Whanau Whanui ki Kopuwai (NZ Lotteries & WINZ) Research report on Māori needs analysis resulting from attempts to develop a Māori Community Worker position. 1999 Youth Issues Survey Research Central King Country REAP Local survey research project summary examining youth policy, engagement, and educational opportunities. 2002 Informal History of REAPs Shepherd & Hansen Historical text on the start of REAPs, their evolving lifelong services and changing environmental factors. 2002 REAP Stocktake Report Porteous (Ministry of Education) Assessment of REAP performance against 2000/2001 contracts, reports, operational and policy issues. 2007 Review of REAPs Report Ministry of Education Examination of REAP provision, efficiency, and areas of development to enhance government investment. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 21 informal REAP historical research text (Shepherd & Hansen, 2002), three formal organisational REAP review reports (Anderson, 1997; Ministry of Education, 2007; Porteous, 2002), and a handful of small-scale project reports from individual REAPs and agencies (Cooke, 1999; Diver, 1999; Easton, Hilson, & Wilkinson, 1995). The details in Table 1 above provide a snapshot of source material on REAPs, with fuller details and evaluations of those sources available in later sections. Minor conference talks and discussion papers have been referenced in some published materials, but transcripts of those talks could not be retrieved. Evaluation of sources and identification of gaps. Reiterating the scarcity of material directly related to REAPs over their 35-year operation, all landmark sources are mentioned here briefly. Three issues present themselves in light of this literature: 1.) only four of the 13 publications above were conducted independently, i.e. by someone outside of the REAP or the funding Ministry, creating a highly normative set of viewpoints in the literature; 2.) only one source makes efforts to provide explanatory details of how REAPs provide their wide-ranging services; 3.) and nothing as yet is available in applied research and refereed journals to recognise REAPs in practice. Consequently, further research needs to be done about REAPs to place their educational role more clearly in the research landscape. With only a handful of primary sources specific to REAPs to draw from, the viewpoints on any findings are limited by the scope, nature, and even author of those publications. Limited viewpoints could primarily be couched in terms of the "funder and the funded", given that the purpose of four of the above exercises revolve around operational efficiency and Governmental alignment. Three sources from the literature used formal research methodologies: Nash’s 1982 case study of four REAPs, Arnott’s Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 22 1996 case study of two REAPs, and Anderson’s 1997 review of all REAPs (though it is unclear what the interview engagement and survey return rates were). Each of these utilised both document analysis and interviews to gather wide data from purposive groups across small numbers of REAPs. Only Arnott’s work is able to make claims into widening the understanding of how these organisations operate i.e. how they undertake their well-defined purpose to contribute to rural communities. This thesis is only the second to research how REAPs operate after Arnott's work. While each of these examples from the literature have added to our understanding of REAPs, to date none have been reported as peer-reviewed research, regardless of scope or method. Shepherd and Hansen (2002) remark on their literature review efforts: [...] from our research we have ascertained that by and large, little is ever written about lifelong learning and the New Zealand rural context. We are certain that the New Zealand REAP model is unique and although there has been international interest, there has not been any update of the equivalent package elsewhere. (p. 144) Some 12 years on from Shepherd and Hansen, material on REAPs is still lacking. However, this search did reveal REAPs to be globally unique as responsive lifelong learning and development organisations. No other organisation in the literature provides both formal and informal support to all three education sectors as part of their mandate to develop and improve communities. It is clear that any further research into REAPs as a phenomenon would make a valuable contribution to the wider literature. Further value is added by furthering our understanding of how REAPs have developed, from their originally conceived purpose as responsive lifelong learning organisations, into entities that use those efforts as a means to achieve social and community Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 23 development ends. This is the first of the enabling research question for this study: what are the characteristics of REAPs as they have evolved over time? International literature and similar organisations. REAPs operate as community organisations in the rural arena of early childhood, schools, and adult education. Adding the contexts of lifelong learning and community development, as well as a specific framework like social capital means a number of international literatures were considered in developing the investigation. As a basis for wider comparison, the research question around REAPs is primarily situated against the field of rural education in an international context. With an emphasis on the rural context provided in the introductory chapter, multiple literatures are considered briefly below to clarify the placement of this investigation of REAPs in wider fields. Both lifelong learning and community development literatures are reviewed later in this chapter as part of the contextual discussion around REAPs. Rural education literature (see Brown & Schafft, 2011; Schafft & Jackson, 2010) demonstrates the strongest alignment to REAPs, particularly given their rural education mandate. Looking at REAPs as a policy solution with a rural focus, publications such as the Australian and International Journal of Rural Education and the Journal of Research in Rural Education offer peer reviewed spaces for emerging trends and ideas relevant to REAPs’ work (see Coladarci 2007; Roberts & Cuervo, 2015). Equally there are a number of rural policy aligned organisations that make use of their own publications around rural education issues, including Rural Women New Zealand, the American National Rural Education Association, and the Rural China Education Foundation. Each of these rural sector partners offers a relevant place for research on REAPs and their work in rural communities, although as discussed below, each focuses Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 24 on aspects of REAP activity without being comparable on the whole to the totality of what REAPs offer and aim to achieve. In an attempt to encapsulate the entirety of the REAP model in the international literature, alternative searches to link the REAP model with other comparable organisations in lifelong learning literature proved difficult for a number of reasons. Where REAPs offer services across the lifespan, early childhood through to senior learning, the term "lifespan" in an organisational sense yields results in the human development and mental health arenas, where lifespan education has a specific disciplinary concept. Likewise, the terms "lifelong learning" and "lifelong education" can be synonymous (in a practice sense) with continuing and adult education, which is only one of three core aspects of REAPs’ work. Neither search provided comparable organisations to incorporate into the formal literature review. A further variation of search for similar organisations was carried out with a wider community education lens. While there are innumerable examples of entities that focus on community education projects as part of their mandate (see Fasheh, 1990; McGivney, 1999), it was again difficult to identify organisations in both areas that reflected the wide sector scope and educational mandate of REAPs. It is clear that the "grassroots" community approach to utilise relationships and networks is present in other organisations (see Grassroots Education Project, 2015). There are also strong similarities between distinct projects and outcomes comparable to REAP work. However, results lacked the cross-sector focus in an applied education setting, which is a core component of the research question for this thesis. Without a clear directive to engage with learning at all ages and stages, research into other organisations would not significantly further an exploratory analysis of how REAPs operate in their setting. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 25 REAPs – A Synthesis of What We Know Through the source material above, several common threads on the purpose and function of REAPs provide a synthesised definition of these organisations as: rural and responsive nonprofits that broker, facilitate, enhance, and provide needs-based lifelong learning opportunities from pre-school to adult education, through a networks- based community development approach (Arnott, 1996; Ministry of Education, 2007; Nash, 1982; Shepherd & Hansen, 2002). This aligns to the description provided by REAP Aotearoa New Zealand as the national REAP body in their most recent Integrated Investment Plan: REAPs [...] provide lifelong learning opportunities based on local need. Our ongoing role is to identify gaps in the provision of education, of all types and for all ages, and develop strategies to fill these gaps, either through our own programmes or in collaboration with other providers. REAP programmes supplement, complement and fill gaps in education in the Early Childhood, Schooling, and Adult & Community Education (ACE) sectors and transitions between these levels. […] Sometimes REAPs are the leader, initiator and sole provider, sometimes the supporter, broker and facilitator of collaborative efforts, and often the catalyst for change. REAPs take seriously their role in promoting community development, integrating education and provision of information with activities in other sectors including health, social services, community organisations, iwi3 and runanga4 and local government. (REAP Aotearoa New Zealand, 2015a, p. 4) Based on that same planning document, Table 2 provides an overview of the range of these activities and targeted learner groups across REAPs nationally (summarised from REAP Aotearoa New Zealand, 2015a) : 3 Iwi is a Māori word, meaning tribe (the largest social unit of a people). 4 Runanga is a Māori word, meaning governing or administrative board for a group of families. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 26 Table 2: Overview of REAP services by learner group and delivery topic REAP Aotearoa New Zealand 2015 expected activities by education sector Early childhood education with a government focus on increasing participation in quality ECE5 and increased successful transitions into schooling Groups engaged with services 1. Families with ECE-aged children (including grandparents) 2. Early childhood-aged children, enrolled and not enrolled in ECE 3. Educators and administrators working in ECE services ECE includes kohanga reo6, licensed centres, playgroups, and home groups. Example learning activity topic areas • Curriculum and technology courses • E-learning support in the home • Rural playgroup development • Ka Hikitia7 and cultural strategies • Home-based pedagogy support • Community ECE networks support • Te Reo8 and Tikanga9 Māori • Whanau-service relationships • Bicultural transitions development Schools education with a government focus on increasing early years literacy/numeracy and increasing NCEA10 Level 2 achievement Groups engaged with services 1. Families with school-aged children (including grandparents) 2. School-aged children, enrolled and not enrolled in school 3. Educators and administrators working in schools Schools include kura kaupapa11 Māori, primary, secondary and area schools. Example learning activity topic areas • Te Reo and Tikanga Māori • Gifted learning support • STEM12 classroom promotion • E-learning tools and social media • Curriculum and technology courses • Ka Hikitia and cultural strategies • Home-based pedagogy support • Community-schools networks • Clustered groups for shared practice Adult education with a government focus on skills for industry, careers for at-risk youth, adult literacy/numeracy, and achievement for Māori and Pasifika Groups engaged with services 1. Learners with low foundation skills (e.g. less than Level 3 on the NZ Qualifications Framework) 2. Learners whose initial learning was unsuccessful (i.e. at school) 3. Priority groups such as disengaged youth, Māori, and Pasifika13 Example learning activity topic areas • Basic computing and digital skills • Job readiness (CVs and interviews) • Drivers licence and literacy courses • Te Reo and Tikanga Māori • Youth pathways planning • NCEA basics for parents/students • Positive parenting programmes • NZ Sign Language and ESOL14 • Embedded literacy and numeracy 5 ECE is an abbreviation for Early Childhood Education. 6 Kohanga Reo is an immersive Te Reo Māori language early childhood learning environment. 7 Ka Hikitia is an early childhood curriculum, based on a Māori cultural worldview. 8 Te Reo is a Māori word, meaning Māori language. 9 Tikanga is a Māori word, meaning practices. 10 NCEA is an abbreviation for National Certificate in Educational Achievement. 11 Kura kaupapa is an immersive Te Reo Māori language school-aged learning environment. 12 STEM is an abbreviation for Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics. 13 Pasifika refers to indigenous people of the Pacific Islands (not including Māori). 14 ESOL is an abbreviation for English for Speakers of Other Languages. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 27 To better illustrate the planned programming above, those services can also be distilled into categories according to the form the learning activity takes: Figure 2: Forms of activity to achieve the listed activities from Table 2 The genesis and examination of those activities in action were extracted from historical accounts and reviews of REAPs over the past 35 years, from their political beginnings through to present operations. Political beginnings for REAPs. While there is certainly nothing formally documented around the formative development of REAPs as a concept in the late 1970s, multiple sources (Arnott, 1996; Nash, 1982; Shepherd & Hansen, 2002) credit REAPs as a reactive political manoeuvre. In the electoral campaigns leading up to the 1978 general election in New Zealand, the highly active and influential Federated Farmers (and other rurally oriented constituents) made pointed inquiries in public forums as to what was being done to address rural disparities in education. The result was an announcement two months prior to the election to establish 13 REAPs in three waves in the most rural districts of the country, with three of the four initial REAP areas described as "highly marginalized constituencies" (Nash, 1982, p. 7). According to Nash (1982), "a proposal to provide supplementary educational resources to rural districts with specific Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 28 needs was made in the 1978 Election Manifest of the National Party", whereby resources would be directed by management committees comprised of local community members, and where "resources would be provided at all levels of the educational system – pre-school, primary, secondary and community" (p. 3). Nash further elaborates that the districts to be included in the REAP movement included (in their respective ‘waves’): Central Otago, East Coast, Marlborough, and Taihape-Ruapehu (1979); Central King Country, Eastern Bay of Plenty, Northern Wairarapa, Northland, West Coast and Western Nelson (1980); and Central Plateau, Southland and Wairarapa (1982). There is […] no available written information about the criteria used to determine which districts would be provided with REAPs, at which phase of the rolling programme, or with what character and level of staffing. (pp. 4-5) What is significant here is that with the plan for implementing a national REAP scheme, comes the first account of the most consistent attributes of REAPs in the literature: that they are locally responsive organisations designed to supplement educational opportunities across all ages of learning in rural communities (where rural was defined as centres with populations below 20,000). These are the most cited hallmarks of REAPs throughout the early years of their development, although other attributes become clear as REAPs stabilise in their communities. Other primary aspects of REAPs, that come through the later literature, revolve around their community development nature, specifically that networks, facilitation, and brokerage play a pivotal role in how they achieve their educational aims of being responsive across the lifespan (Arnott, 1996; Ministry of Education, 2007; Porteous, 2002; Shepherd & Hansen, 2002). These are aspects that are revealed during REAP Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 29 evaluative exercises after their establishment, and are discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. REAP establishment and early review. The establishment of these rural learning organisations, beyond the political determination behind their creation, is best captured by the sole published text on REAPs. Robin Shepherd and Jens Hansen, founding Community Education Organisers (CEOs) of Far North and Westland REAPs respectively, provide a wide reaching socio- political background for REAPs in their 2002 text And So Shall They REAP: An Informal History of the New Zealand Rural Education Activities Programme (REAP). Their book comprehensively covers the issues of organisational culture, shifting political landscapes, and on-the-ground, as-it-happened accounts of REAPs over a 20-year period. Many examples of delivery services are used to illustrate REAPs as adapting to both government climate and community need. Many of their views and statements on REAP history are supported by the review and research sources referenced above, which support the account of how REAPs developed in their early years of operation. Shepherd and Hanson's anecdotal and evidenced accounts of the beginnings of REAPs are in line with those laid out by Nash previously. They point out the then Department of Education’s view on the role of REAPs by 1982 when all 13 were fully operational: [...] a coordinated package of rural education services across the lifespan that allocates supplemental staffing resources to pre-schools and schools, creates linkages to agencies, provides pastoral care and professional development to educators, and delivers responsive training (especially pre- employment) to adults. (pp. 30-1) Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 30 Much like Nash, Shepherd and Hansen (2002) surmise the responsive intent of REAPs, that the "innovative management of resources that enable deliberate, responsive and sustained growth in education" was the guiding operational principle to allow REAPs to get underway, with input from local people to develop local solutions for learning (p. 10). And so with that key principle in hand, the named Management Advisory Committees (MACs) would begin in 13 rural regions, starting with the first four in 1979, five in 1980, and the final four in 1982. In terms of practical operations, the established management committees began working under a mandate to implement their responsive principle. They were entrusted to "provide direction and advice [… as well as] general oversight of the elements of the scheme [REAP] in the district; to consider reports at regular intervals from staff members […]; to evaluate the functioning of the scheme [… and]; to provide a forum in which representatives of local interests and individuals can consider the educational requirements and concerns of the district" (Nash, 1982, pp. 6-7). The intent was to ensure locally guided and responsive learning activities in each of the 13 rural regions. These efforts were reinforced by the first REAP handbook developed by the Department of Education in 1983, as cited by Shepherd and Hansen (2002): REAP is based on the belief that the local community is best able to identify its own special needs and to continuously reassess these needs. It ha[d] been assumed that there will be greater coordination in the education system if resources provided to meet locally identified needs are managed at a local level across the spectrum from pre-school groups to continuing education. (p. 31) This provided consistent messaging around the role and purpose of REAPs from those who established them, and those who would begin to provide services. From this Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 31 basis, management committees began hiring CEOs to lead operational activities and ensure appropriate staff in the form of pre-school educationalists, visiting teachers, reading and speech specialists, community education staff, and rural liaisons. With work getting underway and a growing sense of momentum developing in REAP activity, the first REAP newsletter was published out of Southern Hawkes Bay in 1980 to share the aims and objectives of REAPs widely. They espoused: − Recognising that each district has unique features and specific needs that should be reflected in programmes; − Strengthening, enriching, expanding and coordinating the various resources of existing educational services; − Innovating and developing flexibility in educational programmes from Pre-school to Community Education; − Encouraging people in the local community to become interested and actively involved in educational activities. (Shepherd & Hanson, 2002, p. 29) The elements of district uniqueness, supplementing existing services, innovating across the lifespan of learning, and promoting participation are all mainstays of the REAP ethos still documented today, as seen in the opening statement from the current REAP Aotearoa statement of purpose. It should be noted that with these activities and responsive mandate came no codified statutory powers, which Shepherd and Hansen posit became an opportunity for innovation to meet need in isolated communities. The Department of Education handbook gave an overview of operating principles (e.g. the management committee structure, REAP objectives listed above, and placement of REAPs nationally), but nothing truly regulatory in terms of meeting the responsive needs identified. Shepherd and Hanson (2002) comment on the cultural impact of such a flexible platform within the organisation, given "that during its formative years, Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 32 in the period that preceded the educational reforms of 1989, the overarching philosophy of REAPs emphasized spontaneity and self-directed social development" (p. 11). REAPs were to operate, as envisaged from their inception, as a responsive resource to meet the needs of the community/constituency at large. By 1982 when the last wave of REAPs was established, the Department of Education commissioned rural research expert Roy Nash, then Senior Lecturer in Education for Massey University in Palmerston North, to undertake a review of the first wave of REAPs to map progress and consider challenges and changes ahead. REAPs were a new venture in the education sector and with such a flexible mandate, Nash set out to evaluate what had been accomplished thus far by the pioneering REAPs. With that novelty in mind, Nash (1982) employed a case study methodology using document analysis, interviews with REAP staff, and commentary feedback from management committees on the draft report to achieve the following aims: 1. Study the objectives of the REAPs as held by those involved with REAPs at all levels. 2. Investigate the nature of the organisational structure of the individual REAPs. 3. Investigate the modes of operation of the individual REAPs. 4. Identify the problems and issues (both structural and contingent) that individual REAPs may have experienced, and to report upon the strategies used to resolve those difficulties. 5. Report on the success or otherwise of the REAP operations in achieving their objectives. (pp. 9-10) These were somewhat lofty aims for such young organisations. These four REAPs were far removed from one another geographically, operating remotely and with few (if any) guidelines on best practice. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 33 Notwithstanding the novelty of REAPs (or perhaps because of it), Nash’s report from 1982 provided some clear insights into the sector and operational difficulties in the early days for REAPs. Nash’s findings include: − Over allocation of hours to a single area of support, leaving others vulnerable; − Poor communication and input from regional and national offices of the Department of Education; − Over professionalization of leadership to the point of discouraging lay relationships in communities; − And a lack of commitment and clear communication from management committee membership. Outside of these concerns, the most notable finding was the multiple examples of decision making by management committees that neglected consultation with key stakeholders such as teachers’ unions and Education Board representation in those areas. This finding was coined as "disturbing" by the sector given it counters the responsive philosophy of REAPs (Shepherd & Hanson, 2002, p. 55). This would become a focus for improved REAP practice over the next period of time. A number of factors would likely have contributed to the rocky operational start, from the general newness of the REAP scheme and the unprecedented flexibility in approach, through to the realities of trying to galvanize support and involvement from an isolated and sporadic rural population, professional and layperson alike. Nonetheless, Nash gave overall praise to the early REAP efforts, providing an evaluative assessment that they were all functioning within the framework, "one optimally [… as a result of] strongly representative locally evolved policy" and that "no Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 34 one is in any doubt that areas with REAPs are better off than those without" (1982, p. 74). The report’s assessment and findings were accepted and no further formal review was undertaken for the following eight years. It is likely that the relative newness of REAPs as a government-community venture, coupled with the overall positive response from the initial evaluation of the first wave, was sufficiently reassuring not to warrant ongoing assessment. However, as part of educational reform in 1989 with a shift to more neoliberal thinking, the Ministry of Education tasked a review group to evaluate the state of REAPs as a result of the Tomorrow’s Schools initiative (Shepherd & Hanson, 2002, p. 118). Led by Mary-Jane Rivers, a consultant to the Ministry, this report would consider a range of options for REAPs going forward in the new educational era, from full closure and redistribution of resource to sustained operation without change. National change and community development. The Rivers report was comprehensive in the consultative sense. A team of three, led by Rivers, visited every REAP community across the country in an effort to provide a comprehensive consideration of effectiveness, responsiveness, and equity from the perspectives of officials and agencies associated with REAPs. The primary focus held to considering the alignment of REAPs to the changing government agenda and how they might operate in that changed environment. The report recommendations reinforced the success of responsive flexibility, a supplementary and complementary approach (adding value to and extending existing services), and lifelong community-based learning. The report also provided a number of recommendations around specific accountability measures including criteria for management committee makeup, as well as strategies for Māori engagement and iwi relationship building. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 35 The most wide-reaching recommendation, however, was that each REAP should be incorporated as its own legal society in order to allow for more detailed contracting of services from the Ministry and other agencies (Rivers, Dewes, & Drumm, 1990). This recommendation would be enacted by REAPs throughout the early 1990s to ensure their continued operation in a reformed Government and educational environment. A trend emerges in this and subsequent REAP review activities. The focus becomes operational as the supplementary and complementary lifelong model of REAPs becomes increasingly understood. This is significant in that the role of REAPs becomes clearer from the mid-1990s, which can be interpreted as a coming-of-age period for the nonprofits. Their place in the rural educational spaces across the sectors is thus becoming accepted as they navigate the changing environment. Another significant shift, resulting from the incorporated independence of the 13 autonomous REAP organisations, was the need for a pragmatic response to national reviews, initiatives, and requirements from Government. This would be addressed in the formation of a national association of REAPs which could act as a national body on behalf and with expressed consent of the 13 member REAPs. The reforms of 1989 meant, from a REAP perspective, "that for the first time, staff found that an environment had been created within which a national REAP organisation became very important. Collectivity assumed a new value and the outcome was a stronger national body than had previously existed" (Shepherd & Hanson, 2002, p. 109). Thus REAPs began a national association that would continue as a collaborative channel to Government until it was formalised as an incorporated society in 2004. Amidst the growing national efforts of the REAP movement, these nonprofits found themselves the focus of an ethnographic case study by an Australian researcher Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 36 in 1996. Allan Arnott’s independent work provides critical insight into REAPs at this stage in their development, as the first piece of external research on their operation since their years of establishment. Specifically, his research aimed to "explore, analyse and understand the [studied] REAP as a service provider of educational activities to communities in their regions" with a focus on community development processes given REAPs are a "little understood or analysed subject" (Arnott, 1996, p. 1). Arnott’s work came at a time when REAPs were emerging as a recognised body on a national level in the context of major shifts in education policy and practice. Of particular interest to Arnott was what he termed the "hidden" aspect of REAP work, meaning the community development aspect of how REAPs mobilised their responsive learning activities. With little written on how REAPs operate beyond their now accepted supplementary and complementary lifelong learning mandate, Arnott’s work brings a much needed ‘deepening’ of understanding REAPs. Arnott used an ethnographic approach to account for the complexity, interrelatedness, and social aspects of REAP work in a community setting. He was also clear in focusing interviews and conversations on CEOs as leadership roles within REAPs, given that "their role is underpinned by community development processes" (Arnott, 1996, p. 3). Overall he aimed to use immersive field study (30 semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and artifact collection) to answer questions about what activities REAPs provided, what processes they used to provide them, and what pressures or tensions came about during that operation (Arnott, 1996, pp. 4-5). His results succeeded in meeting his aims and were informative in that the range of activities was as diverse as would be expected from a responsive approach, in addition to providing the first account of community-based processes for REAPs: Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 37 Table 3: Arnott (1996) ethnographic case study research results summary Research area: Summarised responses: REAP activities • Early Childhood Establishment • Supporting and Training • Primary [Schools] Supplement • Secondary [Schools] Supplement • School Itinerants • Staff Development Activities • Community Enterprise Support • Non-award Courses • Formal Workshops • Train-the-trainer (tutor) – Facilitation Skills Course • Programmes for the Elderly • Board/Committee Development Support • Community Resource • Extramural Assistance • Professional Mentoring • Formal Network Organising • Community Worker Networking/Training • Youth Worker Programmes • Sponsored Positions Programmes • Informal Networking, Brokering and Resourcing REAP processes • Found complex processes in play that demonstrate elements of education, logic, critical reflection, networking, mindfulness of timing, and community/relationship (political) awareness • Define community development process in a REAP context as containing two elements: resource (in the form of the skilled and knowledgeable REAP officer), and networks (the relationships carried by the officer) • These are hinged on a brokering role between groups REAP tensions • Visible versus invisible processes in community action • Cultural issues, particularly around inclusion of Māori • Politics of community action perceived by outsiders • Variable personality types creating vulnerable networks • Cost effective practices in a decentralised environment • Emphasising a national versus regional REAP profile Arnott, like Nash and Rivers, provided a positive report on the value of REAP activities, though with recommendations on improvements to practice. He stated that given the wide range of programmes and responsive, connected nature of the work, REAPs "contribute widely to the educational needs of the communities in which they are ensconced" (Arnott, 1996, p. 73). More important than the generalisations, however, were the series of comments that were the first to articulate community development elements that describe the REAP approach in more social terms. Similar key statements Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 38 to the ones that follow are often referenced in descriptive source material on REAPs, but little research has demonstrated them: − REAP "promotes lifelong learning […] through the use of a community development approach, working alongside groups and organisations rather than simply providing courses.” (Arnott, 1996, p. ix) − REAP’s "range of activities from formal and non-formal course to informal activities … [are] interconnected and based on informal elements of practice." (Arnott, 1996, p. ix) − "An investigation of processes revealed that in many instances they were based on brokering and networking skills. An extensive network, a knowledge of the resources (including human resources) that were required in given situations, and the ability to broker such resources through appropriate networks allowed CEOs to initiate and develop various activities/courses/programmes." (Arnott, 1996, p. ix) − "A continuing theme that created tension was that of the “hidden” or tacit nature of community development processes underpinning much of REAP officers’ work." (Arnott, 1996, p. x) This work reflects a medium to long-term perspective on REAP work as the only piece of external research to date documenting considerable examples of REAP practices and experiences. In these observations, REAPs extend beyond their mandate for lifelong and responsive rural activity, to include community development concepts. Socially based terms such as networks and brokerage are also associated with REAPs in this piece of work, which is a trend seen elsewhere that year. One example of developmental terminology can be seen in a nation-wide publication accounting for the changes, developments, and future ideals for the Adult and Community Education (ACE) sector in Aotearoa. Hindmarsh (1996) comments on Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 39 her views of REAP engagement with adult, community, and continuing education, making commentary closely related to the above, that: The purpose of REAPs is to provide services to the “whole” rural community: to promote as well as to provide learning opportunities across the whole spectrum of life and all education sectors – from early childhood, through schooling to adulthood – which will enhance, promote and provide lifelong learning opportunities, community development and personal development (REAP Handbook, 1991: 2). Locally, variable emphasis is placed on these functions, but all REAPs include adult and community education development, brokerage, networking and some course provision in their activities. (pp. 68-9) Later that same year, an Education Services for Rural Communities Report was published by the Ministry of Education that describes the services mandated for rural regions. REAPs are described briefly in terms of what they offer early childhood, compulsory schooling, and adult and continuing education sectors. REAPs are presented in a complementary and supplementary lifelong fashion across the sectors as has been discussed. However, here they are listed with the added dimension of "community and personal development" as is seen with other views of REAPs at this time. While not explicitly stated, this can be seen as the result of REAPs having been operating long enough for their approach and results to be observed and articulated with some consistency. Communities, partner organisations, and Government are now able to name the developmental actions and results associated with REAP activity. The social and developmental aspects to how REAPs operate are also articulated in a 1997 technical policy paper prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture (Anderson, 1997) to consider indicators of effectiveness for REAPs across their three core areas of activity. While providing an overview of existing REAP literature and review outcomes Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 40 for the time, the technical paper used document analysis, a mail out survey, informal discussions and a facilitated workshop at the 1997 REAP annual conference to frame what could be used as indicators for progressing rural needs. Anderson makes explicit the connection to social and developmental aspects of REAP work. In her view "REAPs are ideally placed to provide [lifelong education] services because of their knowledge of the local community, their proven skills in empowering people, networking, and encouraging participation, and their expertise in co-ordinating the activities of different service providers/agencies" (Anderson, 1997, p. 25). Each of these aspects of community development, traced back in their infancy to the relationship and engagement language used by Nash in 1982, is crystalising as part of the REAP model. In his introduction to Shepherd and Hansen’s account of REAPs, then Minister of Education Trevor Mallard highlights the community development attribute of REAPs some 20 years on from their inception. He cites them as organisations that "provid[e] lifelong learning and community development activities from pre-school through to post-retirement [… where] REAP components vary from region-to-region in order to reflect the particular needs of diverse communities of learners" (Shepherd & Hansen, 2002, p. 2). This publication was released the same year as the Ministry of Education’s latest review of REAPs in the form of a stocktake report. Conclusions cited strong relationships, knowledge resource, and networks as key strengths to take REAPs forward "as neutral, honest brokers” that provide "a community-based education resource of effective support for local learning and development" (Shepherd & Hansen, 2002, p. 3). While accompanied by a range of increasingly operational suggestions for improvement (primarily around reporting, data collection, and government priority Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 41 alignment), this latest review reiterates REAPs as organisations that develop communities in a social as well as an educational sense. REAPs’ most recent review and current work. The most recent review of REAPs took place in 2007, and provides the latest published documentation in the literature on these organisations outside of REAPs’ own materials. Again instigated to review alignment of Government investment and the effectiveness of operations and infrastructure of these organisations, the latest evaluative exercise listed the following objectives, to: − consider the current role of REAP in the context of the government’s social and educational priorities; − identify further opportunities for the government and REAP to work together towards shared outcomes; and − assess whether current Government contracting arrangements for services provided by REAP can be amended to better support the social and educational outcomes sought by government (Ministry of Education, 2007, pp. 16-17). Little new information was revealed about REAPs, which are described as operating: [...] in rural areas of New Zealand to facilitate access to lifelong learning opportunities for people living in rural areas. A large part of REAP work is in a brokerage role, connecting learners with appropriate learning across the early childhood (ECE), schooling and adult community education (ACE) sectors. […] [A] separate management and community board structure was put in place for each REAP [in 1991]. The current model allows REAPs flexibility to identify and respond to the particular needs of their communities. (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 6) The above statement clearly places REAPs in a responsive, educational support role in their respective areas of the country. This is very much in line with early source material on REAPs' purpose, and inclusive of the marked brokering and network-focus Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education – Morrison 42 articulated at the turn of the century. The extension into a community development context is reinforced by the Ministry’s description of how REAPs undertake their work: REAPs contribute to a range of social outcomes including knowledge and skills, cultural identity and social connectedness. Statements of Intent from the Ministry and from MSD [Ministry of Social Development] show that the REAP objectives are most closely aligned with Education objectives. However, REAPs' work is similarly aligned with some contributing outcomes in the MSD’s Statement of Intent relating to education and skills to supporting parents, families and whanau. (Ministry of Education, 2007, pp. 8-9) In the most recent REAP literature, the services and approach of these organisations are clearly linked to discrete categories of educational and social outcomes. The literature has broadened REAPs' characteristics and thus a synthesised definition of REAPs is presented for use in this thesis: rural and responsive nonprofits that broker, facilitate, enhance, and provide needs-based lifelong learning opportunities from pre-school to adult education, through a networks-based community development approach. Aside from strong recommendations around alignment to Government priorities, a single key change was made as a result of the final review– namely the population threshold for what is defined as a rural centre. REAPs were originally targeted for rural communities in districts with populations less than 20,000. While these boundaries (set by the Ministry of Education) have not changed since their inception, "as a result of [the review of REAPs] the Minister of Education agreed that the size of urban centres that are excluded from REAP areas be increased from 20,000 to 30,000" (Ministry of Education New Zealand, 2007, p. 4). This allows REAPs to service a rural population of 340,800 across 22 rural Territorial Local Authorities (districts). Figure 3 illustrates the combined rural coverage of those 22 districts for the 13 REAPs nationally. Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education - Morrison 43 Figure 3: Coverage areas for REAPs (sourced from 2007 Review of REAPs) Massey University: 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education - Morrison 44 Today these non-profit organisations work on a local needs-based model of promoting and delivering educational opportunities to rural communities through resolving issues of educational access, resourcing, gaps in best practice, and collaboration (REAP Aotearoa New Zealand, 2015). Thirty years on from Shepherd and Hansen’s (2002) account, while funding mechanisms and the increased commodification of education have shifted rural learning dynamics, "REAPs are still operating to those core principles" (pp. 142-3). And, as described in review reports of REAPs over the last 15 years, social-based features and outcomes have come to be defined as core work for these organisations. A current description of REAPs and their services confirm this model of working: REAPs exist to provide lifelong learning support to their communities through multiple work streams, including early childhood, working with schools and adult and community education. [...] REAPs also work closely with local government, local trusts and community groups in their area. Much of the work in REAPs is of a developmental nature. REAPs are specialists in promoting and nurturing community change. (REAP Aotearoa New Zealand, 2013, p. 1) With a clear mandate to support an educational ethos across multiple learning sectors, the nature of REAP work rests heavily upon collaborations with networks and groups to develop communities and promote social change. This REAP characteristic from the literature becomes especially relevant to the exploration of the social aspects of how REAPs do what they do. As laid out in the research questions for this thesis, the crux of these collaborative social efforts will be later contextualised using social capital as a framework, discussed in the following chapter. 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education - Morrison 45 Through this range of sources, REAPs are defined as rural and responsive non- profit organisations that broker, facilitate, enhance, and provide needs-based lifelong learning opportunities from pre-school to adult education, through a networks-based community development approach. Their shared purpose is to progress community development through quality lifelong education in their regions (REAP Aotearoa New Zealand, 2015). The table below helps to outline operational aspects of the 13 REAPs. Table 4: REAP characteristics from the literature Questions-based analysis of what is known about REAPs: Who? (Stakeholders) REAPs are mandated to support a wide section of the population. Stakeholders categorised by education sector: − Early childhood-aged children, their families, and educators and staff working in all types of ECE services. − School-aged children, their families, and educators and staff working in all types of compulsory schooling. − Targeted adults requiring functional life skills, as well as community educators and support services staff. What? (Services Provided) REAPs both facilitate and provide learning programmes of varied content, length, and setting, based on identified stakeholder need. This is achieved through adapted activities such as: − Individualised learner development; − Group learning sessions and workshops; − Community events and forums; and − Brokerage and consultation across groups. Where? (Area of Provision) REAPs provide services in government-specified rural regions (as identified in 1978) where populations are less than 30,000. This includes around 340,000 learners in 22 New Zealand districts. When? (Ages & Stages for Provision) REAPs are able to deliver learning and support services to learners of all ages, from pre-natal and infant-focused learning through to learning for the third age. How? (Approach) REAPs operate under a responsive delivery model, utilising a broad community network base and history of service to inform any planned learning and support activities. Why? (Purpose) REAPs aim to achieve successful learning for rural learners across the lifespan. Particular attention is paid to improved quality of life and self-determination for individuals and communities. Lifelong Learning, Community Development, and Government Funding as Contexts There are clear themes around the role and approach of REAPs that provide context for developing current research. Contexts provide an understanding of what kind of environment and expectations REAPs operate within before exploring how they 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education - Morrison 46 operate. The first two of those contexts are processes – lifelong learning and community development. These are the ends to which REAPs strive (with the means or the “how” being explored through the primary research question). The original mandate to provide responsive lifelong learning is still central to the REAP approach today. Equally, a community development approach has evolved out of REAP practice over the years, and is clearly signaled as a contemporary REAP feature. Beyond these two processes (defined as such below), government funding realities is added as a context or framing factor that impacts on REAP activity. Briefly defining all three of these contexts for REAPs is intended to help place them in relation to the upcoming conceptual framework, as they all impact on the outcomes of social capital - the key theory behind the conceptual framework chapter. By elaborating the environment REAPs operate within, these points progress the second enabling research question: what contexts do REAPs operate within based on their characteristics? Lifelong learning. In a broad conceptual sense, lifelong learning is most easily encapsulated by the notion that there is a strong link between social change and ongoing learning across the lifespan (London, 2011). Knowing that the social world is in a constant state of transition, it follows that both individuals and groups would need to continually enhance skills to cope with that transition. In addition to compulsory learning in schools, institutional supports have become necessary to fulfill goals of learner growth and life transitions. There is also value in acknowledging lifelong learning's "emphasis on the social context of learning [to look] beyond immediate learning situations and communities to wider issues of learner diversity, social identities and inequalities in education" (Morgan-Klein & Osborne, 2007, p. 4). The adaptive and socially focused 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education - Morrison 47 characteristics of lifelong learning harken back to the rural context already discussed, where educational access and inequality are everyday realities. This creates a space for the community development context outlined in the next section. In terms of what lifelong learning means in a practical sense, Morgan-Klein and Osborne (2007) provide a broad definition of lifelong learning, seeing it as a combination of skill, vocational, and socially based factors that accumulate throughout life. Many of today's educational policies and practices share this view, at least in part, citing the modern "learning society" as a goal of the developed world - one in which learning, economic productivity (Ministry of Education, 2014), and quality of life are all balanced. Issues of training pathways, learner capability, social identity, and place- based learning all feature in this approach to lifelong learning, and all are common to REAP services. Such varied means and goals of lifelong learning and personal development create a complicated space for REAPs to operate. This suggests the need for a working definition of lifelong learning that encompasses both the learning and social aspects of this work. Jarvis (2007) describes lifelong learning as an integrative process. Over the course of a life, individuals' experiences shape their values, knowledge, and disposition. This description acknowledges a highly interactionist component of social life, where the choices we make are mutually dependent on the social structures and relationships in which they operate. Such an approach to lifelong learning fits the framework of REAPs' approach to rural education, and features throughout the methodological choices discussed in later chapters. Through Jarvis (2007) we can adopt a definition of lifelong learning: the constant process of integrating new knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and beliefs from social situations and exchanges 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education - Morrison 48 into an individual's whole self. This definition fits well with REAPs' social and developmental characteristics, which have been shown to underpin the learning activities they provide across early childhood, schooling, and adult education sectors. Community development. The second environmental context for REAPs is community development. By the very nature of the diversity of communities, community development has varied definitions and applications. Aimers and Walker (2013) frame community development in Aotearoa as many do - by locating the practice in local and personal experiences reflective of the communities of focus. For New Zealand practice, community development has progressed through various states since the 1930s: from that of community rebuilding after World War II, through a rights and needs-based movement for activist groups in the 1970s, and now into an inclusive and strengths- based approach led by communities themselves (Aimers & Walker, 2013). This latest approach lends itself to developing the capability and self-determination of individuals and whole groups - a common outcome of community development practice. Self- determination also fits with the responsive and needs-driven approach of REAPs, providing a solid foundation for a suitable definition of community development. New Zealand community development practice enacts the notion of building capability through "intervention that is underpinned by the values, principles, and commitment to social change for the individual, group and community" (Chile, 2007, p. 21). This means providing a contextual form of development activities that reflect social and cultural norms and are inclusive of those requiring development (here with a strong holistic and wellbeing focus). Chile (2007) argues that the base principles for this kind of community development include those that reflect: a collective identity 267.930 Thesis, Doctor of Education - Morrison 49 across the community; meeting needs that further strengthen that identity; and ensuring self-awareness and belonging for those involved in the process. In fact, the process itself is critical in community development, if it is to produce outcomes that are reflective of social and cultural norms referenced earlier. So through Chile's notion of developed capability, community development is defined here as the process of collective effort to overcome oppressive barriers in a social group, through changing social structures (e.g. institutional and economic) and growing individual capacity for self-determination (adapted from Chile, 2007). Again the features of this defined context for REAPs align well to REAPs themselves - in this case to reflect the social change and personal development qualities of REAP activity found in the literature. In terms of how REAPs enable this kind of community development, Phillips and Pittman (2009) provide detailed accounts of both the process and outcomes of community development as they relate to building capacity and producing change in communities. Their efforts provide a final defining piece of the community development context relevant for this research - the relatedness of social capacity to social capital. Using Phillips’ and Pittman’s (2009) process, community development builds capacity for individuals and groups by enhancing skills, knowledge, and outlooks. Grown capacity then enables groups to make use of social capital (networks and the ability to act in social settings for Phillips and Pittman, 2009) as the mobiliser for development and change. Specifics of the relatedness of community development outcomes and social capital are illustrated in more detail in the conceptual framework chapter. Figure 4 threads these concepts together as a process framework for REAPs in communities, with grown capacity able to be mobilised through social capital to undertake community development. 267.9