Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for 
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Stakeholder Perceived Barriers to 
the Use of Solar Energy in 
Thailand?s Buildings
A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements 
for the degree of 
Master of Environmental Management 
at Massey University, 
Palmerston North, New Zealand.
Manda Trevarthen
2011

iAbstract
Energy efficiency and use of renewable energy is currently a key topic given rising 
fuel prices and concerns regarding future energy security. Governments around 
the world are looking for ways to reduce the demand for energy from unsustainable 
sources either through improving energy efficiency or through generating energy 
using renewable sources.  
The building industry is one industry where it is considered that energy demand can 
be reduced.  Studies have shown that green building practices, such as the use of 
solar energy, can substantially reduce the energy demand of residential and 
commercial buildings.  However for green building practices such as solar energy to 
be incorporated into a building design, industry stakeholders must understand the
benefits. 
Despite Thailand having a tropical climate there is little adoption of either passive 
solar design strategies or solar energy technologies.  In this study 30 interviews 
were conducted with stakeholders in the Thai building industry and analysed using 
grounded theory methodology to determine what stakeholders perceive as the 
barriers to using solar energy in buildings in Thailand.  As well as analysis of the 
interview transcripts, research participants also completed a 20 question Likert 
scale survey designed to gauge opinions towards known barriers to the use of solar 
energy in buildings. 
The research identifies 25 barriers that stakeholders in the building industry 
perceive to be barriers to the use of solar energy in buildings in Thailand.  The core 
concept of the research is that stakeholders perceive a difference between the 
concepts of awareness and knowledge and a lack of awareness and a lack of 
knowledge is the primary reason solar energy is not used more often.  Increasing 
both awareness and knowledge of solar energy is the primary way to encourage 
consideration of solar energy in Thailand?s building projects. 
ii
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Acknowledgements
This thesis would not have been possible without the support of many people.
I would like to express my thanks to those in the Thailand building industry who 
gave up their time to participate in this research.
This thesis would not have been completed without the friendship and guidance of 
Dr Marissa Dean who introduced me to grounded theory.  I am eternally grateful for 
the long conversations, red wine and unwavering belief she provided.
To my mother, Glenda, who taught me how to write, use a thesaurus and generally 
fall in love with the written word. I never thought I would thank you for being a 
stickler for proper English growing up but here it is.  Thank you for the many things 
you have taught me and your always unquestioning support. 
To my friend Khun Maeow ? thank you for your patience no matter how much I 
talked about this thesis.  I?m very grateful for your presence in my life. 
Finally to my husband, best friend and travel companion, Paul. There were times 
when your patience, support and humour were the only things that kept me going.  
In our life together I have seen more of the world and achieved more than I ever 
thought possible.  You?re still the one. 
- Experientia docet -
iv
vTable of Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................................... i 
Acknowledgements.................................................................................... iii 
Table of Contents........................................................................................ v 
List of Figures............................................................................................ ix 
List of Tables .............................................................................................. x 
1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 1 
1.1 Problem Statement ........................................................................ 2 
1.2 Research Aims............................................................................... 2 
1.2.1 Research Objectives ............................................................. 2 
1.3 Importance of Research.................................................................. 3 
1.4 Research Approach ........................................................................ 3 
1.5 Limitations of this Research............................................................. 4 
1.6 Organisation of Thesis .................................................................... 4 
2. Literature Review ................................................................................. 5 
2.1 Drivers for Alternative Energy Sources.............................................. 6 
2.2 Thailand Energy Industry ................................................................ 8 
2.2.1 Thailand Energy Policies.......................................................11 
2.2.2 Thailand Electricity Sector ....................................................12 
2.2.3 Building Codes and Regulations ............................................13 
2.2.4 Renewable Energy in Thailand ..............................................14 
2.3 Building Energy Consumption .........................................................15 
2.3.1 Solar Energy in Buildings .....................................................16 
2.3.2 Passive Solar Design Strategies ............................................16 
2.3.3 Solar Energy Technologies ...................................................18 
2.4 Barriers to Renewable Energy.........................................................18 
2.4.1 Financial and Economic Barriers ............................................20 
2.4.2 Institutional and Regulatory Barriers .....................................21 
2.4.3 Technical Barriers ...............................................................21 
vi
2.4.4 Market Barriers...................................................................22 
2.4.5 Awareness and Information Barriers......................................22 
2.4.6 Behavioural Barriers............................................................23 
2.4.7 Known Barriers to Renewable Energy in Thailand ....................23 
2.4.8 Importance of Stakeholders in Identifying Barriers..................24 
2.5 Diffusion of Renewable Energy Technology.......................................25 
2.6 Innovation in a Project Orientated Environment................................26 
3. Methodology....................................................................................... 29 
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................29 
3.2 Research Methods.........................................................................29 
3.2.1 Grounded Theory ................................................................30 
3.2.2 Likert Scale Survey .............................................................33 
3.3 Data Collection .............................................................................34 
3.3.1 Sampling Procedure ............................................................35 
3.4 Data Analysis ...............................................................................36 
3.5 Methodological Limitations .............................................................38 
3.6 Logistical Issues ...........................................................................39 
3.7 Research Ethics ............................................................................39 
4. Findings ............................................................................................. 41 
4.1 Demographics ..............................................................................41 
4.2 Key Themes from the Interviews ....................................................43 
4.2.1 Barriers to the Use of Solar Energy in Buildings ................................43 
Financial and Economic Barriers......................................................44 
Institutional and Regulatory Barriers ...............................................47 
Technical Barriers .........................................................................50 
Market Barriers ............................................................................53 
Awareness and Information Barriers................................................55 
Behavioural Barriers......................................................................61 
4.2.2 Roles in the Building Industry.........................................................63 
Architect......................................................................................63 
vii
Owner ........................................................................................65 
Developer ....................................................................................66 
Supplier.......................................................................................67 
Contractor....................................................................................68 
Designer ......................................................................................68 
General Public ..............................................................................69 
Thai Government ..........................................................................69 
4.2.3 Drivers and Future Outlook ............................................................70 
Future Outlook .............................................................................72 
4.3 Results of the Survey ....................................................................73 
Survey Results: Financial and Economic Barriers...............................75 
Survey Results: Institutional and Regulatory Barriers ........................78 
Survey Results: Technical Barriers ..................................................80 
Survey Results: Market Barriers......................................................82 
Survey Results: Awareness and Information Barriers.........................83 
Survey Results: Behavioural Barriers...............................................85 
5. Discussion .......................................................................................... 89 
5.1 Key Areas to Increase Consideration of Solar Energy .........................89 
5.1.1 Reducing the Cost of Solar Energy ........................................90 
5.1.2 Improving the Performance of Solar Energy ...........................92 
5.1.3 Increasing Support from Government and Institutions .............92 
5.1.4 Incorporating Solar Energy Earlier in the Building Process ........93 
5.1.5 Increasing the Availability of Technology and Expertise in 
Thailand.............................................................................93 
5.2 The Importance of Knowledge ........................................................94 
5.2.1 Awareness, Knowledge and Experience ..................................95 
5.2.2 Influence of Stakeholder Perceptions .....................................97 
5.2.3 Importance of Individual Knowledge......................................99 
5.2.4 Drivers for Increasing Knowledge........................................100 
5.2.5 Language.........................................................................101 
viii
5.3 Knowledge and Diffusion of Innovation .......................................... 102 
6. Conclusion........................................................................................ 105 
6.1 Conclusion ................................................................................. 105 
6.2 Recommendations ...................................................................... 106 
6.3 Suggestions for Future Research................................................... 107 
7. References ....................................................................................... 109 
8. Appendices....................................................................................... 115 
Appendix 1: Research Participants ......................................................... 117 
Appendix 2: Survey Instrument.............................................................. 119 
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: Electricity generated in Thailand by type of fuel in 2008 ..................... 9 
Figure 2: Agencies in the Thailand electricity sector ....................................... 12 
Figure 3: Research participants by stakeholder group..................................... 41 
Figure 4: Number of participants with awareness and/or experience of 
passive solar design strategies or solar energy technologies...............43 
Figure 5: Participants identifying financial and economic barriers..................... 44 
Figure 6: Participants identifying institutional and regulatory barriers............... 48 
Figure 7: Participants identifying technical barriers ........................................ 50 
Figure 8: Participants identifying market barriers........................................... 54 
Figure 9: Participants identifying awareness and information barriers............... 57 
Figure 10: Participants identifying behavioural barriers .................................... 61 
Figure 11: Participants who identified particular stakeholder groups................... 64 
Figure 12 Participants identifying drivers for solar energy................................ 70 
Figure 13: Survey results for financial and economic barriers............................ 76 
Figure 14: Survey results for institutional and regulatory barriers...................... 78 
Figure 15: Survey results for technical barriers ............................................... 80 
Figure 16: Survey results for market barriers.................................................. 82 
Figure 18: Survey results for awareness and information barriers...................... 84 
Figure 19: Survey results for behavioural barriers ........................................... 86 
Figure 20: Barriers identified by participants during interviews.......................... 90 
Figure 21: Alternative to the innovation decision process.................................103 
xList of Tables
Table 1: Comparison Thailand energy supply countries. .................................10 
Table 2: Categories of barrier to the use of renewable energy.........................20 
Table 3: Participants length of time in building industry by stakeholder group...42 
Table 4: Words relating to knowledge concepts used in interviews ..................56 
Table 5: Overview of survey responses for expatriate and Thai participants......73 
Table 6: Financial and economic barriers by occupational group ......................77 
Table 7: Institutional and regulatory barriers by occupational group ................79 
Table 8: Technical barriers by occupational group .........................................82 
Table 9: Market barriers by occupational group.............................................83 
Table 10: Awareness and information barriers by occupational group ................85 
Table 11: Behavioural barriers by occupational group ......................................87 
Table 12: Key policy areas to encourage greater use of solar energy ............... 106 
xi
?We need to develop energy resources for greater 
self-reliance in order to increase energy stability and 
to sufficiently meet the demand at both domestic 
and international level.?
Abhisit Vejjajiva
Thailand Prime Minister
December 2008 
From Thailand?s Renewable Energy and its Energy Future (Sutabutr, 2009)
xii