Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. THE LATE QUATERNARY VEGETATIONAL AND CLIMATIC HISTORY OF FAR NORTHERN NEW ZEALAND A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Soil Science at Massey University by Michael Borlase Elliot 1997 11 Frontispiece: The Kauri Sanctuary, Omahuta State Forest. To Luey M. Cranwell pioneer in New Zealand palynology ill IV Abstract Sediments from 3 peat mires and two lakes from the Aupouri Peninsula, Karikari Peninsula and the Bay of Islands district of Northland, New Zealand, are analysed for their pollen and charcoal records to reconstruct a 100,000-year late Quaternary history of vegetational and climatic change. Northland has a complex geological history which includes Upper Pleistocene to Holocene volcanism. The region has a warm, moist climate, which promotes deep weathering of rocks, clay-rich soils and mass movement, particularly in the period following human settlement with clearance of most of the natural rainforest. Throughout the Pleistocene the climate of Northland remained relatively mild in comparison to the more southern regions of New Zealand. This thesis determines how the far northern vegetational cover and its composition have changed in response to late Quaternary climate changes through detailed pollen analysis of sediment cores. Studies of recent pollen deposits were undertaken to provide analogues for interpretation of the relationship between pollen rain and plant communities. Because New Zealand is one of the few land masses in the southern hemisphere south of 350 S, and lies just poleward of the SUbtropical convergence, it is uniquely placed to record climatic changes in the vast expanse of the Southern Ocean. These records of climatic fluctuations have global importance because of 1) New Zealand's small size and remoteness from other land masses, 2) the lack of large ice sheets at the Last Glacial Maximum which ensured rapid vegetational response to ameliorating climate, and 3) the potential for correlating high-resolution, well-dated terrestrial and marine records. At the height of the Last Glacial (Otiran) most of New Zealand south of 370 S was unforested. Landscapes not directly affected by glaciation were largely dominated by grass and shrublands. Forest patches survived in microclimatically favoured locations where they were protected from heavy frosts, cold maritime polar airmasses and strong winds. During the ca 100,000 years investigated, the pollen profiles demonstrate that the Northland region retained permanent forest cover, although composition of far northern forests changed significantly in response to fluctuating weather patterns. These vegetational and climatic changes are summarised below: 1) Kaihinu Interglacial, 180 Sub-stage 5c-a, ca 100-74 ka The regional vegetation of far northern New Zealand was dominated by kauri-podocarp-hardwood forest. The most important tall trees were Agathis australis, Dacrydium cupressinum and Phy/locladus. Ascarina lucida, a small, frost- and drought-sensitive understorey tree, was common. Angiosperm trees dominated coastal forest. The commonest species were Beilschmiedia, Quintinia, Metrosideros, Nestegis, Elaeocarpus and Ixerba brexioides. The climate is interpreted as having been mild and moist. Temperatures may have been 1_20 C cooler than present. 2) Last Glacial (Otiran), 180 Stages 4-2, ca 74-14 ka Regional vegetation changed significantly during the Otiran Glaciation. Whilst the far northern forests remained predominantly diverse conifer-hardwood assemblages, warmth-loving species became increasingly restricted in their distribution, particularly Ascarina lucida. From ca 74 ka, Agathis australis v became scarce in the Kaitaia area, but remained a significant element of regional forest further east. Dacrydium cupressinum was a common emergent tree. Between 74-59 ka, climates were generally cool and moist with increased incidence of winter frost in exposed areas. Lowland forests moved seaward to occupy newly exposed continental margins as sea level retreated consequent upon expansion of global ice caps. The following period from 59-43 ka was characterised by increased abundance of DaClycarpus dacrydioides, Metrosideros species, Quintinia and Syzygium maire. These species are associated with wetter conditions. Ascarina lucida was also more common at this time. Regional forests were predominantly podocarp-hardwood assemblages. Agathis australis was present in these forests, but not dominant. The climate between 59-43 ka eRO Sub-stage 3b) is considered to have been relatively warmer and wetter than the preceding Stage 4. From 43-24 ka ego Sub-stage 3a) kauri-dominated mixed conifer­ hardwood forest expanded. Significant increases of hardy podocarps Podocarpus and Prumnopitys tax!folia occurred. Agathis australis reached its greatest abundance since the Last Interglacial, and Ascarina lucida was scarce. Climate was characterised by drier summers and cooler winters. As glaciation in more southern latitudes intensified, northern climates became increasingly colder, drier and windier, particularly from ca 30 ka. Natural fires were more common. The replacement of kauri­ podocarp-hardwood forest with beech-podocarp-hardwood forest followed rapidly, and by the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) Northland forests as far north as Kaitaia were dominated by Fuscospora. From Kaitaia south all typically warm northern elements were restricted in their distribution. In the far northern region temperatures may have been depressed by as much as 3-3.5°C, and rainfall was probably reduced to about 2/3 it s present level. 3) The Lateglacial, 14-10 ka Dacrydium cupressinum, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, Ascarina lucida and Dodonaea viscosa became more abundant from ca 14 ka. Fuscospora, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxifolia, which had expanded during the harsher climates of the LGM, became more restricted in their distribution. Climate became increasingly more equable as conditions ameliorated. 4) The Holocene, 10 ka to present Changes in composition of northern forests progressed even more rapidly from the onset of the PostglaciaJ. Across the far northern region beech-dominated podocarp-hardwood forest was rapidly replaced by kauri-podocarp-hardwood forest. Fuscospora declined sharply and became very much restricted in its distribution. Dacrydium cupressinum dominated the regional forests. Hardy podocarps, Manoao co/ensoi, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys ferruginea and P. taxifolia became less common than previously. Ascarina lucida reached its greatest abundance between ca 10 - 7.6 ka. The early Postglacial climate was probably the warmest and most equable for the past 80 ka. Temperatures in the Kaitaia region may have been I-2°C warmer than present. The mid- to late Postglacial, from ca 7-3 ka, is characterised by the decline in Ascarina lucida. Metrosideros and Libocedrus also became less common, whilst hardy podocarps such as Manoao colensoi, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxifolia increased in abundance. Far northern climates were Vi probably slightly drier and cooler in this period as a more seasonal, dry summer/wet, cool winter regime became established. Increased cyclone activity is also suggested during this time. These weather patterns are in line with those suggested for other parts of New Zealand. Climatic variability continued into the late Holocene, and the pollen records indicate vegetation disturbance up to the time of first human settlement. The appearance of high frequencies of Pteridium esculentum and microscopic charcoal in pollen records, coincident with forest decline, is recognised as evidence for Polynesian deforestation. The clearance of indigenous forests occurred as a nation-wide event from 800-600 yr B. P. In Northland, where climates and soils were probably more favourable, deforestation events may have occurred a little earlier. At Lake Tauanui first human impact may have occurred as early as ca 1000 yr B. P., and at Lake Taumatawhana by ca 900 yr B. P. Forest clearance at the Wharau Road Swamp locality was somewhat later at ca 600 yr B. P. Subsequently, European settlement, commencing in the early 1800s, is identified by the advent of exotic pollen types such as Cupressus, Pinus, Ulex europaeus and Plantago lanceolata. vu ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A project such as this can only succeed with the help and advice of a great number of people. Many people have given their expertise willingly, principal among whom have been my supervisors Vince Neall and Matt McGlone. Others whose intellectual input has been greatly appreciated include Rewi Newnham, Janet Wilmshurst, Clel Wallace, Steve Haslett, Dick Brook, John Ogden, Lucy Cranwell, Mike Pole, and my colleagues Shane Cronin and Andrew Hammond. This study has required considerable financial support and in the early stages when I was a member of the Department of Geography the project came under the umbrella of a FRST funded project -"Identification of the location and date of first Maori colonisation of Northland and Auckland using palynological and sedimentological evidence for environmental change". Chapters 3-6 derive from this project. Thanks are due to David Feek for technical assistance, Karen Puklowski for cartography and Rachel Summers for getting me underway with TILIA. Since joining the Department of Soil Science in 1994 the emphasis of the PhD programme shifted from one which focused mainly on human impact to include a wider perspective, seeking to improve our understanding of Late Quaternary climate change in northern New Zealand. I have had tremendous support throughout from the Soil Science Department, particularly with regard to equipment and computer software requirements. Thanks are due to Mike Bretherton who has responded patiently to my many requests and computing problems. I thank Anne West for all her help in securing laboratory equipment and consumables, and Lance Currie for facilitating my progress. One of the major costs of the research has been radiocarbon dating. I am grateful to Massey University for their support in this instance by making me a substantial special grant from the MUGRF to cover all my dating requirements. I thank the Nga Manu Trust which awarded me a John Salmon Research Fellowship, the Heseltine Trust for the award of a Coombs Bursary, the Faculty of Agricultural and Horticultural Science for the award of a Johannes August Anderson Scholarship and Massey University for the award of a PhD Scholarship. I am also grateful to the Claude McCarthy Trust for the award of a Claude McCarthy Fellowship which, along with support from the Department of Soil Science, enabled me to attend the � International Palynological Congress in Houston, June 1996 and the Vb Conference of the International Organisation of Palaeobotany in Santa Barbara, July 1996. Vlll I am extremely grateful to staff and colleagues at the Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, Lower Hutt for all their help, particularly Rodger Sparks, Nicola Redvers-Higgins, Nancy Beavan, Joseph McKee and Dawn Chambers. A number of landowners have generously allowed access to study sites and I thank Dave Wells, George Cann, Flynn Halliday, John Yates and the Department of Conservation. Many others have given assistance in the field; thanks to Vic Hensley, Lee Johnson, AIan Stephens and Thomas Elliot. I offer grateful thanks to my parents for their generous hospitality, providing first class accommodation to a number of strangers on many occasions and for their continual encouragement throughout the duration of the project. Thanks also to Dave and Natalie Woodhams for putting me up during the modern pollen study field trip, and Jamie and Cathy Tait-Jamieson who gave us sanctuary on their farm for 3'n years. Finally my deepest thanks are due to my wife, Kate, without whose undying support this project would never have succeeded. IX TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE Frontispiece ................................................................................................................ ii Abstract ..................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... vii Table of contents ....................................................................................................... cr List of figures ............................................................................................................ xv List of tables ................................ , ........................................................................... xix List of plates ......................................... , ................................................................... xx CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1 Northland and the New Zealand Late Quaternary ................................................... 1 Last Glacial to Present Vegetation and Climate of Northland .................................. 5 Prehistory of New Zealand ........................................................................................ 7 Summary .................................................................................................................. 14 Regional Setting ........................................................................................................ 16 Geology ..................................................................................................................... 16 Present day vegetation ................................................................................................ 20 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 CHAP'fER 2: METIIODS .................................................................................... 35 Core collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Dating ....................................................................................................................... 35 Pollen analysis .......................................................................................................... 35 Sample collection for modem pollen studies ........................................................... 37 Charcoal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 CHAP'fER 3: RECENT POLLEN STUDIES ..................................................... 42 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 42 x The study sites .......................................................................................................... 43 1. Rangitoto Island ................................................................................................... 43 2. Ornaha kahikatea/orest ........................................................................................ 43 3. Orere Reserve ....................................................................................................... 44 4. Lake Tauanui ....................................................................................................... 44 5. & 6. Puketi State Forest ............................................................................... ......... 44 7. Warawara State Forest ........................................................................................... 45 8. Waipoua State Forest ............................................................................................ 45 9. 10. & 11. Omahuta State Forest. . .......................................................................... 45 12. & 13. Taumatawhana and Te Kao Grassland-shrublands ..................................... 54 14. & 15. Taumatawhana and Wharau Road Swamps .............................................. 54 Vegetation sampling ................................................................................................. 54 Forest sampling .......................................................................................................... 55 Nonforest sampling ................................................................................................... 55 RESULTS ................................................................................................................. 56 Forest plots ............................................................................................................... 56 Omahuta State Forest Site 1, Kaun Sanctuary ............................................................ 56 Omahuta State Forest Site 2, Pukekohe Stream ........................................................... 57 Omahuta State Forest Site 3, Pukekohe Stream ........................................................... 57 Warawara State Forest ............................................................................................... 58 Puketi State Forest, headquarters site ........................................................................... 58 Puketi State Forest, Manginanginga Scenic Reserve site ............................................... 64 Waipoua State Forest ................................................................................................. 64 Lake Tauanui ............................................................................................................. 64 Orere Reserve ............................................................................................................ 65 Omaha kahikatea bush remnant ................................................................................ 65 Rangitoto Island ........................................................................................................ 66 Swamp sites .............................................................................................................. 66 Taumatawhana Swamp ............................................................................................. 66 Wharau Road Swamp ................................................................................................ 66 Grassland-shrubland sites ......................................................................................... 67 Te Kao ....................................................................................................................... 67 Taumatawhana Pa site ............................................................................................... 67 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 67 Xl CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 74 CHAPTER 4: LAKE TAUMATA WllANA ........................................................ 79 WTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 79 Abstract ..................................................................................................... , .............. 80 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 82 Descriptive background ........................................................................................... 82 METHODS ............................................................................................................. 85 Palynology ............................................................................................................... 85 Sedimentology .......................................................................................................... 85 RESULTS ................................................................................................................. 87 Dating ....................................................................................................................... 87 Palynology ............................................................................................................... 88 Sedimentology .............................................................................................. ............ 89 Texture ...................................................................................................................... 89 Organics .................................................................................................................... 93 Mineralogy ................................................................................................................. 93 Chemistry .................................................................................................................. 93 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 98 Palynology ............................................................................................................... 98 Sedimentology ........................................................................................................ 101 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 103 CHAPl'ER 5: LAKE TAUAN1JI ....................................................................... 108 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 110 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 110 Study area ............................................................................................................... 111 Geomorphology ......... , ............................................................................................. 111 Clitnate ................................................................................................................... 113 FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS ....................................................... 113 Palynology ............................................................................................................. 113 RESULTS ............................................................................................................... 114 Sediment stratigraphy ............................................................................................. 114 Xli Daring ..................................................................................................................... 114 Palynology ............................................................................................................. 117 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 121 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 124 CHAPTER 6: WHARAU ROAD SWAMP ...................................................... 128 Abstract ............. , .................................................................................................... 130 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 130 Description of the Wharau Road site ..................................................................... 131 MATERIALS AND �THODS ......................................................................... 134 Stratigraphy ............................................................................................................ 134 Palynology " ............................. " .............................................................................. 134 Sedimentology ........................................................................................................ 135 RESUL TS ............................................................................................................... 136 Dating ..................................................................................................................... 136 Palynology ................................. , ........................................................................... 139 Sedimentology .................................... , ................................................................... 143 Grain size ................................................................................................................ 143 Organic content ....................................................................................................... 143 Sediment mineralogy .............................................. ................................................. 144 Sediment chemistry .................................................................................................. 144 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 147 Dating ..................................................................................................................... 147 Palynology ............................................................................................................. 147 Sedimentology ........................................................................................................ 149 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 151 CHAPTER 7: KAITAIA BOG ........................................................................... 157 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 159 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 159 Study area ............................................................................................................... 160 Methods .................................................................................................................. 163 Stratigraphy and dating .......................................................................................... 163 Xlll Palynology ............................................................................................................. 166 Discussion ........... , ................................................................................................... 173 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 176 CHAPTER 8: LAKE TANGONGE AND LAKE OHIA ................................ 181 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 181 Geology .................................................................................................................. 184 Methods .................................................................................................................. 188 RESULTS ............................................................................................................... 188 Lithostratigraphy and dating .................................................................................. 188 Plant macrofossils ................................................................................................... ' 191 Palynology ............................................................................................................. 191 Lake Ohia ............................................................................................................... 191 Lake Tangonge ........................................................................................................ 192 Correspondence analysis ........................................ ............... ................................. 200 Lake Ohia .............................................................................................................. ' 200 Lake Tangonge ........................................................................................................ 201 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 206 Vegetation and climate history ........... .................................................................... 206 Chronology and correlations ................................................................................. 211 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................. 212 CHAPTER 9: THE VEGETATIVE COVER OF FAR NORTHERN NEW ZEALAND AND ITS CLIMATE IN TIlE LATE QUATERNARY: A SUMMARY OF THE LAST CIRCA 100,000 YEARS ................................. 2 19 Late Kaihinu Interglacial ........................................................................................ 219 Last (Otiran) Glacial ............................................................................................... 219 1. 180 Stage 4 .......................................................................................................... 219 2. 180 Sub·stage 3b .................................................................................................. 220 3. 180 Sub·stage 3a .................................................................................................. 220 4. 180 Stage 2 .......................................................................................................... 221 5. The Lateglacial ................................................................................................... 224 XlV The Holocene: Early Postglacial ............................................................................ 224 Mid-to-late Postglacial ............................................................................................ 224 Late Holocene ........................................................................................................ 225 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................... 234 1 Modern pollen sample counts ............................................................................. 234 2 Lake Taumatawhana pollen counts .................................................................... 240 3 Lake T auanui pollen counts ................................................................................ 252 4 Wharau Road Swamp pollen counts ............... ......................... ........................... 263 5 Kaitaia Bog borehole 3 pollen counts ................................................................ .. 274 6 Kaitaia Bog borehole 6 pollen counts .............................. ...................... .............. 299 7 Lake Ohia pollen counts ............................................................................. ........ 310 8 Lake Tangonge pollen counts ................ .................. ........................................... 318 LIST OF FIGURES Number Page 1.1 New Zealand and the Southern Ocean 2 1.2 New Zealand vegetation at the Last Glacial Maximum 4 1.3 Pacific and Polynesian dispersal patterns 9 1.4 The vegetative cover of New Zealand at ca 1000 yr B. P. 1 1 1.5 Location of coring sites in N orthland 15 1.6 Generalised geology of Northland 18 1.7 The linking of the "Northland Archipelago" 19 1.8 Indigenous forest in Northland 21 1.9 Floristic centres and endemism of higher plants 22 1.10 Nothofagus gaps 24 1.1 1 Distribution of Nothofagus truncata 25 1.12 Climate zones of the North Island 27 1.13 Mean annual rainfall in Northland 28 1.14 Mean annual temperature in Northland 29 3.1 Modem pollen sites 46 3.2 Relationship between pollen rain and tree types 60 3.3a Percentage pollen diagram for tall trees 61 3.3b Percentage pollen diagram for small trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers 62 XVl 3.3c Percentage pollen diagram for ferns, fern allies and wetland species 63 4.1 Lake Taumatawhana 83 4.2 Stratigraphy and age-depth graph for Lake T aumatawhana 86 4.3a Pollen percentage diagram for trees, small trees and shrubs 90 4.3b Pollen percentage diagram for herbs, ferns, fern allies and aquatics 91 4.4 Pollen concentration diagram, selected taxa 92 4.5 Grain-size classes, Lake Taumatawhana 95 4.6 XRD patterns for sediment mineralogy, Lake Taumatawhana 96 4.7 Chemical stratigraphy for selected elements, Lake Taumatawhana 97 5.1 Location of the study site, Lake T auanui 112 5.2 Lake stratigraphy 115 5.3 Age-depth graph 116 5.4a Pollen percentage diagram, borehole 1 for tall trees, small trees and shrubs 118 5.4b Pollen percentage diagram, borehole 1 for herbs, ferns and aquatics 119 5.5 Pollen concentration diagram, selected taxa 120 6.1 Location and physiography of Wharau Road Swamp 133 6.2 Core stratigraphy for boreholes 1-7 137 6.3 Age-depth curve for core 5 138 6.4a Percentage pollen diagram for core 5, tall trees, small trees and shrubs 140 6.4b Percentage pollen diagram for core 5, herbs, climbers, ferns and wetland species 141 XVll 6.5 Pollen concentration diagram, selected taxa 142 6.6 Grain-size classes, boreholes 1, 2, 3 and 5 145 6.7 Sediment chemistry, borehole 5 146 7.1 Physiography and location of study site 162 7.2 Stratigraphy and age-depth graph, boreholes 3 and 6 164 7.3a Percentage pollen diagram, borehole 3 for Nothofagus, gymnosperms and angiosperm trees 168 7.3b Percentage pollen diagram, borehole 3 for small angiosperm trees and shrubs, herbs and climbers 169 7.3c Percentage pollen diagram, borehole 3 for ferns and wetland species 170 7.4a Percentage pollen diagram, borehole 6 for Nothofagus, gymnosperms and angiosperm trees, small trees and shrubs 171 7.4b Percentage pollen diagram, borehole 6 for herbs, ferns and wetland species 172 8.1 Location of Lake T angonge and Lake Ohia 185 8.2 The Kaitaia Bog and Lake Tangonge 186 8.3 Lake Ohia geological map 187 8.4 Lithostratigraphy of Lake Tangonge and Lake Ohia sites 189 8.5a Percentage pollen diagram, Lake Ohia, gymnosperms, angiosperm trees, small trees and shrubs 195 8.5b Percentage pollen diagram, Lake Ohia, herbs, ferns and bog species 196 8.6a Percentage pollen diagram, Lake T angonge, Nothofagus, gymnosperms and angiosperm trees 197 XVlll 8.6b Percentage pollen diagram, Lake Tangonge, small angiosperm trees and shrubs, herbs and climbers 198 8.6c Percentage pollen diagram, Lake Tangonge, ferns and wetland species 199 8.7 Lake Ohia correspondence analysis, taxa scores, sample scores 202 8.8 Lake Ohia stratigraphic plots 203 8.9 Lake Tangonge correspondence analysis, taxa scores, sample scores 204 8.10 Lake T angonge correspondence analysis, stratigraphic plots 205 9.1 N orthland forests at the last Glacial Maximum 222 9.2 New Zealand vegetation at the Last Glacial Maximum 223 9.3 New Zealand vegetation before Polynesian deforestation 227 9.4 North Island vegetation AD 1840 after early European clearance 229 LIST OF TABLES Number Page 3.1 Site locations and their plant communities 47 3.2 Basal area and pollen percentages for tree types 59 3.3 Percentage cover at swamp sites 68 3.4 Plant group representation and pollen percentages at swamp sites 68 3.5 Percentage cover at grassland-shrubland sites 69 3.6 Plant group representation and pollen percentages at grassland-shrubland sites 70 4.1 Radiocarbon dating of samples, Lake T aumatawhana 84 4.2 Summary of palynology and regional vegetation 100 5. 1 Radiometric dating of boreholes 1 and 2, Lake Tauanui 116 6.1 Radiocarbon dating of samples from core 5, Wharau Road Swamp 138 6.2 Summary of vegetation/sedimentation history 152 7.1 Radiometric dating of Kaitaia Bog samples 165 7.2 Vegetation and climate history of far northern New Zealand over past 25 ka 175 8.1 Radiometric dating results 190 8.2 Plant macrofossil results 191 8.3 Vegetation and climate history of far northern New Zealand over past 100 ka 214 xx LIST OF PLATES Number Page 3.1 Rangitoto Island, McKenzie Bay 48 3.2 Omaha kahikatea bush remnant 48 3.3 Orere Reserve, Whangarei 49 3.4 Lake T auanui 49 3.5 Puketi State Forest, headquarters 50 3.6 Puketi State Forest, Manginangina Scenic Reserve 50 3.7 Warawara State Forest 51 3.8 Omahuta State Forest 51 3.9 Omahuta State Forest, Pukekohe Stream 52 3.10 Te Kao grassland-shrubland heath 52 3.11 T aumatawhana Swamp 53 3.12 Wharau Road Swamp 53 4.1 Lake T aumatawhana 81 5.1 Lake T auanui 109 6.1 Wharau Road Swamp 129 7.1 Kaitaia Bog 156 8.1 Lake T angonge 182 8.2 Lake Ohia 183 XX1 TAXONOMY The taxonomic nomenclature used in this thesis follows that of Allan (1961), Moore and Edgar (1976), and subsequent revisions made by Brownsey et al. (1985), Connor and Edgar (1987) and Webb et al. (1988). The new monotypic genus Manoao erected by Molloy (1995) replaces that of Lagarostrobos for what was previously known as Dacrydium colensoi (Connor and Edgar, 1987). Nothofagus classifications follow Hill and Read (1991), and Hill and Jordan (1993). N fusca type pollen species are designated Fuscospora after McGlone et al. (1996). It was not always possible to identify pollen and spores to the lowest taxonomic level as some types from the same family were too similar to differentiate between species. For this reason the following pollen types are recognised and are listed with their constituent taxa: Leptospermum type Metrosideros undiff. Neomyrtus type Fuscospora Podocarpus type Taraxacum type Cyathea dealbata type Cyathea smitbii type L. scoparium, Kunzea ericoides all New Zealand Metrosideros spp. Neomyrtus sp., Lophomyrtus spp. all Nothofogus spp. except N menziesii P. halHi, P. totara all species in the tribe Lactuceae (Asteraceae) C. dealbata, C. medullaris C. smitbii, C. colensoi 1 C h a p t e r 1 INTRODUCTION The islands of New Zealand occupy a critical position in the vast expanse of the Southern Ocean. They comprise one of the few land masses in the Southern Hemisphere south of 35°S (Figure 1.1), and are situated just equatorward of the Sub-tropical Convergence. Thus New Zealand is well placed to record climatic changes over geological time. These records of climatic fluctuations have global importance because of their role in calibrating and corroborating deep­ sea core records from adjacent oceans. New Zealand's small size and isolation from other land masses means that its climate records directly reflect global changes in the ocean-atmosphere system. The lack of large ice-sheets at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) enabled rapid vegetation response to ameliorating conditions which followed. There is enormous potential for correlating high resolution, well-dated terrestrial and marine records and therefore identifying the commencement of major global climatic changes. Northland and the New Zealand Late Quaternary The evidence for substantial changes to the climate and vegetative cover of New Zealand during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs is now reasonably well documented for most of the country south of Auckland �atitude 37°S). Pollen analysis of peat deposits and lake sediments has been a major contributor to this evidence. Other lines of research have revealed complementary evidence from glacial activity (e.g. Burrows et al., 1976), soil erosion and loess stratigraphy (e.g. Palmer and Vucetich, 1989), and ocean sediment studies (e.g. Stewart and Neall, 1984). Generally the LateglaciallHolocene has ample suitable material to study, and more than 50 published pollen sites cover the country which span all or most of the last 14,000 years. Longer records are less common. Well-dated tephras in many sediments, together with radiocarbon dates, provide a robust chronology; yet fewer than half of New Zealand sites are sufficiently well-dated to give comprehensive chronologies. This is particularly true for the northern third of the North Island where few pollen diagrams have yet been published and no LGM polliniferous deposits have been clearly identified. Few identifiable ash deposits are preserved in N orthland, owing to the direction of ash "fallout" and remoteness from source. Those sites which have been studied in Northland seldom have the benefit of tephrochronological markers to support other means of dating. Consequently radiocarbon Figure 1.1 New Zealand and the Southern Ocean showing the Subtropical Convergence (STq. 2 3 dating has generally been the sole means of establishing a time frame in palynological studies. The method is limited by its reliability beyond 30,000 years (Hogg, 1982) . Radiocarbon dating in previous work in Nonhland has been subject to a number of problems (e.g. Newnham, 1992), not least of which has been the use of bulk samples to provide dates. This leads to dates which not only have a large inbuilt error, but also include material spanning inappropriately long periods of time. The consequence of using such dates is an ambiguous and imprecise interpretation of the climate record. A funher problem is contamination of dates near the limit of the method (radiocarbon) and their confusion with younger dates (e.g. Newnham et al., 1993) . Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating can provide much more precise results using significantly smaller samples; sometimes a small twig or large seed is sufficient for this technique. With the difficulty in identifying tephras in Nonhland polliniferous deposits, the use of precision radiocarbon dating is essential if meaningful interpretations of climate change through time are to be achieved. The integration of palaeoclimatic data from sites throughout New Zealand indicates that during the LGM most of the country south of Auckland was deforested. Grass and shrub-dominant communities were widespread; forest species south of 38 oS only survived in small micoclimatically favoured areas where there was protection from heavy frosts and strong, cold desiccating winds (Figure 1 .2) . The paucity of information available for Nonhland does not allow a reconstruction of LGM vegetation cover with any cenainty. Only four published terrestrial pollen diagrams cover this period (Dodson et al., 1988 ; Newnham, 1992; Newnham et al., 1993) . One pollen record from Paranoa Swamp near Cape Reinga together with a younger, Holocene record, indicates persistent podocarp-hardwood forest for the past 17,000 years (Dodson et al., 1988). There is no evidence for the period of time immediately prior to this. Two pollen profiles from Aupouri Peninsula near Houhora have radiocarbon dates in the range 30,000 to 4000 years (Newnham et al., 1993) . These provide only a tentative reconstruction of far nonhern vegetation during the Last Glaciation and Holocene because there is considerable uncenainty over the radiocarbon ages. There is evidence that mixed podocarp-hardwood forest was present prior to the LGM, but the LGM itself may be missing from these sequences owing to possible hiatuses in sedimentation (Newnham et al., 1993) . At Otakairangi, near Whangarei, a 30,000 year long pollen site provides a rather better record indicating persistence of 35" o 100 km o i KEY � Ice o Alpine [] [] Grusland-shrubland Tall, lowland-montme coniferous-broadleaf forest Present coastline Figure 1.2 New Zealand vegetation at the Last Glacial Maximum (after McGlone et al. 1993) 4 5 diverse podocarp-hardwood forest throughout the sequence, at times dominated by Fuscospora (Newnham, 1992). However, like the Aupouri Peninsula sites, this record also suffers from uncertainties surrounding the radiocarbon ages. Consequently the vegetation and climates of the Last Glacial (LG) are currently best described by marine deep sea cores from the Bay of Plenty (Wright et al., 1995). Last Glacial to Present Vegetation and Climate of Northland The marine deep sea core record of Wright et al. (1995) establishes a well dated sequence of northern vegetational history and climate change during the last 59,000 years (isotopic stage 4/} boundary to present). Onshore vegetation changes record full conifer-hardwood forest between 59-43 ka followed by a change to vegetation which reflects cooler! drier conditions followed by a return to full forest during the Holocene. More specifically the vegetation of Stage 3b consisted of conifer hardwood forest dominated by Agathis australis with relatively high levels of Libocedrus and Cyathea smithii-type tree ferns. It is suggested Northland experienced a cooler (2-3°C decrease in mean annual temperatures), moist er climatic regime than present (Newnham, 1992; Newnham et al., 1993; Ogden et al., 1993). During Stage 3a-2, Fuscospora forest spread into Northland, and tree fern-rich, conifer-hardwood forest became much more restricted. Some open scrub and grassland was present indicated by abundances of Halocarpus, Phyllocladus, Asteraceae and grasses (Wright et al., 1995). Dodson et al. (1988) do not record any similar flora at their Cape Reinga site (northern tip of Northland Peninsula), nor does Newnham (1992) from his Otakairangi sequence. Wright et al. suggest a fall in temperature of 3- 4°C during the LGM in Northland with drier, frostier conditions, consistent with climates recorded in the central North Island and Bay of Plenty at this time (McGlone and Topping, 1983; McGlone et al., 1984; Pillans et al., 1993). In the later stages of the LGM Agathis australis, Dacrydium cupressinum and Cyathea smithii type increase sharply; Fuscospora and Halocarpus vanish between 16.5-14.6 ka (inferred) followed by a resurgence between 14.6-10 ka. This implies an early warming/moistening of climate followed by reestablishment of cooler/ drier glacial conditions. A similar Fuscospora/ HaLocarpus interval is recorded at 13 ka from Otakairangi (Newnham, 1992). Increased levels of mire taxa (restiads and sedges) during the LGM suggest extension of mires on coastal plains exposed by lower sea level. The subsequent decline in mire taxa is consistent with rising sea level in the Holocene. An abrupt resurgence of conifer-hardwood taxa and tree ferns is observed at the beginning of stage 1 (10 ka). Dacrydium cupressinum-dominant, Ascarina lucida and tree fern-rich forest was 6 established throughout northern New Zealand from 10 ka (11:cGlone, 1988; Newnham, 1992; Newnham et al., 1989; Wright et al., 1995) as increasingly warm and moist climates predominated. The spread of Agathis australis and Phyllocladus, and decline of Ascanna lucida characterise the late Holocene as slightly cooler, more variable climates prevailed. A few terrestrial Northland pollen sites record mainly Holocene environments. One from McEwan's Bog south of Whangarei has a 6,500 year long record which indicates podocarp­ forest was dominant until European clearance (Kershaw and Strickland, 1988) . A feature of this record is the abundance of Fuscospora, particularly after 4 ka. The sequence is either too condensed or incomplete to identify the onset of Polynesian deforestation. A pollen site near Dargaville has a record almost 9000 years long indicating regional beech-podocarp-hardwood rr�f forest from ca 9-7.5 ka which was replaced by podocarp-hardwoodlas Fuscospora declined rather abruptly (11:acDonald, 1984) . This record lacks good chronology, and there is no clear evidence for the onset of Polynesian deforestation. Chester (1986) reports several late Holocene records from the Bay of Islands, none older than ca 3000 yr B. P., in a study of Polynesian deforestation. The onset of clearance from Chester's study remains poorly defined. Whilst the terrestrial records have suggested that temperatures at the LGM may have decreased by as much as 3-4°C, records for the oceanic climate give a rather different picture. Wright et al. (1995) postulate only small temperature changes « 2°C) for subtropical sea surface waters cf. CLIMAP (1981) which shows as much as 4°C cooling off western New Zealand during the LG. The data for eastern New Zealand also show relatively little cooling « 2°C) during the LG, although near shore cooling may have been much greater owing to wind-induced upwelling (Hendy, 1995 in Wright et al., 1995). Although an extremely steep thermal gradient was present off the South Island during the LG which led to an extremely cold, dry, windy climate, it is suggested a relatively small temperature change in the north of the North Island produced climate similar to present or only slightly cooler and probably drier (11:cGlone et al., 1993; Nelson et al., 1993; Wright et al. , 1995). If this were the case in Northland, then one might expect the northernmost forests to have remained little changed in their composition during the LG. Forests with northern elements, including Agathis australis, exist today at high altitude in the Coromandel Peninsula (Cranwell and Moore, 1936). However, the fossil record indicates that forests in far northern New Zealand did undergo significant change during the LG. If temperatures per se were not greatly reduced, then other factors must be invoked which worked together with temperature depression to influence vegetation change. A decrease in effective precipitation is a likely causative agent. Wright et al. (1995) report that the Antarctic 7 Convergence underwent a substantial northward shift (at least 5° latitude) during the LG. However, the Subtropical Convergence (STC) probably remained stable in its current position, at least to the east of New Zealand because of the influence of the Chatham Rise (Fenner et al., 1992). No such barrier exists to the west of New Zealand, and cold water probably extended far northward which would have facilitated intrusion of frigid maritime polar airmasses. Cooler water in the T asman Sea may have had a controlling influence on the lower rainfall experienced over New Zealand during the LGM. In Nonhland it seems likely that isolation of tropical sources of monsoon from Australia, New Guinea and New Caledonia was more imponant in controlling precipitation. Many of the dominant tree taxa in Northland forests are drought sensitive, and any significant reduction in precipitation would likely have markedly restricted their abundance. Agathis australis, Ascarina lucida and Dacrydium cupressinum would have been particularly susceptible to moisture deficit (Franklin, 1968; Ecroyd, 1982; McGlone and Moar, 1977). Other species more tolerant of drought and cold, such as Fuscospora, Manoao colensoi, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/alia, could then have increased their distribution. Following the LGM, a rapid return southward of the STC into the Tasman Sea could have been the means for abrupt climatic and vegetational changes on land by raising precipitation over the entire New Zealand region (McGlone et ai., 1993) . This would encourage a return of forests similar to those extant prior to the LG. Prehistory of New Zealand In spite of more than 200 years of debate, the manner in which the Pacific was settled remains contentious. Whilst the large islands between mainland Southeast Asia, New Guinea, Australia and its near neighbours of western Melanesia are known to have been reached by at least 30- 40,000 years ago (Irwin, 1992) and possibly earlier (Hiscock and Kershaw, 1992), exploration of the vast expanse of the remote Pacific to the east is not thought to have begun until after 3,500 years ago (Irwin, 1992). The latter episode is described by Irwin as a "burst of sophisticated maritime and Neolithic settlement" (op. cit., p. 3) . The islands of the Pacific possess diverse habitats for humans. Those to the east generally occur as volcanic mountains emergent at the surface as volcanic islands, or are sub-surface and appear as low islands crowned by coral reefs. The larger, high islands to the west are geologically diverse and rich in resources for human settlement, whilst those to the east offer a rather more restricted range of resources, particularly many of the low islands which have limited soils and water. Recent research indicates that remote parts of eastern Polynesia were settled by ca 2000 yr B. P. (Irwin, 1992). However, cool and more difficult sailing conditions delayed settlement south of the tropics, and the earliest -- -- --- -- - �-- - - 8 colonists reached New Zealand only about 1000 years ago (Figure 1.3; Davidson, 1984; lrwin, 1992; Anderson and McGlone, 1992) . A shift in the thinking of Polynesian prehistory began a decade ago with the publication of Kirch's Rethinking Polynesian Prehistory ( 1986) which seriously challenged the orthodox model of the sequence and chronology of first and subsequent colonisations of Polynesia. The timing of first settlement of New Zealand has been the subject of considerable scientific interest and earnest debate, and remains poorly defined. Counterpoised against the "orthodox position" (identified with Davidson, 1981, 1984) which would date human arrival to 1000-1100 years ago are the "short prehistory" of ca 800-600 years (Anderson, 1991; McGlone et al., 1994; McFadgen et al., 1994) , and the "early hypothesis" of 2000-1500 years (Sutton, 1987, 1988) . However, Sutton's assertions have been vigorously contested by Enright and Osborne ( 1988) who suggest that much of the evidence used by Sutton ( 1987) has been misinterpreted. Some of the debate has focused on archaeological visibility. Anderson ( 1991) argues that the first people in New Zealand are readily seen in the archaeology of moa-hunter sites. Sutton ( 1988, 1994) suggests that archaeological visibility may not be that simple and is dependent upon the size of founding populations, the susceptibility of the landscape to discernible effects of human impact, the effects of that impact and the rate of increase of human population. Brewis et al. ( 1990) have argued that population growth rates for pre-European Maori were extremely low, probably less than one percent. If a founding population was small, e.g. less than 100, then it might take at least 350 years to reach 1000. The question is would these people be archaeologically visible? Anderson ( 1991) has argued for a short prehistory on the basis of analysis of approximately 300 archaeological radiocarbon dates. These dates are concentrated in the central and southern regions of New Zealand. Anderson culled many of them on the basis of uncertainties including inbuilt ages for wood dates, calcium carbonate contamination, and non-collagen residual carbon contamination or mineralisation of moa bone material. Only a very limited amount of archaeological research has been done on the early period in Northland and the number of radiocarbon dates is few. The oldest are charcoal dates of 775 ± 61 yr B. P. (NZ-916) from Houhora, Aupouri Peninsula and 525 ± 89 yr B. P. (NZ-647) from Moturua in the Bay of Islands, and a marine shell date of 1010 ± 35 yr B. P. from Twilight Beach near Cape Reinga. 9 .co. �AWA!I SAMOA __ ..-:..-:::::;:.-- K"rmedo(; ;' Figure 1.3 The Pacific and Polynesian dispersal patterns (redrawn after Kirch, 1986). -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - ------- ---- - 10 These dates are uncalibrated conventional determinations (Anderson, 1991). More recent dating of Houhora material has yielded additional charcoal dates of 774 ± 87 yr B . P. (NZA-2437) and 727 ± 86 yr B. P. (NZA-2438), and a date on marine shell of 8 12 ± 37 yr B. P. (NZ-7920) (Anderson and Wallace, 1993). The distribution of moa-hunting sites is discontinuous and relatively few occur in N orthland. The stratigraphic complexity of moa-hunter sites and the small number of radiocarbon determinations from most sites indicate that more detailed work is required to establish reliable chronologies. Evidence for colonisation may derive not only from habitation sites, but also from anthropogenic environmental changes, particularly forest disturbance/clearance and burning. For example recent palaeoenvironmental evidence demonstrates considerable earlier human disturbance on Mangaia Island, Central Polynesia (Kirch et al., 1991 , 1992; Kirch and Ellison, 1994). Prior to human settlement of New Zealand the forest cover was virtually complete (Figure 1 .4). Palaeoenvironmental evidence in New Zealand indicates sustained deforestation after 1000 yr B. P. (McGlone, 1983, 1989), and probably after 800 yr B. P. (Anderson and McGlone, 1992). There is a strong peak in the published deforestation dates at ca 600 yr. B. P. (McGlone, 1989). The evidence for deforestation during the Polynesian era is derived from charcoal and wood in soils, soil instability leading to soil erosion and sedimentation, and pollen records within affected areas which show a decline of forest pollen and increase in non-forest pollen, especially bracken, grasses, shrubs and microscopic charcoal. Whilst evidence of soil erosion and increased sedimentation is not a reliable indication on its own, where it is linked with evidence of repeated burning and deforestation the inference of human impact is justifiable. All North Island sites show prominent, persistent bracken in the post-forest clearance phase. The mild, moist climates of the North Island ensure rapid regrowth after fire (McKelvey, 1973). Bracken is easily suppressed by regenerating forest (Dring, 1965) and its continued presence relies on constant burnoff of the vegetation. Deforestation was concentrated in areas where rainfall was less than 1000 mmI a, although widespread clearance was possible in the range 1000- 1600 mmla. However, if rainfall was over 1600 mmla only limited clearance was possible (McGlone, 1983). This may account for the reason why much of Northland was still forested when early European clearance began (see Figure 9 .4) . Whilst the drier regions of the South Island were extremely prone to natural fire and accidental burning, it seems likely that forest destruction by fire in the north was deliberate and sustained (McGlone, 1983) . 35 40 45 1 70 Key • Nothotogus forest dominant or common toll, lowIand·monlone podoca!p­ hardwood torest inland podoco!p-hardwOOd forest wet upland podoca!p-hardwOOd torest·Sflrubland lowland scrub alpine 1 70 1 75 Figure 1.4 The vegetative cover of New Zealand prior to human settlement ca 1000 yr B. P. (after McGlone et al., 1993) . 1 1 35 40 45 12 There are a number of important reasons why Polynesians destroyed forests in spite of the rich resources they contained such as edible fruits, large populations of ground and tree-dwelling birds and construction materials. These are: 1) Clearance for bracken. The rhizome of bracken (Pteridium esculentum) has been identified as an important food throughout all of pre-European New Zealand (Colenso, 1880; Best, 1942). The maintenance of bracken fernland would have inevitably led to fire spreading into adjacent forest. 2) Clearance for cultivation of crops. This was probably more common in the North Island where kumara growing was an important activity and the climatic conditions were more suitable. 3) Clearance for travel. The difficulty of travelling through dense forest led to the practice of burning to keep tracks open, especially on ridges. 4) Clearance for habitation. Although the total area occupied by dwellings and fortification was probably not great the need for protection from potential enemies was. Clearance around settlements provided security from surprise attack. 5) Clearance for hunting. Fire as an aid to hunting was not essential as moa appear to have declined as rapidly from intact forest as those that were cleared (Anderson, 1982). It may have become more common to burn off vegetation to flush out game as bird numbers declined. However, fire in tall forests is not readily controlled, and New Zealand forests are extremely sensitive to fire, especially in areas where summer drought is common. McGlone sums up the use of fire neatly, saying "Fire was the primary instrument of land management and it was used liberally" (1983: 23). The extent of forest clearance was principally determined by rainfall. Areas with a high rainfall, such as the west coast of the South Island and Taranaki (and possibly much of Northland), retained forest except for small coastal patches or areas of high fertility. Elsewhere in the drier areas deforestation was more or less complete. Avian extinction, particularly that of moas, has been clearly associated with people (Anderson, 1989a; Anderson and McGlone, 1992). Of the approximate 300 moa sites recorded, 76% are in the South Island. The chronology for moa sites peaks between 1300-1250 A.D. It seems likely that other avian extinctions and depletions were also a consequence of human settlement 13 (Anderson and McGlone, 1992), either directly by hunting as in the case of avian megafauna (moas, geese, adzebill, pelican, eagle), forest destruction or predation by rats. Anderson and McGlone argued for a pattern of regional attractiveness of New Zealand to the Maori. During the colonisation period the South Island held sway because of having the largest and most accessible reserves of high-protein food (of animal origin), and because horticulture appears to have been little practised at this time (Anderson, 1989b), although this is far from clear. When the high-protein foods became scarce, it is argued that the north became more favourable, firstly because of the greater availability of wild foods, as well as shell fish and fish species. Colenso (1880) identified a considerable number of pre-European plant foods which were of importance in the Maori diet, including bracken rhizome and forest fruits. In the absence of animal proteins, these were important subsistence foods throughout the year. Thus it might have been possible for small numbers of people to exist in Northland for some time without causing significant burn off. Secondly, the warmer climate and more fertile soils favoured gardening. The model for a shorter prehistory assumes that the early settlers were dependent on high­ protein food sources, either by necessity, or preference. However, this need not be the case. To the early settlers coming from the tropical Pacific, climate and soils would have been major constraints to agricultural settlement. Bulmer (1988) identifies three important environmental factors crucial to successful colonisation: 1) favourable climate, 2) fertile soils, and 3) accessible seafood. The optimal zone in terms of climate for initial settlement of New Zealand is Northland where average annual temperatures range around 15°C (see section on climate), and rainfall is plentiful. Whilst there are relatively few large areas with good soils, those on recent volcanics and in lowland valleys are of high fertility (Bulmer, 1989). Access to seafood in the north was never a problem as there is no shortage of large, sheltered harbours. It has been suggested that anthropogenic deforestation cannot be reliably distinguished from natural deforestation, even when linked with the characteristic peak of bracken spores following fires (Anderson and McGlone, 1992) . This may be true over short time intervals in areas subject to active volcanism where widespread fires follow eruptions, either by direct ignition or from increased lightning activity. However, Wilmshurst and McGlone (1996) have shown that, in the case of the Taupo eruption of 1850 yr B. P., forest regeneration was rapid. Tall forest redeveloped within 120-225 years. Where pollen records indicate high levels of bracken spores and charcoal fragments, coincident with a significant decline of forest taxa, the inference of anthropogenic deforestation is entirely justified. 14 Summary The vegetational and climatic record for Nonhland over the late Quaternary is sketchy and poorly dated. No sites provide unambiguous data for the LGM or the period immediately preceding it. Sequences for the Lateglacial and Postglacial are also poorly represented, so that no clear picture is evident for the Glacial-Postglacial transition. When much of the rest of New Zealand was dominated by grass and shrubland during the LGM, Northland's vegetation remained inadequately described. The on-going debate over first colonisation of New Zealand may be clarified by palynological research which can distinguish between natural effects and cultural impact. Recent reports (Holdaway, 1996) of radiocarbon ages of up to 2000 yr B. P. on bone gelatin from Pacific rats (Rattus exulans) suggest that human contact with New Zealand may have occurred long before the traditional time of human arrival ca 1000 years ago (Davidson, 1984) . These dates- on rat bone have only served to heighten speculation about colonisation. Their validity has been challenged on the basis of potential inbuilt age from reservoir effects via dietary influence (Anderson, 1996) . Far northern New Zealand offers a number of environmental inducements for early settlement (Bulmer, 1988). If the first humans to settle in New Zealand did arrive earlier than is generally accepted, then Northland is likely to hold the evidence of their occupancy. Northern New Zealand is one of the most exciting regions of the country in which to study vegetation and climate change. The area is of crucial importance to both palaeoclimatic studies and archaeology. One of the long-standing problems in the research of the far north of New Zealand has been the difficulty in accurately dating bog and lake deposits. Many of the dates from the Northland Peninsula yield ambiguous chronologies which are not readily matched to the stratigraphy or their pollen records (e.g. Newnham, 1992; Newnham et ai., 1993) . Large numbers of AMS dates and good pollen stratigraphy are needed to resolve these anomalies. By the use of palynology this thesis aims to deflne more clearly the vegetational history, and hence the inferred climate, of northern New Zealand over the Last Glacial and Postglacial periods. A total of seven cores from sites in the northern half of Northland were analysed (Figure 1 .5). Particular emphasis was placed on that period encompassing the LGM, between ca 22 ka and 14 ka, through to the mid-Postglacial (ca 5 ka). In this thesis the reconstruction of Late Quaternary vegetative cover and climatic conditions allows an assessment of how severely Northland was affected during the LGM, and how rapidly vegetation responded to rising temperatures and changes in precipitation regimes and windflow patterns. This builds on previous work by Newnham (1992), Newnham et al. (1993) and Ogden et al. (1993) to provide a - - - - -- ----- 15 clearer picture of the history of northern forests. Much debate has occurred in the literature with regard to the refuge hypothesis (see e.g. Wardle, 1963, 1988; Clayton-Greene, 1978; McGlone, 1985) and this research provides new insights on this issue in the New Zealand context. The analysis of sites which have a late Postglacial record up to the present day provide some much needed data for the debate over first colonisation of New Zealand. 36° S o 174° E Lake Ta:uJnlta'lRlxma � Lake a?ia 40 80 km + Sarrple site 1 730 E 1 740 E 1 75° E 36° S 3 7" S Figure 1.5 Location of coring sites in this study, far northern New Zealand. 15a Aims and objectives At the outset of this research project, the late Quaternary vegetational and climatic history of northern New Zealand was poorly explained, in part because of the ambiguous chronologies of the sites thus far investigated, and also because few records of continuous sedimentation during the Last Glacial (LG) to present day had been discovered. The pollen record of Dodson et al. (1988) from Cape Reinga does not have a sufficiently long history (only 17 ka) to make definitive statements about LG climates of Northland. The site is also quite distant from the rest of "mainland" Northland so that its history may not bear an intimate relationship to the environments further south. The records from Aupouri Peninsula of Newnham et al. (1993) and Ogden et al. (1993) give valuable information about parts of the LG but lack reliable chronologies, and the mid-Northland site of Newnham (1992) which may have a 30 ka record is also not well dated. In addition the commencement of human settlement which is of considerable interest to both the scientific community and the public remains poorly defined. This thesis aims to address the inadequacies in the current state of this knowledge by exploring a number of avenues. In order to better define the commencement of human settlement, suitable sites are required which contain sequences of continuous sedimentation of polliniferous material spanning the late Holocene period. These sequences need to be old enough that the "natural", pre-human period can be clearly identified and differentiated from the post-human environmental impact. To this end three sites (Lakes Taumatawhana and Tauanui, and Wharau Road Swamp) with sedimentation histories dating back to the mid-Holocene were investigated for their pollen records, as part of a FRST-funded project to identify the location and date of first Maori colonisation of Northland. Investigation of the LG and early Holocene is a more difficult proposition, chiefly because of the paucity of suitable material which can be reliably dated from this time period. There are few readily accessible sites which have sufficiently old sequences of continuous sedimentation. In this study one major site adjacent to Kaitaia (Kaitaia Bog) has been identified, from which three cores have been investigated producing integrated environmental histories for the past ca 70 ka. One further site, Lake Ohia, east of Kaitaia, provides a record believed to derive from the Last Interglacial. Analysis of these sites was thought to be central to clarifying the composition of LG forests in far northern New Zealand and their response to climatic deterioration, especially during the LGM when regions south of Auckland were largely deforested. In particular, the question of whether forest cover did in fact persist throughout Northland during the LGM may be answered. lSb By the use of closer sampling intervals than many of the previous studies in Northland on sediment cores of continuous sedimentation, together with the use of AMS dating to provide less ambiguous chronologies, pollen records from a variety of sites and time intervals would be integrated to provide a detailed picture of the late Quaternary environmental history of far northern New Zealand. Regional Setting Geology 16 The Northland Peninsula strikes in a north-westlery trend away from the Auckland isthmus, at right angles to the north-easterly trend of the remainder of New Zealand (Figure 1.6). The peninsula is narrow, ranging from 10 km to 100 km wide and some 300 km long. It is the northernmost region of mainland New Zealand, lying mostly between latitudes 34 and 37°S. Generally the relief is low rolling country mostly below 300 m, although the highest altitudes exceed 600 m a. s. 1. . Owing to a warm, wet climate and plentiful supply of rocks rich in minerals such as feldspars and augite, the region is characterised by deeply weathered rocks and clay subsoil profiles which are mostly more than one metre deep, and generally strongly leached (Ballance and Williams, 1982). However, localised high fertility soils do occur associated with volcanic, alluvial, and colluvial deposits (T aylor and Sutherland, 1953). The underlying geological structure of Northland is related to major Tertiary tectonic events in the South-west Pacific region and is reflected in the gross shape of the peninsula seen today. The long straight western coast is characterised by the effects of extensive pro gradation along the outline of a drowned coast in strong contrast to the intricately embayed eastern shoreline (Cotton, 1974). The bulk of the sand available for progradation along the western coast has been ultimately derived from rhyolitic explosive eruptions in the central volcanic zone of the North Island. Long distance transport up the coast, mainly by way of sediment discharged from the Waikato River, has provided a steady supply of volcanic beach sand. In sharp contrast the east coast is mostly free of extensive progradation, due in part to the weaker wave attack from dominantly westerly wind-driven waves, and in part to less available material for dune building. Five major types of geological events have determined many of the different rock types of the Northland region (Figure 1.6). The sequence began with the introduction of an extensive succession of soft sedimentary rocks in the upper Oligocene, consisting mainly of mudstones, sandstones and fine-grained limestones. Resting on top of old volcanic rocks, formerly part of the Pacific Ocean crust, these sedimentary rocks were displaced with their underlying crust by gravity to form what is known as the Northland Allochthon ca 25 million years ago (Ballance and Sporii, 1979), and rafted up onto Permian-Cretaceous greywacke basement rocks. Between about 22 and 15 million years ago eruptions of two chains of andesitic island arc volcanoes occurred on both the eastern and western sides of Northland. Most of these Lower Miocene volcanic deposits have been eroded away by the sea. As the volcanic activity declined ----------------- -- - - - - - - 17 Miocene volcanic deposits have been eroded away by the sea. As the volcanic activity declined in the Middle Miocene ca 15 ma, block faulting and westward tilting caused the western side of the peninsula to be depressed, and the eastern side to be elevated. This led to widespread erosion of the eastern rock units that form the previous sedimentary and volcanic basement (Ballance and Williams, 1982). Later volcanic activity in the mid- to late Pleistocene recurred throughout Northland in various fields intermittently. Chiefly this was associated within the Kaikohe, Bay of Islands, and Whangarei districts. Activity continued almost to the time of human settlement. The volcanism of this period produced the numerous basaltic scoria cones so characteristic of the Northland landscape. The final and most recent major geological event in this sequence has been the Quaternary period resulting in major climatic and sea level changes. Shoreline changes of the late Pleistocene were controlled by eustatic sea level changes; the different heights of the same shorelines now observed in different parts of New Zealand have resulted from later tectonic movements (Fleming, 1979). Evidence derived from radiocarbon dates for shallow-water shells indicates sea levels of approximately -90 metres by the onset of the Holocene (Norris, 1972; Pautin, 1957; in Fleming, 1979). Substantial parts of the Northland coastline consist of sand deposits accumulated in the Pleistocene which have linked together the Northland Archipelago (Figure 1.7). The two most extensive areas where this has occurred are the enclosed west coast Kaipara Harbour, and the Aupouri Peninsula (Aupouri Tombolo) which joins Mount Camel, Cape Reinga and North Cape to the mainland (Ballance and Williams, 1982). o Basalt Ultramafics Pleistocene- Holocene - - ------------ Volcanics Rhyolitel Andesite Dacite - Sediments Eocene- Permian- Pleistocene G-etaceous ;:;:;:;:;:;:;�: - Figure 1 .6 Generalised geological map of Northland (after Brothers, 1965). 18 172° E 36° 3/ 5 172° E I I I \ I 173° .... ,. ,. .... , , � __ .L"D , . \ \ , 1740 34° 5 Probable land areas in Pliocene ca 5 My ago .... _ \ , , Sand accumulation since the Pliocene " , , "­ , , , , , "- \ , \\ �������� ��l���:mmm�-�-����"-' '\ --- - , \\�, ,����.!�����!���!�!�I�I!.��'�' \ , \ ' " ' 35° i �, r , ' .... ,\ '\2��:{�:::::::::=\" ' -� '�;;��" \ � \ , " , \ , , \ " \ Approximate position of minus 100 m shoreline during \ \ \ \ J Last Glaciation 1730 I I I I \ , Figure 1.7 The linking of the "Northland Archipelago" . Mer Fleming ( 1979), and Ballance and Williams (1982) . 19 20 Present day vegetation Prior to European clearance the vegetative cover of Northland was dominated by vast unbroken tracts of forest, although it is known that parts of Northland were deforested following Polynesian settlement (Dieffenbach, 1843; Matthews and Matthews 1940; Chester 1986). The largest remaining tracts of forest occur north of Whangarei. These include the Raetea, Herekino, Warawara, Omahuta-Puketi, Waipoua and Russell State Forests (Figure 1 .8) . Smaller but significant forest remnants occur throughout the peninsula, but are smaller and more scattered in the south. Northland forests are characterised by Agathis australis (kauri), a massive columnar tree with a huge spreading crown, belonging to the Araucariaceae, which attains heights of 30-60 m. Most forests are podocarp-broadleaved hardwood associations. They occupy a range of soils from leached clays and podzolised sands to more fertile soils developed over basalt, in alluvium or on colluvial slopes. Kauri occurs on infertile soils, mostly confined to spurs, ridges and high plateaux. The kauri association commonly includes the gymnosperms Dacrydium cupressinum, Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Podocarpus halHi and P. totara. Halocarpus kirkii and Phyllocladus glaucus may be locally common. Typical associated angiosperm hardwoods include Beilschmiedia tarairi, B. tawa, Dysoxylum spectabile, Ixerba brexioides, Quintinia serrata and Weinmannia silvicola (McKelvey and Nicholls, 1959) . Kauri forests merge into valley-floor stands characterised by Podocarpus totara, Prumnopitys ferruginea and P. taxi/olia, A lectryon excelsus, Vitex lucens, and on wet alluvial soils Dacrycarpus dacrydioides and Laurelia novae-zelandiae. Extensive forests without kauri occur on rolling clay uplands CW ardle, 1991) . A striking feature of New Zealand phytogeography is the occurrence of centres of endemism and disjunction. The northern half of the North Island (north of ca 39°S) , the Nelson­ Marlborough, and Otago-Southland regions form floristic centres with high proportions of endemic and disjunct species (Figure 1.9; McGlone, 1985; Wardle 1988) . The areas between are characterised by relative floristic poverty. Approximately 95 species are endemic north of 38°S CWardle, 1991). The majority of these are woody (ca 55%) and some 18% are tall trees (McGlone, 1985) . They include Agathis australis, Halocarpus kirkii, Beilschmiedia tarairi, Caldcluvia rosifolia, Ixerba brexioides, Planchonella costata, Toronia toru, Dracophyllum latifolium and Phebalium nudum. The high proportion of endemic woody species in the northern centre contrasts markedly with the type of endemics in the more southerly regions and reflects the greater degree of woodiness of the northern flora as a whole (McGlone, 1985) . In addition a number of taxa which are confined to the warmer parts of New Zealand have disjunct distributions and occur in the northern part of the South Island and north of 39°S, including 21 N I o � Waitakere S. F. -......... ·.>1 o Kilometres 80 D Indigenous forest Figure 1.8 Indigenous forests in Northland today. 1 25 Tall trees 1 8% Woody 55% % Total flora 5.7 36 Tall trees 0% Woody 1 7% % Total flora 1 .6 1 89 Tall trees 1 .5% Woody 24% % Total flora 8.6 (8%) /,/" /'//50 .. _ .. _ .. _ .. _.!_ (5%) ............................. 1 0 (1 %) -.. -.. - _ .. _ .. _ .. _ .. _ .. -.. _ ............ .. 20 " " " '. .. , .............. . 22 Figure 1 .9 Floristic centres with high proportions of endemism in higher plants. The total number of endemics in each zone, and their percentage of the total flora of that zone are given. The zones are subdivided by dashed lines to give the numbers of endemics and their percentage of the total flora of the subzones. The figure is redrawn after McGlone (1985). 23 Libocedrus plumosa, Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Lycopodium cernuum and Blechnum fraseri. One of the curious features of New Zealand forests is the distribution of Nothofogus species. Nothofagus distributions are characterised by extensive forest tracts where the species is dominant, often to the near exclusion of other trees (McGlone et al., 1996). Generally the distribution patterns can be explained by their climatic and edaphic characteristics. However, there are a number of apparently suitable areas where Nothofagus is absent, or nearly so (Wardle, 1964, 1988; McGlone, 1985). These are the so-called "Nothofagus gaps", the most important of which are Stewart Island, the central Westland gap, the central Canterbury gap, the Manawatu gap, and Taranaki (Figure 1 . 10; McGlone et al., 1996). There are scattered occurrences of Nothofagus truncata in Northland forests (Figure 1 . 1 1) . Small stands of at most 2- 3 acres exist in the Omahuta State Forest (Sexton, 1941), the Pekerau Valley to the south of Karikari Peninsula, and near the Ruakaka State Forest (MacDonald, 1984). Elsewhere ID Northland scattered trees occur in the Waipoua State Forest and scenic reserves south of Whangarei (MacDonald, 1984; Wardle, 1984). Offshore, Nothofogus truncata and N solandri var. solandri are recorded on Little Barrier Island (.Mason and Preest, 1954; Wardle, 1984) . The fossil record (Newnham, 1992; Kershaw and Strickland, 1988) suggests that Nothofogus in Northland may have been much more widespread in the past, but its occurrence and distribution are poorly defined. The biogeography of New Zealand plants has attracted considerable scientific interest since the first detailed studies of the flora last century, and continues to the present. Explanations for the patterns of distribution of the higher plants have focused on the effects of climate change during the Last Glaciation (Wardle, 1963, 1988; Burrows, 1965), and long-term consequences of tectonism extending back into the Tertiary (McGlone, 1985). The fossil record indicates that forest cover was drastically reduced during the Last (Otiran) Glaciation (.McGlone, 1988) . The glacial refuge hypothesis states that prior to the LGM endemic and disjunct species had a wider, or more continuous distribution. When the expansion of ice during the LGM physically excluded plants from many regions it is theorised that plants tended to become concentrated in refugia. These refugia are thought to have occurred in scattered coastal locations of northern and southern South Island, with major refugia north of latitude 38-39° S (Wardle, 1963). Wardle (1963, 1988) argued that the effects of glaciation on the present distribution of the higher plants were profound. Following deglaciation plants moved southwards, upwards and outwards from 24 1 70 35 35 Key • No1tJotagus fcrest CIOmlnont cr common fon. IowfOno-monfone podocorp- hardwood forest inlano podOCcrp-hardwood forest ID wet upklno podocorp-hardwOOd torest-shrubiano Iowlono scrub D alpine 40 40 45 45 1 75 Figure 1 . 10 Nothofagus gaps (after McGlone et al., 1996). Figure 1 . 1 1 The distribution of Nathcfagus truncata in North Island and Northland, New Zealand. Data sources from MacDonald (1984) and Wardle (1984) . 25 26 refugia. If this were so then Northland could have been a significant Holocene source of forest species. Wardle (1988) considers that physical constraints merely restrict the potential limits of plant distribution, and that actual distributions are influenced by biotic and stochastic factors. He further states that plant distributions which were consequent upon LGM climates persist at variance to the present environment. It is argued that the adjustment of vegetation to Postglacial environments is not yet complete because of discrepancies between Holocene environments and present plant distributions. Thus many plants are thought to still be in the process of spreading solely as an adjustment to Postglacial conditions. The tectonic hypothesis (M:cGlone, 1985) proposes that floristic centres of endemism and disjunction originated in the latter part of the Tertiary as a consequence of tectonism which led . to the isolation of the northern centre. Whilst anomalous and disjunct distributions reflect environmental constraints of the present day, McGlone (1985) argues that the explanation must be sought in the major geological events since the Miocene. In particular the movements of land following large scale tectonism, the fluctuations of sea level which resulted in the Plio­ Pleistocene submergence of the lower half of the North Island, and the creation of new environments as a result of orogeny, both in the Southern Alps and the southern ranges of the North Island. In this way McGlone argues that the more stable areas, geologically, have retained more species than those areas subjected to inundation or habitat loss in more tectonically mobile regions. The glacial hypothesis rests largely on the tenet that distribution patterns developed during the Otiran Glaciation are today expressed by patterns which are discordant with Postglacial environments (Wardle, 1988). Wardle argues that these patterns (Last Glacial and Postglacial) probably repeat similar plant distributions of earlier glaciations. Should the fossil record indicate that regional floras existed intact within their regions through the Otiran Glaciation, then the glacial refuge hypothesis will be brought into question. Climate Northland is characterised by a warm, humid and rather windy climate (Figure 1.12) . Few extremes occur owing to the modifying effect of extensive adjacent oceans, the relatively low latitudes, and also the strong influence of the subtropical high pressure belt. The rainfall varies from ca 1100 mm yr'! in coastal areas to 2500 mm yr'l in upland areas (Figure 1.13). Most of this falls in the winter half year, while summers are usually dry, with soil moisture deficits between A K2 B C CO C2 D H � W - - Warm humid summers, mild winters. Annual rainfall 1000 mm to 1500 mm withmaximum in winter. Prevailing wind S. W .. but occasional slrong gales and heavy rains from E. or N. E. from Auckland northwards and abOut Coromandel. Similar to A, but much wetter. Rainfall 1500 mm to 2400 mm. Sunny rather sheltered areas which receive rains of very high intensity at times from N. E. and N. Vedrywarm summers and mild winters. Annual rainfall 1000 mm to 1800 mm with winter maximum. Very warm summers. day temperatures occasionally rise above 32'C IMth dry foehn N. W. winds. Annual rainfall 1000 mm to 1500 mm; marked decrease in amount and reliability of rain in spring and summer. Moderate winter temperatures with maxi· mum rainfall in this season. Drier than type C; rainfall 600 mm to 1000 mm. Cooler and wetter hill climates. Very heavy rains at times from S. andS. E; annual rainfall mainly 1500 mm to 2000 mm. W. to N. W. winds prevail with relatively frequent gales. Annual rainfall 900 mm to 1300 mm. Rainfall reliable and evenly distributed throughout the year. Warm summers, mild winters. High rainfall; mountain climates Figure 1.12 Climatic zones of the North Island (after Tomlinson, 1976). 27 28 November and April for 55 days on average. Occasionally tropical cyclones reach Northland. Those that do and still retain very low pressures with hurricane force winds are rare. However, other storms of tropical origin affect Northland once or twice a year between December and April. They bring heavy rain and strong easterly winds (Moir et ai., 1986) . Airflow is predominantly from the south-west, especially in winter and spring (fomlinson, 1975). Summer and autumn winds from the easterly quarter are about equal in frequency to those of the south-west. This is due to the changing location of the high pressure belt which is further south during the summer and autumn months than at other times (Moir et al., 1986). Most parts of Northland receive about 2000 hours of sunshine per year. This is fairly uniform throughout the region, and the mean monthly air temperatures range from 19.5oC to 10. S°C. Mean annual temperatures range from 14 - lS.SoC in the west and south to 15.5 - 16°C in the north and east (Figure 1 . 14). Winters are mild with many parts experiencing only a few shallow ground frosts each year, generally in sheltered inland areas (Moir et al. 1986) . 174" E • Rainfall station 35" S 35' S 36' S 36' S 173' E Figure 1 . 1 3 Mean annual rainfall, Northland, 1941 - 1970 (after MOll et aI., 1 986) - -- -- ---------------- 20 20h,"=--------------i ID • • I I I I I I� I� 29 J F M A M J J A S O N D J f Aupouri Forest 15,9"C 20��--------------i J f Punakitere 14,7OC 20��--------------i J , M Dargavllle 1 4,6OC Keliken 1 5, 1 OC 20 � __ -------------; N D Whangarel 1 5,2OC Figure 1 . 14 Northland mean monthly and mean annual temperatures at selected stations; data from temperature normals 194 1-1970 (N. Z. Meteorological Service, 1978) . 29a Approach to thesis After this introductory chapter the thesis is organised in the following manner. Chapter 2 describes in detail the methodology employed in this study together with sampling strategies, taxonomic nomenclature and the approach used to estimate charcoal concentration and hence fire history. Justification of the pollen sums used is also given here. In Chapter 3 surface samples of moss poIsters and soils are analysed for their modern pollen rain. These data are compared to vegetation data in order to establish relationships between proportions of pollen taxa and their representation in various plant communities. These results may then be used to help interpret the fossil pollen records. Chapters 4-6 are presented as papers which have either been published or accepted for publication in refereed journals. These papers derive from the FRST project "Identification of the location and date of first Maori colonisation of Northland and Auckland using palynological and sedimentological evidence for environmental change". Each of these papers presents the results of pollen analysis from a Holocene site in Northland together with sediment analyses for two of the sites (Lake Taumatawhana and Wharau Road Swamp) . The contributions of my co-authors is clearly stated at the beginning of Chapter 4. Chapter 7 is also presented as a published paper and describes a longer history from two cores from Kaitaia Bog. These records are truncated and have no late Holocene sediments which might preserve evidence of human impact. In Chapter 8 the two oldest records from this study are analysed. Although one of these cores (Lake Tangonge) is derived from Kaitaia Bog it is presented here with the Lake Ohia core for the following reasons. The Lake Ohia sequence lacks a well-defined chronology and is better discussed in conjunction with the Lake T angonge record. The other Kaitaia Bog cores have shorter chronologies and are already published jointly (see Chapter 7). The long record for Lake Tangonge may be correlated by palynostratigraphy and interpretation of the pollen record to that of Lake Ohia, although it is likely that a hiatus exists between the two records. Correspondence analysis of the data and comparison of the Tangonge and Ohia pollen spectra with other Last Glacial records is made in order to assess the arguments for a Last Interglacial (Isotope Stage Sc-a) age for the Lake Ohia record and Last Glacial age for the T angonge spectra. A summary of conclusions from the preceding chapters of the late Quaternary vegetational and climatic history of far northern New Zealand is presented in Chapter 9. 30 REFERENCES Anderson, A. ]. 1982. North and Central Otago. In Prickett, N. (ed.) The First Thousand Years: Regional perspectives in New Zealand Archaeology. New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 13, Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 1 12-128. Anderson, A. J. 1989a. Prodigious Birds: Moas and Moa-Hunting in Prehistoric New Zealand. 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Quaternary Research 44: 283-293 . 34 35 C h a p t e r 2 METHODS Core collection Sediment cores at all swamp and bog sites were collected using a d-section Russian peat sampler (Jowsey, 1996) . Where practical a transect was made across the site to ascertain the cross­ sectional stratigraphy of the site. Those cores from lake deposits were recovered using a modified piston mud sampler (Walker, 1964) operated from a raft. In each instance the cores were examined and described in the field as they were collected, and then sealed in plastic electrical conduit trunking prior to return to cool storage at Massey University. Dating As there were no tephras observed in any of the cores used for pollen analysis, core chronologies were provided by radiocarbon dating, except where the age of material exceeded the limitations of that method. In these instances ages have been interpreted by correlation with dated sequences from other sources (e.g. Wright et ai., 1995). Samples of 0.05-0.06 m length were submitted to the Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, Lower Hutt for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry dating CAMS). These dates are presented in this thesis as conventional radiocarbon years uncorrected for secular variation. Pollen analysis The reconstruction of vegetation histories was derived using pollen analysis of lake and swamp/bog sediment sub-samples. These sub-samples were taken at intervals of 10 cm throughout the length of the core except where closer sampling was necessary and a 5 cm interval was used. Pollen samples were treated following the standard chemical preparation techniques of Moore et al. (1991) , and F�gri and Iversen (1989): 1) Digestion in hot potassium hydroxide to remove humic materials and disperse the matrix, followed by sieving to remove coarse particulate matter. 2) Deflocculation of clay rich samples using sodium pyrophosphate. 3) Hydrochloric acid treatment to remove any traces of carbonate matter prior to hydrofluoric acid treatment. 4) Hydrofluoric acid treatment to remove siliceous matter. 36 5) Oxidation using chloric oxides as oxidising agents to remove lignin. The oxidation stage may cause swelling of palynomorphs, and therefore precedes acetolysis which partially reverses the swelling a. Wilmshurst pers. COmID. 1995), rather than the sequence suggested by Moore et al. ( 1991). 6) Acetolysis to remove cellulose. 7) Residues containing concentrated pollen are stained with basic fuchsin and mounted in glycerine jelly on glass microscope slides. Alternatively some samples were dehydrated using an alcohol series and mounted in silicone oil. All fossil samples were spiked with exotic Lycopodium spore tablets for calculation of pollen concentration (Stockmarr, 1971). Pollen and spores were identified and counted using a Zeiss Axiophot photomicroscope, and a Leitz light microscope, at 400 x and 450 x magnification respectively. Counting was made along traverses spaced so as to minimise the effects of differential settling of palynomorphs on the slide during mounting. A pollen sum of 200-300 dryland pollen and spores were counted at each depth. The reference collection of New Zealand pollen and spores held in the Department of Geography, and a smaller collection held in the Herbarium in the Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology at Massey University, were used to check and assist with identifications. In addition the following texts, Pollen Grains of New Zealand Dicotyledonous Plants (Moar, 1993), New Zealand Pollen Studies: The Monocotyledons (Cranwell, 1953), Spore A tlas of New Zealand Ferns and Fern Allies (Large and Braggins, 1991), and A Manual of the Spores of New Zealand Pteridophyta (Harris, 1955), were used extensively. Taxonomic nomenclature follows that of Allan ( 1961), Moore and Edgar (1976), and subsequent revisions made by Brownsey et al. (1985), Connor and Edgar (1987), Webb et al. ( 1988), and Molloy ( 1995). Nothofagus classifications follow Hill and Read ( 1991), and Hill and Jordan (1993). N fusca type pollen species are designated Fuscospora after McGlone et at. (1996). It was not always possible to identify pollen and spores to the lowest taxonomic level as some types from the same family were too similar to differentiate between species. For this reason the following pollen types are recognised and are listed with their constituent taxa: Leptospermum type Metrosideros undiff. Neomyrtus type Fuscospora Podocarpus type Taraxacum type Cyathea dealbata type Cyathea smithii type L. scoparium, Kunzea ericoides all New Zealand Metrosideros spp. Neomyrtus sp., Lophomyrtus spp. all Nothofagus spp. except N. menziesii P. hallii, P. totara all species in the tribe Lactuceae (Asteraceae) C dealbata, C medullaris C smithii, C colensoi 37 Pollen counts are expressed as percentages of the pollen sum and as absolute concentrations. The dryland pollen sum includes all terrestrial pollen grains as well as terrestrial fern spores. This sum was chosen to provide a more complete picture of the surrounding vegetation. However, for the "Lake T angonge" site the pollen sum excludes pteridophytes except for Pteridium esculentum. At this site the high raw counts for many of the ground ferns suggested inwash of spores was significant. This contention is supported by the corroded nature of many of the spores in the Tangonge profile. Pocknall (1980) showed fern spores to be erratically represented in his South Island studies because of a tendency to be abundantly produced, but poorly dispersed. The analysis of surface sample studies in Northland yielded similar results. In some instances ground ferns such as Paesia scaberula were extremely over-represented. Where fern spores were clearly extremely over-represented they were excluded from the pollen sum. In the three Holocene records from T aumatawhana, Wharau Road and T auanui, ferns were included in the pollen sum because the prime objective of those studies was to identify human disturbance. Ferns are often implicated in regrowth following burning. The sites in the dune country of Aupouri Peninsula have consistent low frequencies for ferns suggesting they are not common in the local flora. Wetland pollen types such as Cyperaceae, Restionaceae, and Typha are poorly dispersed and tend to over-represent local taxa. They were excluded from the pollen sum because interest in the pollen record lies chiefly in the dryland taxa and the abundance of these wetland types tends to obscure dryland spectra. Sample collection for modem pollen studies A total of 15 surface samples was collected from different sites throughout Northland, chosen to reflect a variety of plant communities and associations. These included 1 1 moss poIster samples, 2 surface soil samples, and 2 surface swamp samples. At the moss poIster sites at least 6 sub-samples were collected from within 20 m2 forest plots and combined to form a single 38 sample. Only moss growing on level or near-level surfaces was collected, and always the thickest portions were taken as these could be expected to be most effective as pollen traps. No particular bryophytic species were sought as it has been demonstrated by Bradshaw (1981) that neither species or growth form of mosses has any significant influence on type or degree of deterioration of palynomorphs. Generally the mats were only ca 1 cm thick, so the entire depth of mat was collected. Although the time span over which these moss poIsters have collected pollen cannot be determined, it can be assumed that their pollen assemblages represent several seasons/years of deposition. Thus their respective pollen spectra provide an average which reduces the effects of any annual or seasonal fluctuations in pollen production. The surface soil samples were collected from "unimproved" pasture sites from the top 1-2 cm of soil at a central position in a 5 m radius circular plot. The surface swamp sediment samples were collected from the top 1-2 cm of sediment adjacent to pollen cores studied from the Taumatawhana and Wharau Road Swamps. In the laboratory, field samples were homogenised and a sub-sample taken which was broken down in a "Waring" commercial blender so as to provide a larger surface area for chemical attack during chemical preparation. Pollen analysis followed the same basic preparation techniques as for fossil pollen analysis (Moore et al., 1991). Charcoal analysis Estimates of charcoal concentration are used to reconstruct fire histories and so complement pollen analytical studies on vegetation history (e.g. Singh et ai., 198 1; Patters on et ai., 1987; Elliot et al., 1995). A number of methods can be used to measure charcoal content in pollen samples (e.g. the point count method of Clark, 1982, and the nitric acid digestion method of Winkler, 1985). In this study the system used follows that of Bush et al. (1992). Microscopic charcoal fragments were counted across a centre traverse(s) of the pollen slide until at least 10 exotic Lycopodium spores had been counted. From these counts estimates of charcoal concentration could be calculated which are independent of the pollen data. By calculating these estimates as absolute data, misleading peaks of charcoal in samples which have low pollen concentrations can be avoided. A further source of confusion in charcoal records may occur where high concentrations of charcoal fragments coincide with periods of slow sediment accumulation. This could result in misleading peaks where sedimentation concentrates charcoal fragments resulting in ambiguous fire histories. This study takes a conservative approach to charcoal analysis. Regional and local fire histories are deduced on the basis of discernible effects on vegetation, and particle size distribution of charcoal fragments. Pollen-slide charcoal tends to 39 be biased toward non-local charcoal. More than 90% of most pollen-slide charcoal is 5-20 /-Lm in length and considered to be non-local (patterson et al., 1987). Patterson et al. have argued that "large" charcoal fragments remain closer to source than "small" fragments which are spread over a wider area. The theoretical work of Clark (1988) indicates that processes involved in charcoal transport serve to export pollen-slide charcoal away from the source area landscape. Fine pollen-slide charcoal (5-50 /-Lm) may be derived from sources up to 100 km or more from the site of deposition (Clark, 1988). 40 REFERENCES Allan, H. H. 1961 . Flora o/New Zealand Vol. 1. Government Printer, Wellington, 1085 p. Bradshaw, R. H. W. 1981 . Modern pollen representation factors for woods in south-east England. Journal o/Ecology 69: 45-70. Brownsey, P. J., Given, D. R. and Lovis, J . D. 1985. A revised classification of New Zealand pteridophytes, with synonymic checklist of species. New Zealand Journal o/Botany 23; 431-489. Bush, M. B., Pipemo, D. R., Colinvaux, P. A., De Oliveira, P. E., Krissek, L. A., Miller, M. C. and Rowe, W. L. 1992. A 14,300-year palaeoecological profile of a lowland tropical lake in Panama. Ecological Monographs 62: 251-276. Clark, J. S. 1988. Particle motion and the theory of charcoal analysis: source area, transport, deposition, and sampling. Quaternary Research 30: 67-80. Clark, R. 1982. Point count estimation of charcoal in pollen preparations and sections of sediments. Pollen et Spores 24; 523-535. Connor, H. E. and Edgar, E. 1987. Name changes in the New Zealand indigenous flora, 1960-1986 and Nomina Nova IV, 1983-1986. New Zealand Journal o/Botany 25: 1 15- 170. Cranwell, L. M. 1953. New Zealand Pollen Studies: The Monocotyledons. Bulletin o/the Auckland Institute and Museum 3. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 9 1 p. Elliot, M. B., Striewski, B., Flenley, J. R. and Sutton, D. G. 1995. Palynological and sedimentological evidence for a radiocarbon chronology of environmental change and Polynesian deforestation from Lake Taumatawhana, Northland, New Zealand. Radiocarbon 37(3): 899-916. Fregri, K. and Iversen, J. 1989. Textbook o/Pollen Analysis, 4th edition (revised by Fregri, K., Kaland, P. E. and Krzywinski, K.). John Wiley, Chichester, 328 p. Harris, W. F. 1955. A Manual of the Spores of New Zealand Pteridophyta. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 116, Government Printer, Wellington, 186 p. Hill, R. S. and Jordan, G. J. 1993. The evolutionary history of Nothofagus (Nothofagaceae). Australian Systematic Botany 6: 1 1 1-126. Hill, R. S. and Read, J. 1991. A revised infrageneric classification of Nothofagus (Fagaceae). Botanical Journal 0/ the Linnean Society 105(1): 37-72. Jowsey, P. C. 1966. An improved peat sampler. New Phytologist 65: 245-249. Large, M. F. and Braggins, J. E. 1991. Spore Atlas of New Zealand Ferns and Fern Allies. SIR, Wellington, 167 p. Moar, N. T. 1993. Pollen Grains a/New Zealand Dicotyledonous Plants. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, 200 p. Molloy, B. P. J. 1995. Manoao (podocarpaceae), a new monotypic conifer genus endemic to New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 33: 183-201. Moore, L. B. and Edgar, E. 1976. Flora o/New Zealand Vol. n. Government Printer, Wellington, 354 p. Moore, P. D., Webb, J. A. and Collinson, M. E. 1991 . Pollen Analysis (2nd edition). Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 216 p. 41 Patterson rn, W . A., Edwards, K. J . and Maguire, D . J . 1987. Microscopic charcoal as a fossil indicator of fire. Quaternary Science Reviews 6: 3-23. Pocknall, D. T. 1980. Modern pollen rain and Aranuian vegetation from Lady Lake, north Westland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 18: 275-284. Singh, G., Kershaw. A. P. and Clark, R. 1981. Quaternary vegetation and fire history in Australia. In Gill, A. M., Groves, R. A. and Noble, 1. R. (eds.), Fire and Australian Biota. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, 23-54. Stockmarr, J. 1971. Tablets with spores used in absolute pollen analysis. Pollen et Spores 13: 615-621 . Walker, D. 1964. A modified Vallentyne mud sampler. Ecology 45: 642-644. Webb, C. J., Sykes, W. R. and Garnock-Jones, P. J. 1988. Flora of New Zealand Volume IV: Naturalised Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons. Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch, 1365 p. Winkler, M. G. 1985. Charcoal analysis for paleoenvironmental interpretation: a chemical assay. Quaternary Research 23: 3 13-326. Wright, 1. c., McGlone, M. S., Nelson, C. S. and Pillans, B. J. 1995. An integrated latest Quaternary (Stage 3 to present) paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic record from offshore northern New Zealand. Quaternary Research 44: 283-293. - ---------- --------- C h a p t e r 3 RECENT POLLEN STUDIES Introduction 42 Information gained from modern pollen ram studies has become routinely used in the interpretation of Quaternary fossil pollen records, and indeed is the fIrst step towards reconstructing a vegetational history. Data from modern pollen studies is used to clarify relationships between relative frequency of pollen/spores and species abundance in the local vegetation allowing a more informed and accurate interpretation of the fossil pollen record. Proportions of taxa in pollen records are not assumed to correspond with vegetation percentages. This is because pollen spectra are known to be biased according to pollen production and dispersal (prentice, 1985; Prentice and Webb, 1986). A number of models have been proposed to explain the pollen-vegetation abundance relationship and pollen source area (e.g. Davis, 1 963; Tauber 1965, 1967; Jacobson and Bradshaw 198 1 ; Prentice, 1985; Sugita, 1993, 1994). Whilst traditional interpretation of pollen frequencies which assumes a linear relationship between pollen and tree abundance is still the fIrst choice approach in Quaternary pollen analysis (prentice and Webb, 1986) , most New Zealand contemporary pollen rain studies have shown that given proportions of pollen taxa do not bear a linear relationship to their representation in the vegetation (McGlone and Wilson, 1 996). This chapter seeks to establish the relationships between various plant communities in Northland and their respective contemporary pollen rain. Pollen rain has been variously described but for most purposes can be defined as pollen sedimentation from the air, either as true "rainout" where pollen grains are already contained in cloud droplets, as "washout" due to scavenging of the air as rain falls, or as airfall deposition by gravitational settling (Tauber, 1965). The importance of pollen transport by wind above the canopy is emphasised by Prentice (1985, 1988) . Little information on the relationship between recent or modern pollen deposition and the contemporary vegetation of New Zealand existed prior to the work of Moar (1970, 1971), Dodson (1976), Pocknall (1978, 1980, 1982), Macphail (1980) and McGlone (1982) . Few modern pollen studies have been published since, other than Bussell (1988), Randall's (1990, 1991) studies in the Southern Alps of the South Island, Horrocks and Ogden's (1992) study of Mount Hauhungatahi, Central North Island, and most recently the Stewart Island study of McGlone 43 and Wilson (1996) . None of these papers examines the modern pollen rain of Northland, and only Newnham's unpublished work (1990) from Waipoua State Forest and Chester's (1986) Bay of Islands study examine northern forest sites in any detail. Generally these studies have involved the analysis of surface samples and this study continue'> that tradition. Carroll (1943) demonstrated the value of bryophytic poIsters and mats for analysing recent pollen deposition, concluding that the relative proportions of pollen types trapped were similar regardless of moss species. Boyd (1986) showed that, providing the establishment of absolute quantities of pollen is not the primary interest, mosses are useful indicators of pollen rain. Others have also successfully used surface soils and litter (e.g. Crowley et al., 1994; Kershaw and Bulman, 1994). The study sites The sites chosen for this study (Figure 3 .1 , Table 3 . 1) are intended to reflect a wide variety of plant communities, particularly forest types, to provide modern analogues for vegetation reconstruction work. 1. Rangitoto Island Rangitoto Island is characterised by its rocky, poorly developed soils which have limited water­ holding capacity. Kirk (1879) described conditions for plant life on Rangitoto as antagonistic. The pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) forest site is characteristic of most of the vegetated parts of Rangitoto Island, and is a unique community in the present day flora of New Zealand. Dominated by Metrosideros excelsa, other important elements include Griselinia lucida, Myrsine australis and Melicytus ramiflorus. Less common, woody species include Dodonaea viscosa, Knightia excelsa, Leucopogon /asciculatus, Leptospermum scoparium, Kunzea ericoides, Olearia /uifuracea, and Pomaderris pl:rylici/olia (Kirk, 1879; Lidgard, 1960). Podocarps are absent. The sample site lies in the vicinity of McKenzie Bay, and the vegetation there broadly reflects that found throughout the island which supports more than 200 indigenous species (Kirk, 1879) . 2. Omaha Kahikatea Forest Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides) forest is much less common than it was formerly (Wardle, 1974; Beever, 1981), when it was abundant in many coastal areas and inland river valleys. The only large stands remaining in New Zealand are found in South Westland (Wardle, 1974) . At Omaha, kahikatea forest forms a band some 1 .5 km long and up to 200 m wide, and is recognised as the only remaining unmodified site of its type in Northland (K. Parnell, pers comm. 1992). It can be compared to the dense podocarp type L3 of McKe1vey and Nicholls - - - - - - �-�--------------- 44 (1959), and is dominated by Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, along with lesser amounts of Dacrydium cupressinum, Vitex lucens, Beilschmiedia tarairi and Corynocarpus laevigatus, as well as sub­ canopy taxa such as Rhopalostylis sapida and Cordyline australis. 3. Orere Reserve The Orere Reserve site near Kamo, Whangarei, is a podocarp-hardwood mosaic dominated by Podocarpus totara, most closely related to type El of McKelvey and Nicholls (1959). Other common canopy trees include Beilschmiedia tarairi, Dysoxylum spectabile, and Vitex lucens, with lesser amounts of Metrosideros robusta, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, Corynocarpus laevigatus and Knightia excelsa. The sub-canopy includes numerous tree ferns, mainly Cya thea medullaris and C. dealbata, and small trees or shrubs such as Melicytus ramiflorus, Macropiper excelsum, Coprosma arborea, Rhopalostylis sapida, Cordyline australis, and Myrsine australis. 4. Lake Tauanui The site at Lake Tauanui lies on a small island in the lake. Forest at this site is comparable to the podocarp-hardwood type El of McKelvey and Nicholls (1959). Vitex lucens and Knightia excelsa dominate, with significant amounts of Beilschmiedia tarairi, and Metrosideros robusta as small lianes. The sub-canopy is mostly made up of Rhopalostylis sapida, Myrsine australis, Melicytus ramiflorus, occasional Dysoxylum spectabile, and many young poles of Podocarpus totara. The understorey also includes Macropiper excelsum, and many young seedlings of the above species. Tree ferns include Dicksonia squarrosa and Cyathea medullaris. 5 & 6. Puketi State Forest The two sites within the Puketi State Forest are representative of type Bl of McKelvey and Nicholls (1959), i.e. kauri-podocarp-hardwood forest. Agathis australis (kauri) is common throughout in small clumps or as widely spaced single trees. Associated with it are an assonment of locally frequent taxa including Weinmannia silvicola, Beilschmiedia tarairi, Podocarpus hallii, P. totara, Prumnopitys /erruginea, P. taxi/olia, Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Dacrydium cupressinum, Hedycarya arborea, and tree ferns Dicksonia squarrosa, Cyathea dealbata and C. medullaris. McKelvey and Nicholls (1959) describe unexploited, dense kauri forests still extant in Nonhland as being present in the Omahuta-Puketi, Herekino, and Warawara State Forests as 45 well as the Waipoua Forest sanctuary. These they deftne as type A1 forests, nearly all of which occur above 300 m. 7. Warawara State Forest The remote uplands of Warawara State Forest are typified by dense stands of mature kauri, many of which are stunted or stag-headed. In places these trees reach heights of 35-45 metres, forming an almost complete canopy. Below is usually a tier of smaller diameter podocarps, mainly Prumnopitys /erruginea, Dacrydium cupressinum, and Phyllocladus tricbomanoides. The sub-canopy consists of a varied assemblage of poles up to 10 m. The commonest species are Weinmannia silvicola, Beilscbmiedia tarairi, B. tawa, Knightia excelsa, Elaeocarpus dentatus, Quintinia serrata, and Coprosma sp. Although this forest mosaic is defined as a type A1 by McKelvey and Nicholls (1959), the forest plot site at Warawara more closely resembles type B1 with kauri locally absent. 8. Waipoua State Forest The Waipoua site is dominated by large kauri and Beilscbmiedia tarairi. Weinmannia silvicola and Prumnopitys /erruginea are locally common. Other sub-canopy species include Dysoxylum spectabile, Caldcluvia rosifolia, Cordyline australis, Pseudopanax Jerox, P. crassifolius, and numerous tree ferns including Dicksonia fibrosa, D. squarrosa and Cyathea dealbata. 9, 10 & 11. Omahuta State Forest The other three sites lie in the Omahuta State Forest which forms part of the Omahuta-Puketi conjoint forests. In the more inaccessible upland parts the forests are the type A1 associations of McKelvey and Nicholls (1959). In addition to the previously mentioned taxa, Halocarpus kirkii may sometimes be prominent in the upper tier and in the sub-canopy, Ixerba brexioides and Toronia toru are locally common. The more accessible areas which have been logged over have forest of type B1. The site at the Kauri Sanctuary is dominated by large mature kauri. Canopy species are comprised of Podocarpus totara, Prumnopitys Jerruginea, Beilscbmiedia tawa and Elaeocarpus dentatus. The sub-canopy includes Caldcluvia rosifolia, Toronia toru, Coprosma lucida, Myrsine australis, and Leucopogon Jasciculatus. Dicksonia squarrosa is common, as is the climber, Freycinetia baueriana. Metrosideros robusta is present on some trees as a liane. The other sites, near the junction of the two main tributaries of the Pukekohe Stream, form part of an association which is now rare in Northland. This is the kauri-hard beech (Nothofogus truncata) 46 N y Wharau Road Swamp I Omahuta-Puketi S. F. 0 Kilometres 80 0 Indigenous forest + Sample site Figure 3.1 Modem pollen sample sites in northern New Zealand. - - - - - - - - - -------------- 47 Table 3 .1 . Site Locations and their plant communities. Site Location Grid Referencea Altitude" Vegetation Type Rangitoto Island Rll/739885 5 Pohutukawa forest Omaha R09/695387 5 Kahikatea forest Orere Reserve Q06/274127 160 Podocarp-hardwood forest Lake Tauanui P06/887332 230 Podocarp-hardwood forest Puketi State Forest 1 P05/830653 300 Kauri-podocarp- hardwood forest Puketi State Forest 2 P05/837664 300 Kauri-podocarp- hardwood forest Warawara State Forest 005/365423 240 Kauri-podocarp- hardwood forest Waipoua State Forest 006/616166 100 Kauri-podocarp- hardwood forest Omahuta State Forest 1 005/676623 320 Kauri-podocarp- hardwood forest Omahuta State Forest 2 005/665621 200 Kauri-beech -podocarp- hardwood forest Omahuta State Forest 3 005/666618 180 Kauri-podocarp- hardwood forest T aumatawhana 1 N03/128204 60 Typha-Eleocharis swamp Wharau Road P05/052635 15 T ypha-Eleocharis swamp Te Kao N03/098261 40 Grassland-shrubland T aumatawhana 2 N03/128204 50 Grassland-shrubland a NZMS 260 1:50,000 series; b metres above sea level 48 Plate 3 .1 Rangitoto Island, McKenzie Bay Plate 3.2 Omaha Kahikatea Forest 49 Plate 3 . 3 Orere Reserve, Whangarei Plate 3.4 Lake Tauanui 50 Plate 3 .5 Puketi State Forest Headquarters Plate 3.6 Puketi State Forest, Manginangina Scenic Reserve 5 1 Plate 3 . 7 Warawara State Forest Plate 3 . 8 Omahuta State Forest, Kauri Sanctuary 52 Plate 3.9 Omahuta State Forest, Pukekohe Stream, West Bank Site Plate 3 . 10 Te Kao Grassland-shrubland Heath 53 Plate 3. 1 1 Taumatawhana Swamp Plate 3 . 12 Wharau Road Swamp 54 forest, type Cl. Only a few stands of this type remain north of Auckland (Wardle, 1984), and the largest of these are in Omahuta and adjacent hinterland (Sexton, 1941) . The ftrst of these sites, on the west side of the Pukekohe Stream, contains no hard beech, but consists of an angiosperm canopy dominated by Weinmannia silvicola, Knightia excelsa, Dysoxylum spectabile, and Caldcluvia rosifolia. Hedycarya arborea is common, and numerous northern rata (Metrosideros robusta) vines are present, some up to 0.5 m in girth. Understorey species include Rhopalostylis sapida, and tree ferns, Cyathea medullaris and Dicksonia squarrosa. The east bank site is dominated by hard beech and Weinmannia si/meola. Caldduvia, Beilsehmiedia tawa, Podoearpus hallii, Phylloeladus triehomanoides and Hedyearya arborea are common. Agathis australis and Elaeoearpus dentatus are also present, and the understorey includes Glearia rani and Cyathea dealbata. 12 & 13. Taumatawhana and Te Kao Grassland-shrublands The grassland sites at Taumatawhana Pa and Te Kao are typical of the Aupouri Peninsula where only isolated pockets of indigenous forest remain. They consist chiefly of a variety of introduced herbs such as Anthoxanthum odoratum, Axonopus a/finis, Agrostis capillaris and Pennisetum clandestinum, and scattered shrubs such as Leptospermum scoparium, Kunzea ericoides, Leucopogon jraseri, Coprosma sp. and Pomaderris phylicifolia. The Taumatawhana site lies within an historic reserve, and the Te Kao site lies in an open fteld of unimproved pasture. 1 4 & 15. Taumatawhana and Wharau Road Swamps Swamps are widespread throughout Northland. The Taumatawhana and Wharau Road swamps are typical, dominated by Eleocharis aeuta and Typha orientalis. Cordyline australis, Leptospermum seoparium, and Coprosma tenuicaulis are common, but nowhere dominant, and Phormium tenax, though present is not abundant. At T aumatawhana, Gleiehenia diearpa and Blechnum minus are common. Vegetation sampling The complex nature of vegetation and its continuity across the landscape necessitates a degree of selectivity in the gathering of data. Complete enumeration and description of any plant community is quite impractical and consequently the sorts of data and where it is gathered from assume great importance. Merely listing species does not allow any exploration of the functioning of the vegetation, and therefore some measure of abundance of each species present is also required (Kellman, 1975). The choice of method rests, ultimately, on its applicability to the vegetation being studied, and there is no single appropriate method for each situation. 55 Forest sampling There are a number of different methods which have been used for surveying forest vegetation, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. These include various plotless distance methods such as the nearest neighbour method of Cottam and Curtis (1949), and a modification of this, the point centred method (Cottam and Curtis, 1956); the Bitterlick variable-radius method (Bitterlick, 1948); and the random pairs method (Greig-Smith, 1964). A further plotless method for vegetation surveys, the point quadrat method, was introduced by Levy and Madden (1933), but as this is only really of use in grassland it was not further considered here. In order to make comparisons between vegetation composition and pollen production of forest tree taxa, data on density and frequency are required, and the plotless method is not considered appropriate (Nforley, 1976). Mark (1963) has shown that in analysis of New Zealand forest vegetation the plotless methods underestimate density values when compared with quadrat data. Consequently the method chosen is one involving plots and the tallying of data in an area of vegetation which is thought to be large enough to contain all the necessary elements of the vegetation under study. The dominance of individual trees is related to bulk, which can be illustrated by a number of parameters e.g. tree height, basal area, total weight, foliage weight etc. Of these, height and basal area can be measured non-destructively. Basal area is thought to be more proportional to tree foliage which is thought to be most closely correlated with total pollen production of a tree (Ogawa et aI., 1965 in Morley 1976), and therefore dominance can be estimated from basal area measurements. The measure also takes account of the higher pollen production of bigger trees (Davis and Goodlett, 1960). Considerable debate exists over the size and shape of plots that should be used, but frequently the choice has to be decided arbitrarily owing to site specific factors such as slope and non­ uniformity of terrain. The forest sites sampled were surveyed using 20 x 20 m quadrats which were selected using random numbers in areas assessed as being representative of the forest association. The girth at breast height of all taxa exceeding 30 cm was recorded along with species' name. Non-forest sampling The survey of the swamp flora posed some difficulties as far as the choice of survey method was concerned. None of the plotless methods was considered appropriate, and the quadrat method used in the forest sites was also inappropriate. Other methods employed in non-forest - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - --------- 56 vegetation also had many disadvantages in their implementation under swampy conditions. Eventually it was decided to use a system of estimating cover abundance based on field observations of the sample site. The method is simple and rapid in application. Although the method is one of subjective estimation and is necessarily ge!1eral, its application has been successfully used by other palynologists (e.g. Maloney, 1979) . A plot size of 10 x 10 m at each site was chosen by the random number method in the study area where core samples for fossil pollen analysis had been recovered (Figure 5. 1 and 6.1) . The herb flora of the grassland-shrub land sites at T aumatawhana and T e Kao was surveyed in a different manner. Three chief methods have been used to sample herb flora: the use of quadrats, the line intercept method (Canfield, 1941), or the point intercept method (Levy and Madden, 1933). In this study it was felt important to have as complete a representation of the local species diversity as possible. Thus the line intercept method of Canfield (1941) is considered to be most appropriate for the purposes of this type of study (Bush, 1986) . Tauber (1965) suggested that the majority of herb pollen will be deposited within 5 m of its source, so the sampling site was based on a radius of 5 m from a central randomly selected point. Eight radiating transect lines aligned to the major points of the compass of 5 m length were measured out, and all contacts of stem, leaf, pinnuie, or flower along each line were recorded for each 0.5 m unit. RESULTS In the following section the values in parentheses represent percentages of total basal area of taxa > 30 cm in girth at breast height, and those in square brackets the percentage of the pollen sum for that taxon. Comparative sets of data relating pollen and spore frequency to basal area for tree types are summarised in Table 3.2 and Figure 3.2; those for swamp plants in Table 3.3 and 3.4; and those for grassland-scrub taxa in Table 3.5 and 3.6. The pollen diagrams are shown in Figure 3.3a, 3.3b and 3.3c as percentage data. Forest Plots Omahuta State Forest Site 1, Kauri Sanctuary The Kauri Sanctuary site is on an elevated plateau, and is dominated by Agathis australis (83.7). These kauri are large, mature trees with girths of 7-7.5 m. Few other mature forest trees are present at this site, only Podocarpus totara (6.9), Prumnopitys /erruginea (4.8) and Elaeocarpus dentatus (1). Sub-canopy trees comprise Caldc1uvia rosifolia (0.3), Toronia toru (0. 1) , and the tree fern Dicksonia squarrosa (0.6) . At lower levels there are abundant Coprosma lucida, Leucopogon 57 /asciculatus, Freycinetia baueriana and Astelia trinervia. Myrsine australis, Olearia ram, and seedlings of Caldcluvia and Elaeocarpus are common. The most notable feature of the pollen spectrum is the poor representation of Agathis [27], even though it is anemophilous and by far the most dominant tree. Significant amounts of Dacrydium CIIpressinum [ 1 1 .9] are recorded, in spite of its absence from the site. Podocarpus [7.8], and Elaeocarpus (0.6] are more or less proportionally represented, while Prumnopitys [3.2] is under-represented. Canopy species not recorded at the site, but present in the pollen spectrum, include Halocarpus [2.4J, Knightia excelsa [ 1 . 1], Metrosideros [2.2] and Phyllocladus [2.8]. Tree ferns, Cyathea (5.7] and Dicksonia squarrosa [4.7J, tend to be somewhat over-represented, but these species are common in the adjacent forest. Omahuta State Forest Site 2, Pukekohe Stream This site is a damp location adjacent to the stream. The canopy is dominated by angiosperm trees, particularly the Cunoniaceae species Weinmannia silvicola (29.3) and Caldcluvia rosifolia (19.4). Other common trees include Dysoxylum spectabile (9. 8) and Knightia exceLsa (12.3). Lesser amounts of Beilschmiedia tarairi (2.3), Hedycarya arborea (2.2), Rhopalostylis sapida (2.5) and Metrosideros robusta (2.8) as strangling lianes, were recorded. Tree ferns, Cyathea medullaris (16.4) and Dicksonia squarrosa (3. 1), are abundant. Of the angiosperm pollen types, only Weinmannia [29.7J is proportionately represented. Most are either very under-represented e.g. Caldcluvia [3.2J and Dysoxylum [0.3], or not recorded at all, e.g. Beilschmiedia, Hedycarya and Rhopalostylis. Metrosideros [3.5] is slightly over-represented. Numerous pollen types are recorded in significant amounts though not present at the site. The principal examples are Notho/agus [7.8], Phyllocladus [4.7], Podocarpus [2.6], Prumnopitys [2.9] and Cyathea smithii type[2. 1]. Cyathea dealbata type [63.4] is extremely over-represented. Omahuta State Forest Site 3, Pukekohe Stream Located on a steep spur, this site is about 20 metres above the Pukekohe Stream and about 100 metres from site 2. The dominant canopy tree is Nothofagus truncata (61 .5), with Agathis (2.5) and Podocarpus hallii (7) also present. The sub-canopy is dominated by Weinmannia (14. 1) and Caldcluvia (5), with Hedycarya (2), PI:ryllocladus (0.6) and Elaeocarpus (1.7) . Lesser amounts of Olearia rani (0.5) and Cyathea dealbata (1 .5) contribute to the understorey. Fuscospora (72.2] is clearly the chief pollen type, being slightly over-represented. Weinmannia [2.2] is very under-represented, as is Podocarpus hallii [ 1 .5] and Agathis [0.9], whilst Caldcluvia is 58 not recorded at all. Phyllocladus [2.2] is over-represented, and other podocarp trees, though not present at the site, record low frequencies. Cyathea dealbata type is very over-represented. Warawara State Forest The Warawara site is dominated by Beilschmiedia tarairi and B. tawa (16. 1), Phyllocladus trichomanoides (14.9) , Knightia (1 1 .9) and Prumnopitys ferruginea (6.8). Weinmannia silvicola (904) dominates the sub-canopy along with Olearia rani (2.9), and Pseudopanax ferox (0.7). Coprosma arborea (24.5) is the dominant understorey taxon contributing significantly to the total basal area of the plot, and Dicksonia fibrosa (11 .9) is also abundant. B. tarairi and B. tawa saplings are common. Phyllocladus pollen [88.2] swamps the palynoflora and is extremely over-represented, whilst Beilschmiedia, Prumnopitys and Olearia are not recorded. Knightia [004], Coprosma [7.4] and Weinmannia [0. 1 ] are extremely under-represented. Of the tree ferns, Cyathea dealbata type [9.3], though abundant, is not present at the site and Dicksonia fibrosa, though common on site, is not recorded. Puketi State Forest, Headquarters Site The forest at this site is dominated by Weinmannia silvicola (37) in a well aspected locality near the margin of the forest. There are appreciable amounts of Podocarpus hallii and P. totara (13.3) , Cyathea dealbata (11 .7) , Prumnopitys ferruginea (9.3), Dacrydium cupressinum (9.2), Dysoxylum spectabile (8.2) and Hedycarya arborea (4.9). Scattered individuals of Beilschmiedia tawa (1 .8) , Coprosma arborea (2), Dacrycarpus dacrydioides (1 .4), Olearia arborescens (0.5) and Rhopalostylis sapida (0.6) occur. The forest floor cover consists of numerous seedlings of the above as well as various ground ferns such as Blechnum sp. and Asplenium sp., including A. bulbiferum and A. polyodon. The most notable feature of the pollen spectrum at this site is the poor representation of Weinmannia [7.7], even though it is the chief taxon. Prumnopitys ferruginea [0.3J is also very under-represented. This may in part be due to over-representation of Phyllocladus [ 16.5] , Knightia [4.3] and Metrosideros [5.8], (which are absent from the site but present nearby), Cyathea dealbata type [26.6] and Dacrydillm [ 19]. Ferns, many of which were either forest floor species or not large enough to be included in the basal area measurements, comprise a third of the total pollen sum. Podocarplls [7.8] is under-represented, while Coprosma [3.8] is slightly over­ represented, and Rhopalostylis [0.6] is proportional. Dysoxylllm, Hedycarya and Beilschmiedia are not recorded. Omahuta 1 Omahuta 2 Omahuta 3 Warawara Puketi 1 Puketi 2 Waipoua L. Tauanui Orere Res. Omaha Rangitoto Is. B. A. P. % B. A. P. % B. A. P. % B. A. P. % B. A. P. % B. A. P. % B. A. P. % R A. P. % B. A. P. % B. A. P. % R A. P. % Af!,athis 83. 7 27.0 · 2 . 6 2 . 5 0 .9 - 0 . 2 - 1 .7 75.9 1 4.0 87 .9 3 5 . 3 - - - 0.3 - 0 . 3 - 0 . 3 Beilschmiedia 2.7 - 2 . 3 . 3.4 - 1 5. 8 - 1 .8 - - . 6.2 - 9.7 - 2 . 9 - · . - - Caldcluvia 0.3 - 1 9.4 3.2 5 .0 - - - - . - - 0 . 3 - - - · - - - - - CO/)wocarpus - - - - - - - 0 . 1 - - - - - - - 0.4 1 .9 - 1 1 .7 1 .7 - - DaClycarpus - 0.6 - 2 . 0 - 0.7 0 . 2 1 .4 1 .2 - 2.8 - l . l 0.7 0.8 · 1 .0 42.3 27.3 - - Dacrydium - 1 1 . 9 - 2 . 0 - 0.5 - 0.5 9.2 1 9.0 · 1 3 . 1 - 2.0 - 3 . 1 · - - 4.7 - 1 . 1 Dysoxylum - - 9 . 8 0 . 3 - · - 8.2 - 0 . 9 . · - 0.5 - 2 A - - - - · Elaeocarpus 1 .0 0.6 - 0 . 3 1 . 7 0.2 · - . 3 . 0 - 1 . 8 - 3 . 1 · - · · · - - 0 . 9 Fuscospora · 1 .7 - 7.8 6 1 .5 72.0 - - - - - - - - · - - · - 0.6 - 0 . 6 Halocarpus - 2.4 - 0.3 - 0.4 - 0 . 1 - - 2 . 9 0.7 - 2 . 8 · l . J - · · - · - Hedycarya · - 2.2 - 2.0 - - - 4.9 - - 0.2 - - - - - - - - · - Knightia - 1 . 1 1 2 . 3 4 . 6 - 1 .2 1 2.0 0.4 - 4.3 4 . 1 4.2 - 1 .7 . 20.2 6.1 · OJ - 0.3 · - Laurefia - - - - - - - - - . 0.3 1 .2 - 0.3 - - - 0.3 - 1 . 1 · - Metrosideros - 2.2 2 . 8 3 .5 - 2.7 · 0.3 - 5.8 - 7.6 - 3.6 - 1 .9 - 0.7 - 2 . 5 97. 1 6 Ll Phyllocladus - 2.8 - 4 . 6 0 . 6 2.2 I S . ! 8 8 . 2 - 1 6.5 - 2 . 8 - 0.6 - 1 . 9 - - - I . l - 0 . 9 Podocarpus 6.9 7.8 - 2 . 6 7.0 1 .5 · 0.2 1 3 .3 7 .8 - 2.3 · 5 . 6 - 9.5 8 0 . 1 47.9 - 1 . 9 · 0 . 9 Prllmnopitys f 4.8 3 .2 - 2 . 9 · 1 . 1 6 .9 - 9.3 3 .3 - l A l .0 3 . 9 - 3 . 8 - - - 0.3 - 0.9 Prumnopitys t. - 2A - 2.9 - 1 . 1 - 0 . 7 - 4.5 - 4.8 - 1 4.0 - 8 . 8 - l A - 1 .9 - - Syzygium - - - - · - - 0 . 1 - 0.2 7.6 4.2 · 0.3 · . - - · 0.3 - 1 .7 Vi/ex - - - - · - - - - - - - - 0.3 5 8 . 6 3 . 1 - 0.7 1 1 .3 0.6 - · Weinmannia · 0.6 29.3 29.6 1 4 . 1 2 . 2 9.4 0 . 1 3 7 . 0 7.7 5.3 5.5 2.5 2 . 2 · - - - - - - · Coprosma · 1 .9 - 2.9 - l . l 2 5 . 1 7 . 4 2.0 3.8 - 0.9 0 . 1 0 .6 - 0.4 4 . 2 2 . 1 - 3 . 3 - - Cordyline - - - - - - - 0 . 2 - 0.7 - 0.2 - - - 2 . 3 - 2 . 1 1 9. 7 5 . 0 - 0.3 Melicylus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 - - - - - 2 . 9 - Myrsine - 0.2 - - - 0. 1 - - - 0.2 · 0.2 - 0.3 3.8 0.8 - - - 1 . 1 - 4.0 OIearia - - · - 0.5 - 2.9 - 0 . 5 - · 0.2 - - - - - - - - - - Pseudopanax - 0.2 · 0.9 - 0 . 4 0 . 7 0 . 4 - 1 .2 - 0.5 - - - - - - - 003 - - Rhopalostylis - - 2.5 - - · - - 0.6 0 .5 0.2 3 . 0 - - 4 . 6 3 . 8 - 0.7 1 3 .8 2.8 - 0.3 Toronia 0 . 1 0.6 - l A - · - - . - - - - - · - - - - - - - Cyathea d. type - 5.7 1 6.4 63.3 1 .5 9 .2 - 9.3 1 1 .7 26.6 2.7 22.0 0.3 20.0 - 1 4.0 8 . 6 25.6 1 .2 2.0 - 1 . 1 Dicksonia fibrosa - - - 2.1 - 0.4 1 2.0 - - 0.3 - 0. 1 0 . 8 - - - - - - - - - Dicksonia sq. 0.6 4.7 3 . 1 0.8 - 0.9 - - - - 0.2 6.0 1 .0 6 .7 0.5 1 .0 - 1 . 1 - - - - Table 3.2. Total basal area (E. A. rnZ) and pollen percentages (p. %) for tree types at forest sites. Omahuta 1 Omahuta 2 Omahuta 3 Warawara Puketi 1 Puketi 2 Waipoua Lake Tauanui Orere Reserve Omaha Rangitoto Is. Cl :0 to '5 � '(ij Q) !:> R .� � E Cl) '" ::J .!!1 ::> 0 () � -£ 13 c: � -0 >. t; Cl) ro " u Ol '" '" « u u Cl Cl - - - - 83.7 0.3 27 0.6 1 1 . 9 ---- 1 9. 4 2 . 6 3 . 2 2 . 0 2.0 ---- 2.5 5.0 0.9 0.7 0.5 ---- 0 . 1 0 . 2 0 . 2 --- 1 1 .7 1 .2 - - -- 75.9 2 .8 87.9 0.3 35.3 1 . 1 2.0 0.7 0.4 0.8 3.1 - - - - 1 .9 0.3 1 .0 -- - - 1 1 .7 0 .3 1 .7 4 . 7 -- - - 0.3 1 . 1 - - - - 40 80 20 40 60 20 20 6 0 2 0 2 0 I I I I ---l ---l I I I ---l '" ;!' - Q) 0. 1;; '" - Cl ro -0 '" 13 .2 >, .c a. - - - - 2.8 - - - - 4 . 6 ---- 0 . 6 2 . 2 1 5 . 1 1 6 .5 2 . 8 --- - 0 . 6 - - - - 1 .9 ---- ---- 1 . 1 ---- 0 .9 - - - - 40 80 20 60 I I j I 1 00 I - % pollen (sum excludes ferns and wetland types) '" " e-Cl) g "8 a. - - -- 80.1 47.9 - - -- 1 .9 - - -- 0.9 - --- 40 60 80 1 0 0 20 I I I ! I Figure 3.2 Relationship between pollen rain a nd forest composition for main tree types. gJ to .!!1 '0, :E '" 'x � Q) El '1a VJ t/) E i!' i!' o. '0. E 0 0 ::::> c: c: 'en E E >- 2 N ;::> >-a.. a.. (/) 4.8 3.2 2.4 2.9 2.9 1 . 1 1 . 1 6 . 9 0 . 7 0 . 1 9.3 3 .3 0.2 7.6 1 .4 4 .2 1 .0 3 . 9 1 4 .0 0.3 3.B 1 .4 0.3 1 . 9 0.3 0.9 1 .7 20 20 20 ---l ---l ---l '" r: 2.0 mm) and fIne « 2.0 mm) sediment (Loveland and Whalley, 1991). 0 -,..,---, 1 2 3 4 5 5 .c 0. ID o o Gyttja Sand o�---------------------------------------------------. NZA-3823 '�-3920 NZA-3882 -+-N/� NZA-3820 -+- 2 3 4 5�------�-------'--------r-------.--------r-------4 6000 5000 4000 3000 Cal BP (2IT) 2000 1 000 o 86 Figure 4.2 Stratigraphy of core, and age-depth graph for Lake Taumatawhana. Lithology from top to bottom: black gyttja (organic mud) ; black gyttja with sand; and sand. The uppermost 0.30 m of the core consists of loose black gyttja. Below this loose layer, black gyttja persists to a depth of 4.00 m. From 4.00 m to 4. 1 1 m the black gyttja contains a trace of sand. The horizontal bars represent the range of uncertainty on the calibrated date chronologies (2a), and the vertical bars the length of the core sediment used. Sediment texture was analysed through the grain-size distribution. Samples were oxidised in 30% hydrogen peroxide (H202) (Day 1965 in Gee and Bauder, 1986; Kunze and Dixon, 1986). We used a particle size analyser to analyse the silt and clay fractions ("Sedigraph": Micromeritics, 1991 ; Risberg, 1989; Berezin and Voronin, 198 1) . The sand fraction (62.5 �lm- 2.0 mm) was separated from the bulk sample by wet sieving and determined separately. Grain­ size-distribution classes chosen for the sedigraph analysis correspond with the Wentworth scale (Heim, 1991) . A further subdivision of the sand fraction (62 .5 �m-2.0 mm) was not carried out as the sample weight for this fraction was too small (average sample weight < 1 .00 gram) for a - - --- ---------- -- --- -- 87 sieve test on a nest of standard sieves with a frame diameter of 200 mm. Instead, the entire sand fraction obtained by wet sieving was regarded as an individual fraction. Organic content was determined by loss-on-ignition (after Kretzschmar, 1989). Correction factors were applied to these data as organic substances and also some chemically bound water and void compounds are known to evaporate (Hakansson and Jansson, 1983) . As the bulk of the clay minerals occur in the clay fraction « 1 .9S).Ul1), Schlichting and Blume (1966) suggested subtracting 0.1% weight per 1 .0% weight of clay content from the result of the organic matter content obtained by loss-on-ignition. Bulk sediment chemistry was analysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES) providing data for 23 elements (Al, As, B, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Se, Si, Sn, Sr and Zn). The analyses were performed on liquid digest. Sample digestion involved a 1 : 1 concentrated hydrofluoric acid/concentrated nitric acid (HF/HN03) solution treatment in combination with 30% H202 oxidation to destroy the organics of the samples, and hydrochloric acid (2 M HCI) extraction. We investigated the sediment mineralogy for two different grain-size fractions - the mud fraction (silt and clay fraction - material < 62.5 )lm) and the sand fraction (material > 62. 5 )lm) - at 0.20-m intervals t o a depth o f 2.80 m. Samples were treated with 30% H202 solution and wet-sieved at 62.5 )lm to separate the two fractions. The mineralogy of the mud fraction was analysed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Mineralogical constituents of the sand fraction were investigated by petrographic microscopy. RESULTS Dating Seven samples from the lake and an additional sample from the adjacent swamp were radiocarbon-dated by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) (Table 4 . 1 , Figure 4.2) at the Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, Lower Hun, New Zealand. The material dated was bulk sediment obtained from 0.05-0.06 m-length core segments. No dateable plant macrofossils were present. The basal samples from the lake and swamp sediments yielded ages of 4883 ± 68 BP (NZA- 3486) and 4792 ± 70 BP (NZA-2808), respectively. The uppermost two dates (NZA-3920 and - 3823) appear to have been contaminated by older carbon following deforestation and pasture establishment by European farmers within the lake catchment (e.g. Pennington et al., 1976). Non-contemporary forest litter and humic compounds were probably incorporated into the 88 lake sediments. The appearance of introduced speCles ID the pollen record supports this hypothesis. The 0 DC values from the anomalous dates are dissimilar to those immediately below, and similar to those from older material in the core, which further supports this interpretation. Palynology Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show the pollen diagrams displayed as relative frequency and pollen concentration data, respectively. The charcoal data displayed on both of these figures is shown as absolute charcoal influx in grains/ cm3• The pollen spectra are divided into five zones. 1. Zone Ta 4: 4. 00-3.30 m depth; ca. 5000 - 3400 BP The terrestrial pollen is dominated by arboreal pollen, the most abundant elements of which are Agathis australis, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, Dacrydium cupressinum, Libocedrus, Nestegis, Phyllocladus, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys taxi/olia, Ascarina lucida, Coprosma and Leptospermum/ Kunzea. Ferns, herbs and aquatics record only low frequencies and charcoal influx is also low. The steady increases in A. australis andA. lucida are notable. 2. Zone Ta 3: 3.30-1.90 m depth; ca. 3400 - 2600 BP Like the previous zone, this is characterised by an arboreal dominance with a similar composition of species. At the onset of this zone is a very sharp and short-lived decline in A . australis, followed by a steady increase before again declining at the top. The curves for D. cupressinum, L ibocedrus, P. taxi/alia and A. lucida show similar, though less pronounced, trends. Herbs, ferns and aquatics are again only weakly represented, although the ferns assume slightly more importance than previously. 3. Zone Ta 2: 1. 90-1. 12 m depth; ca. 2600 · 900 BP As with Zones Ta 3 and 4, a strong dominance is maintained by the arboreal taxa over the relative paucity of herbs, ferns and aquatics. A. australis rises steadily upward from a starting point of low abundance through the zone to achieve a significant peak at the top. A similar trend is observed in the D. cupressinum curve, but other podocarps do not demonstrate the same pattern although they generally maintain a strong presence. A. lucida maintains high abundances throughout, and most other forest taxa are well represented. 89 4. Zone Ta Ib: 1. 1 2-0.30 m depth; ca. 900 - (1250 BP This sub-zone is characterised by several significant changes in the pollen spectra. Initially, a shon, sharp increase in ferns is observed, attributable chiefly to Pteridium esculentum. The arboreal pollen declines in tandem with the above change. This event is followed by an equally brief reverse trend followed by a significant decline in forest taxa. All tree, small tree and shrub taxa other than Coprosma and Coriaria exhibit dramatic decreases in abundance. Herbs, though still relatively unimponant, increase in abundance, panicularly Poaceae members. The P. esculentum curve dominates the pollen spectra; other herbaceous ferns represented by the curve for monolete fern spores increase noticeably, and the frequencies for Cyperaceae and Restionaceae members are also increased. The charcoal influx mirrors the P. esculentum curve. 5. Zone Ta la: 0.30 m depth to sediment surface; ca. ?250 BP - present This sub-zone is characterised by low frequencies for almost all arboreal pollen types. Herbs are dearly the dominant pollen group, in panicular, Poaceae members and Taraxacum type. Exotic European pollen types appear for the first time, notably Cupressus and Pinus; it is likely that the increases in herb pollen, i.e., Poaceae and Taraxacum, are also attributable to introduced European species, but conclusive differential identification is not possible. Sedimentology Texture The grain-size distribution is characterised by two peaks in the sand fraction (Figure 4.5). The first peak (35%) occurs at 1 . 12 m. Prior to this, the sand content is consistently low, averaging 10%. The second peak occurs between 0.61 m and the sediment surface, with an initial value of 14% at 0.61 m, which increases sharply to 27.2% at 0.54 m and achieves a maximum value of 87.2% between 0. 13 m and the surface. Low values for clay fractions are coincident with these peaks in sand fractions. Between 0.53 and 0.13 m, day fraction values range from 29% to 4.3% compared with an average value of 46% for the remainder of the core. Other grain-size fractions remain almost entirely unaffected throughout the core. • • • Ta 1 b • i· � Ta 2 • • • • • • Ta 3 • Ta 4 Figure 4.3 Lake Taumatawhana pollen percentage diagram. A: Trees, small trees and shrubs. 1 74 1 � 831 686 * 72 - 1 .0 9 1 3 ± 651 1 928 ± 6S1 2976 * 67 1 ---- Herbs ----� /�---- Ferns and fern a l l ies Groins/ cc Figure 4.3 Lake Taumatawhana pollen percentage diagram. B: Herbs, ferns, fern allies and aquatics. To l b Ta 2 Ta 3 Ta 4 1 7 4 1 ± 831 686 ± 72· 1000 9 1 3 ± 6 5 ' 1 928 ± 68- 26 1 2 ± 721 2000 2976 ± 671 3000 4883 ± 68' 4000 50 100 150 20 40 Figure 4.4 Lake Taumatawhana pollen concentration diagram, selected taxa only. 20 40 60 50 100 1 50 200 Grains/cc Zone To 1 0 T o l b T o 2 To 3 Ta 4 93 Organics Typically, the organic matter content is ca 50% (by dry weight) throughout the core (Figure 4 .5) . However, a sharp decrease occurs from 0.61 m to the surface (0.00 m) where the organic content is only 6.5%. Lower-than-average values are also noted between 1 . 12 and 0.61 m (39.3%), and also at 3.00 and 2.00 m. Mineralogy The inorganic portion is characterised by only three minerals throughout the core: quartz, feldspar and a mineral that is amorphous to X-ray radiation. In the XRD patterns, quartz is identified by its 1st- and 2nd-order peaks at 24° 20 (= 0043 nm) and 3 1 ° 28 (= 0.33 nm), respectively, and feldspar is indicated by its 1st-order peak at 33° 28 (= 0.31 nm) (Figure 4.6). The amorphous material, which is most probably amorphous silica gel a. Kirkman, personal communication 1995), is indicated by a "hump" in the XRD pattern. The apex of this hump lies in the vicinity of 26° 2E> (Figure 4.6). Most of the core appears to consist of this material, as its XRD pattern shows a distinct trend with depth. The exception to this pattern occurs in the uppermost section of the core from 0040 m - 0.00 m, where there is almost no amorphous material. Here the dominant minerals are quartz and feldspar (peaks at 24° 28, 3 1 ° 28 and 33° 2E>; see Figure 4.6) coincident with extremely low values in the clay fraction (clay content between 0.30 m and 0.00 m of 3.6 - 4 .3%; see Figure 4.5). Apart from these three minerals, no other minerals were detected in the XRD patterns despite the relatively high clay content of the core material (Figure 4.5). The clay content of the sediment seems to be associated with the amorphous material. From 0.80 - 0040 m, the clay content decreases steadily from 36.3% - 12.9% with a concurrent decrease in the amount of amorphous material reflected in a steadily declining hump in the XRD patterns. Further minor fluctuations in the clay content (Figure 4.5) are mirrored by the XRD patterns for amorphous material. Microscopic investigation, by point counting, of the sand fraction also revealed an apparent dominance of quartz. The shape of these grains ranges from angular to well-rounded. Apart from quartz, a few iron oxides (probably hematite or magnetite) were also noted. There were also a few feldspars, but in contrast to the mud fraction, their abundances were extremely low; plagioclase feldspars were totally absent. Chemistry The elemental assays (Figure 4.7) are placed in two main groups, major and minor elements (after Hakansson and Jansson, 1983; Mackereth, 1965, 1966). Major elements comprise Al, K, Mg, Na and Si. The minor elements are further subdivided into heavy metals elements (As, Co, 94 Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Zn), carbonate elements (Ca and Mg), nutrient elements (P), mobile elements (Fe, Mu and S) and others (B, Se and Sr). The five major elements show an almost identical distribution pattern of generally consistent "background" concentrations from the base upwards to a depth of 0.75 m. At this depth, increases in concentrations are seen, dramatically so from 0.58 m (M:g excepted) to the surface. Calcium exhibits several concentration peaks throughout the profile. Peaks are registered between 0 and 0.42 m, at 0.88 m, 1 .79 m and 2.39 m. Of the nutrient elements, only phosphorus can be analysed by ICP-AES. The record for P is stable from the base of the core up to ca. 0.70 m depth, from which a rise in concentration is noted, peaking at 0.42 m. Thereafter levels decline. Of the mobile elements, both Fe and Mu show peaks at 0.17 m and 0.42 m. Below this depth, these two elements show reduced but fluctuating concentrations, although Fe has a major peak at 2.99 m. Sulphur behaves somewhat differently. No clear trend is apparent, but peaks in concentration are noted at 0. 17 m, 0.42 m, 1 .36 m, 2.26 m and 2.99 m. Substantial declines are seen between 0.58 - 0.75 m, at 1.93 m and 2.86 m. -.. E ........ ..c ..... Cl.. Q) o o 1 .0 2.0 3.0 Key: � Sand . . • Very coarse silt • E2j Coarse silt 0 Medium silt � Clay Fine silt W Organics Very fine silt 1 I 20 40 I 60 Figure 4.5 Grain-size classes and organic matter shown as percentages, Lake Taumatawhana. 95 4000 � c: ::J o U 2000 4 9 1 4 1 9 24 Degrees 2-Theta 29 A 34 39 2000 1 000 4 9 1 4 1 9 24 29 D egrees 2-Theta Figure 4.6 Smoothed XRD patterns for sediment mineralogy at DAD m (A) and l AO m (B), Lake Taumatawhana. B 34 39 3000 1000 2doo t , Concentration tl"" 3000 j I 1;1'9 dry matter I 400 sbo �' -,-�I --I 4()O 600 . emlcal strati Figure 4 7 Ch . Carbonate E Iemenis / I ,--, 600 200 ,--, 200 e ements, Lake Taumatawh ana. graphy for selected ,I 3000 Mobile E Iemenls I 4000 4bo 61x> 8bo Analyst B Striev/skJ 9 8 DISCUSSION Palynology The pollen record for Lake T aumatawhana extends from ca. 5 ka to the present and provides evidence for significant paleoecological changes over that time both locally and extra-locally. These are summarised in Table 2 . Lake formation relates to dune activity and drainage impedance following the attainment of sea level close to present level at ca. 6500 BP (Gibb, 1986) , and the lake has existed for ca. 5500 years. Immediately following lake formation and onset of organic deposition at ca. 5 ka, a regional Agathis australis�podocarp-hardwood forest dominated the vegetation. This community included all the tall podocarp trees, the most important of which were Dacrydium cupressinum, Pbyllocladus sp., Podocarpus totara type and Prumnopitys taxi/olia. Libocedrus sp. and Nestegis sp. were also significant, and A. australis became increasingly dominant from an initial low value. The development of a conifer­ hardwood forest through the lower zone is a consequence of increasing stability of the dune environment following sea-level stabilisation. Similar trends for A. australis, D. cupressinum and Podocarpus sp. are reported by Kershaw and Strickland (1988) from a coastal inter-dune bog in Northland. D. cupressinum was a common emergent of the regional forest, and Podocarpus totara type was a commonly occurring tree. A . australis is regularly under-represented in pollen records (Newnham, 1990; Newnham, Ogden and Mildenhall, 1993) and thus, its good representation in the present study is significant. McGloJ?e and Topping (1977) describe postglacial climate changes that have some features in common with Zones Ta 4 and Ta 3 . After 5 ka BP, northern sites (of the North Island) indicate that Podocarpus and Prumnopitys became more abundant, responding to a generally harsher climate. This trend is reversed between 3500 and 1800 BP to a more Dacrydium-cupressinum­ dominated phase (McGlone and Topping, 1977). A similar trend can be observed in the T aumatawhana record. The reversion in importance of D. cupressinum and Podocarpus is accompanied by an increase in abundance of A. lucida. McGlone and Moar (1977) report that A. lucida was common in the postglacial period from 10-5 ka BP, after which a decline in abundance was noted. A period of recovery occurred between 3500 and 1 800 BP, when A. lucida again became common (McGlone and Moar, 1977). This trend is similar to that observed for T aumatawhana and supports the evidence provided by the D. cupressinum and Podocarpus curves, although these taxa persist for somewhat longer in the time scale. Other Northland pollen diagrams (Kershaw and Strickland, 1988; Dodson, Enright and McLean, 1988; Enright, McLean and Dodson, 1988; Newnham, 1992; Newnham, Ogden and Mildenhall, 1993) provide 99 a less distinct trend for A. lucida. It is likely that drought rather than cold was the limiting factor in the Onepu district given its northern location and the susceptibility of the sand dune communities to moisture deficit. Drought is also implicated in the cyclic curve of A. australis, which requires a rainfall regime between 1000 and 2500 mm per annum for optimum growth (Ecroyd, 1982). Windthrow by hurricane(s) during droughtier and windier times could be more devastating on the sand-dune country and could account for the destruction of hundreds of kauri (Agathis australis) trees at a time (Ecroyd, 1982). Under such circumstances, mass synchronous regeneration of A. australis under the cover of LeptospermumlKunzea scrub could lead to even-aged stands (Ecroyd, 1982; see also Ogden, 1985 and Ogden et aI., 1992). Evidence for drier and windier conditions in far northern New Zealand during this period has been advanced by Enright, McLean and Dodson (1988) , and Dodson, Enright and McLean (1988). The most significant change in the pollen record occurs at the boundary between Zones Ta 2 and Ta lb. A decline of all arboreal taxa is observed, accompanied by sharp rises in the curves for Pteridium esculentum, the aquatic species of the Cyperaceae and Restionaceae families, as well as Typha. The charcoal influx follows the same trend as P. esculentum. Elevated values for Coriaria at this time are also significant. This shrub is considered to be an aggressive, early coloniser of fire-cleared landscapes \Wardle, 1991) . Features of this nature have been recorded at many other sites in New Zealand (Mildenhall, 1979; McGlone, 1978; McGlone, Mark and Bell, 1995; Chester, 1986). The association between Polynesian deforestation and these features in pollen records is now well-established (11cGlone, 1983, 1989). McGlone, Anderson and Holdaway (1994) propose that such widespread deforestation began ca. 600 years ago with a small number of sites dated between 700 and 800 BP. Few sites have been dated rigorously to provide an unambiguous chronology. Analysis of HC dates associated with moa hunting (Anderson, 1989, 1991 ; Anderson and McGovern-Wilson, 1990) suggests human presence after 800 BP. A few dates before 1 ka BP are considered questionable by these authors. 14C dates (NZA-3819 and -3882) bracketing this event in our study indicate that significant anthropogenic disturbance first occurred some time after ca. 900 BP (800 cal BP), and by ca. 700 BP (600 cal BP), major forest clearance had taken place from which the local! extra-local vegetation has never recovered. - - - -- --- ----- -�------ 100 Table 4.2. Summary of Palynology and Inferred Regional Vegetation since ca. 5000 BP Pollen zone Yr BP Ta la 150(?) 250 (?) 700 Ta 1b 900 Ta 2 2600 Ta 3 3400 Ta 4 5000 Key pollen taxa Exotics Pteridium-charcoal Pteridium-charcoal Dacrydium Dacrydium, Agathis, Libocedrus, Ascarina Dacrydium, Agathis, Libocedrus, Ascarina Regional vegetation Pasture Fembrake Fembrake Podocarp- hardwood forest Kauri-podocarp- hardwood forest Kauri-podocarp­ hardwood forest Podocarpus, Pbyllocladus, Kauri-podocarp- Agathis, Coprosma hardwood forest Climate ? ? warm, mOlst warm, moist, windy Cooler, drier The possibility of old soil carbon inwash is likely to occur after forest clearance (pennington et al., 1976). This is probably shown in the dating inversion exhibited by NZA-3920 and -3823 when compared with NZA-3882 (Figure 4.2). The dates provided by NZA-3819 and -3882, which indicate the period of first human impact, are not considered to be contaminated in this way. 101 Sedimentology The granulometric composition of the Lake T aumatawhana sediments shows two distinct changes in the sand fraction (Figure 4.5). The first peak occurs at 1 .12 m and the second between 0.61 m and the sediment surface. The coarse granulometric nature of these peaks indicates the high energy level of the depositing medium (Reineck and Singh, 1975). Thus, the constituent particles of these peaks must have been deposited during periods of increased eroslOn. Pollen data from Zone Ta 1b 1 . 12-0.30 m and Zone Ta la 0.30 m to surface (Figures 4.3, 4.4) suggest that these periods of increased erosion can be attributed to human influence in the form of deforestation. This contention is also supported strongly by the trend of the organic matter content down the core (Figure 4.5). Organic-matter content declines sharply at 1 . 12 m, and also between 0.61 m and the sediment surface. This is thought to represent deforestation accompanied by an increased inwash of (coarse) inorganic matter. Dawson (1990) attributed similar features to periods of increased erosion in lake sediments on Mangaia, Central Polynesia. The relative abundance of the amorphous material throughout this core is considered a pedological rather than a human-induced feature. The amorphous material forms in the silica­ rich sandy parent material of the dune system within which this site is located. Under complete saturation, silica dissolves, and, on reaching the solubility product, it precipitates as amorphous material G. Kirkman, personal communication 1995). The general tendency of a high content of amorphous material varies only at depth ranges that show markedly higher sand and lower clay contents (Figure 4.5) . The chemical stratigraphy of the Taumatawhana core can best be explained if the inorganic fraction of the sediment is regarded as a sequence of soils derived from the lake catchment. The composition of the residues finally reaching the lake bed reflects erosional activity within the catchment or in the lake itself (Mackereth, 1966). The chemical composition of the sediments in general does not appear to be subject to alterations due to in-lake processes, although some elements are more or less susceptible to post-depositional modification or pre-depositional leaching processes within the soils of the catchment, especially phosphorus, sulphur, iron, manganese and calcium (Mackereth, 1966) . Elements showing a firm association with the soil and sediment mineral matter seem to reflect the erosive processes within the catchment, eventually leading to the deposition of material into the lake. Because of their abundance in mineral matter, the distribution of major elements (AI, 102 K, Mg, Na and Si) in the lake sediments seems to best reflect the erosional history of the catchment. Of those elements in particular, sodium and potassium are clearly associated with the mineral fraction of the sediment rather than with the organic material (.Mackereth, 1965, 1966). Both elements show sharply rising concentration values from 0.58 m to the water­ sediment interface. The strong relation between the mineral content of the sediment and the Na-K concentration implies that these features are directly proportional to the intensity of erosion to which the catchment was exposed when the sediments were deposited. Thus, the high concentration of K and Na immediately below the surface suggests a period of extremely high erosion within the catchment which continues into the present. This contention is strongly supported by the chemical stratigraphy of aluminium, magnesium and silicon which also belong to the group of major elements. Apart from a few minor fluctuations in element concentration within the range from 2.99 - 0.58 m, their overall pattern is almost identical to Na and K. Increased values for phosphorus in the upper 0.60 m of the core coinciding with the major elements may also be related to more intensive erosion, although P is often implicated in biological activity. The chemical stratigraphy suggests that the erosional history at this site can be divided into two main periods. A period of relatively stable conditions reflected by low rates of erosion existed throughout much of the history of the lake. This is characterised by low elemental concentrations in the sediments. With decreasing depth, the concentration of all major and many other elements increases markedly. While the stratigraphic position of this onset of increasing concentration values is not uniform, the trend is generally initiated between 0.75 and 0.58 m. Thus it is here interpreted that 0.75 m marks the boundary between a change from stable to unstable conditions characterised by intense erosional activity. 103 CONCLUSION Palynological analysis of sediments from the Lake T aumatawhana site indicates that this region of nonhern New Zealand has been sensitive to environmental and climate changes throughout the late Holocene. Pollen spectra indicate that while warmer and wetter conditions prevailed from ca. 3400 to at least 2000 BP, increased windiness was also a feature of the regional climate. However, the most significant event of the late Holocene has been that of human impact commencing after ca. 900 BP (800 cal BP). The coincidence of forest decline, a sharp rise in the incidence of P. esculentum and charcoal influx together with related changes in the sedimentological history, which are not evident prior to deforestation, provide the strongest argument for major human-induced environmental change. The date of ca. 900 BP (800 cal BP) is somewhat earlier than 700 BP suggested previously. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology, grant number FLEI02. We would like to thank Dave Wells for granting access to the site, Vic Hensley for assistance in the field, Karen Puklowski for drawing the diagrams, and Jock and Corin Elliot for their generous hospitality. We are also grateful to Vince Neall, Matt McGlone, Catherine Chague-Goff and J arnes Goff for their comments that improved the manuscript. We thank two anonymous referees for their valuable comments. REFERENCES Allan, H. H. 1961 Flora o/New Zealand, Vol. I. Wellington, Government Printer: 1085 p. Anderson, A. J. 1989 Prodigious Birds: Moa and Moa-hunting in Prehistoric New Zealand. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 238 p. __ 1991 The chronology of colonization in New Zealand. Antiquity 65: 767-795. Anderson, A. J. and McGovern-Wilson, R. 1990 The pattern of prehistoric Polynesian colonisation in New Zealand. Journal 0/ the Royal Society o/New Zealand 20(1): 41-63. 104 Baker, S. R. and Friedman, G. M. 1969 A non-destructive core analysis technique using x-rays. Journal 0/ Sedimentary Petrology 39(4) : 1371-1383. Berezin, P. N. and Voronin, A. D. 1981 Use of the sedimentograph for particle size analysis of soils and subsoils. Pochvovedeniye 5: 56-61 in Russian. Translated in Soviet Soil Science 13: 101-109. Bulmer, S. (ms) 1988 A model of the colonisation of Aotearoa. Paper presented to New Zealand Archaeological Association Conference, Auckland, May 1988. Bussell, M. R. 1988 Mid and late Holocene pollen diagrams and Polynesian deforestation, Wanganui district, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal o/Botany 26: 431-451. Chester, P. I. (ms.) 1986 Forest Clearance in the Bay of Islands. M. A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, New Zealand: 359 p. Connor, H. E. and Edgar, E. 1987 Name changes in the indigenous New Zealand flora, 1960-1986 and Nomina Nova IV, 1983-1986. New Zealand Journal o/Botany 25: 1 15-170. Davidson, J. 1984 The Prehistory o/New Zealand. Auckland, Longman Paul: 270 p. Dawson, S. (ms.) 1990 A Chemical and Mineralogical Study of a Sediment Core from Lake Tiriara, Mangaia, Southern Cook Islands with Special Reference to the Impact of Early Man. B. Sc. dissenation, University of Hull: 50 p. Dodson, J. R., Enright, N. J. and McLean, R. F. 1988 A late Quaternary vegetation history for far nonhern New Zealand. Journal 0/ Biogeography 15: 647-656. Ecroyd, C. E. 1982 Biological flora of New Zealand 8. Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl. (Araucariaceae) Kauri. New Zealand Journal 0/ Botany 20: 17-36. Enright, N. J. and Osborne, N. M. 1988 Comments on D G Sutton's paper: "A paradigmatic shift in Polynesian prehistory: implications for New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 10: 139- 146. Enright, N. J., McLean, R. F. and Dodson, J. R. 1988 Late Holocene development of two wetlands in the Te Paki region, far nonhern New Zealand. Journal 0/ the Royal Society of New Zealand 18(4): 369- 382. F r r�O 4Cr r r r r' r-z(r �}' r �' ZOr r r • • • .. - · • • . . . . . . -- . Figure 5.4a Pollen percentage diagram for borehole 1 from Lake Tauanui. Tall trees, small trees and shrubs. Pollen sum includes all dryland pollen and spores. Charcoal concentrations are shown as grains cm-3• T l 0 T l b T2 T3 ..... ..... 00 ,�--- Herbs ---"7 and fern CONISS 2 1 0 1 ± 65_ Figure 5.4b Pollen percentage diagram for borehole 1 from Lake Tauanui. Herbs, ferns, fern allies and aquatics. Pollen sum includes all dryland pollen and spores. Charcoal concentrations are shown as grains cm-3• 0.0 1 1 1 1 .. 66" 1 396 • 6 4 1 1 .0 2 1 0 1 ± 65. 2 .0 3050 • 751 3890 ± 72 - 4084 ± 72- 3.0 5385 .. 8 1 . 20 40 20 40 6 Figure 5.5 Pollen concentration diagram for borehole 1 , data expressed as grains cm-3 • 50 1 00 1 50 200 200 400 600 800 Zone T 1 0 T l b T2 T3 121 also accompanied by significant amounts of Taraxacum. Ferns remain significant including tree ferns, Cyathea and Dicksonia; ground ferns, especially Paesia scaberula and Phymatosorus diversi/olius (Willd.) Pichi. Serm., are particularly important. Pteridium esculentum rises sharply from the base of the zone accompanied by similar increases in charcoal concentration. The decline in tree taxa is most marked by reductions of Agathis australis, Dacrydium cupressinum, Libocedrus, Metrosideros and Prumnopitys taxi/olia. Shrubs increase, including Asteraceae, Coprosma and Coriaria, while introduced European taxa first appear toward the top of the zone including Pinus and Vlex europaeus 1. Aquatic and wetland species are more frequently recorded, in particular Myriophyllum . DISCUSSION The sediment record for Lake Tauanui extends back about 5400 radiocarbon years and reveals a number of major palaeoecological events of both a local and extra-local nature. The lake formed as a result of volcanic activity within T auanui Volcanic Centre. Two eruption craters that formed ca 5500 years ago trapped runoff water from the flanks of the Mangakahia Range producing Lake Tauanui (Elliot and Neall, 1996). This volcanic event probably affected the local plant community and may have initiated flIes that destroyed much of this vegetation. Immediately following the onset of organic deposition on the lake bottom ca 5400 yr B.P., few trees or shrubs were present in the pollen source area. The most important members of the plant community were tree ferns, especially Cyathea. Most of the fern spores enumerated were not corroded suggesting they were produced by local plants and not secondarily deposited. All tree ferns are capable of resprouting following fire (Wardle, 1991). Early vegetation succession at 1. Tauanui was similar to volcanoseres in New Guinea (faylor, 1957), Krakatau (Richards, 1964; Flenley and Richards, 1982), and other parts of the Pacific (Burrows, 1990). A similar trend was observed at Mount Tarawera (near Rotorua, New Zealand) following the 1886 eruption (Burrows, 1990). At Tauanui the fern-dominated vegetation gave way to an increasingly tree- and shrub-dominated community in which Dacrydium cupressinum was the dominant tree and Cyathea, though much reduced, was still important. This trend is suggestive of a type of volcanosere. Libocedrus, Metrosideros, Phyllocladus, Podocarpus, Agathis australis, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, Prumnopitys ferruginea (D. Don.) Laubenf. and P. taxi/olia were also represented in this forest. 122 A fire in the lake catchment is inferred from a charcoal concentration peak at 3.00 m ca 4 kyr B. P., and is followed immediately by inwash of clay sediment assumed to be the result of catchment erosion. Shortly after this a decline in many tree taxa is noted, though Dacrydium cupressinum appears to increase. This increase of D. cupressinum probably relates to influx of extra-local pollen. This taxon tends to be over-represented in the pollen record because of high production and wide dispersal (NIoar, 1970; Mildenhall, 1976). A trend of oscillating peaks and troughs in the forest taxa occurs throughout pollen zone T2. Initially Ascarina lucida is less common, but toward the middle of zone T2 (ca 3.4 kyr B. P.) becomes more abundant. Hardy podocarps, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/alia, are more abundant throughout the lower half of zone T2, though levels fluctuate. McGlone et al. (1993, 1996) have described increased cyclonic activity in northern New Zealand during the mid-to­ late Postglacial. High winds and high-intensity, heavy rain characterise cyclonic storms generated to the north of New Zealand which lose intensity as they travel south (NIcGlone et al., 1996). Pollen diagrams from other parts of northern New Zealand (e.g. McGlone and Moar, 1977; McGlone, 1988) indicate that the climate deterioration of the mid-to-late Postglacial was interrupted by a brief period of climate amelioration between ca 3.4-1 .8 kyr B. P. (NIcGlone and Moar, 1977). At Tauanui increases in abundance for Agathis australis and Ascarina lucida are apparent from 4000 yr B.P. A. lucida is a small, frost and drought sensitive tree endemic to New Zealand. Increased frequency of this tree elsewhere in New Zealand Holocene records has been interpreted as a change to milder, wetter climate (NIcGlone and Moar, 1977). Elliot et al. (1995) argue for cooler/drier conditions at Lake Taumatawhana (ca 90 km north of Lake Tauanui) from 5 - 3.4 kyr B.P. followed by a period of warm, moist and windy conditions. However, changes in A. lucida values at T auanui are only slight, and together with fluctuations in other taxa such as Knightia are more suggestive of seral trends associated with forest disturbance than significant climate change. Similar trends can be seen in other Northland pollen diagrams (e.g. Kershaw and Strickland, 1988; Enright et al., 1988; Dodson et al., 1988). The period that follows, i.e. from 1850 yr B. P. , marks a change from dominance of mature forest to one where understorey trees, shrubs and ferns are more abundant, especially Paesia scaberula, and emergent trees are less common. P. scaberula has a known ecological preference for open disturbed habitat (Brownsey and Smith-Dodsworth, 1989). The combination of increased understorey and shrub taxa with increased frequencies for ferns is suggestive of disturbance in the catchment. No significant changes occur in charcoal concentration, which remains low. This disturbance could be due to increased cyclone activity, and is consistent with 1 2 3 climatic variability described by McGlone e t al. (1993, 1 99 6) in the late Postglacial. A change from moist, cloudy summers and dry, clear winters to a cool, wet winter-dry summer regime has been argued for mid-ta-late Holocene times (M:cGlone et aI. , 1 993). Drier conditions could have been severe in their effects on the local vegetation at Lake T auanui given the free-draining nature of the volcanic soils. The possibility of this disturbance being human-induced should not be entirely discounted. However, the absence of Pteridium esculentum (bracken) spores and microscopic charcoal which are typically associated with Polynesian deforestation (M:cGlone, 1983, 1 989) does not support this hypothesis. Major forest decline is clearly evident from the top of zone T1b dated at ca 1 100 yr B.P. All trees other than Podocarpus show significant decline. Shrubs show significant increase, particularly Asteraceae, Coprosma and Coriaria. Coriaria is described by Wardle (1991) as being a vigorous pioneer species, particularly in secondary succession. Various Coprosma species are also able to take advantage of disturbed ground, especially where some protection is afforded, for example by Kunzea/Leptospermum stands. Grasses become increasingly more common from the beginning of this period accompanied by other herbs, particularly Taraxacum. However, the most significant feature of the uppermost pollen zone is the rise to prominence of Pteridium esculentum and the associated rise in charcoal concentration. This is a feature of many other New Zealand pollen diagrams (e.g. McGlone, 1978, 1983; Chester, 1986; Newnham et ai., 1995; Elliot et al., 1995) , and is attributed to Polynesian deforestation (M:cGlone, 1983, 1989). This deforestation event occurred shortly after 1 100 yr B. P., and probably between 980 - 1240 yr B. P. The lack of major changes in organic/inorganic sedimentation suggests that the 14C chronology is not significantly affected by inwash of old soil carbon (sensu Pennington et al., 1976). This is in contrast to the Lake Taumatawhana site further north where erosion is correlated with inwash of old soil carbon and inversion of radiocarbon dates (Elliot et aI., 1995). The presence of exotic taxa, such as Pinus, Vlex europaeus and Plantago, in the uppermost samples marks the arrival and influence of Europeans in the T auanui catchment. 124 CONCLUSIONS A chronological sequence of climate change and anthropogenic disturbance can be determined from the pollen and sediment records at T auanui. This can be summarised as follows: 1 . Lake Tauanui formed ca 5500 yr B. P. and organic sedimentation began ca 5400 yr B.P. A volcanosere developed in the catchment ca 5400 yr B. P. and was initially dominated by tree ferns, particularly Cyathea. 2. At ca 4000 yr B. P. high concentrations of charcoal indicate a fire. The fire event was followed closely by marked catchment erosion associated with forest instability. Forest disturbance occurred repeatedly throughout the following 2.0 - 2.5 kyr and catchment erosion is also evident during this period. This variability may reflect increased occurrence of summer drought and the effects of cyclones. 3. Increased forest disturbance is initiated at ca 1850 yr B. P. More catastrophic disturbance occurred after ca 1 100 yr B. P. which is almost certainly attributable to human impact, marking the first anthropogenic environmental effects in this locality. This is m turn followed by the arrival of Europeans marked by the appearance of introduced taxa. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to a number of people for their assistance during this project. Mr and Mrs G. Cann kindly gave access to their property. Messrs P. Raine and B. Striewski gave assistance in the field. Mrs K. Puklowski drew the diagrams, and Mr. D. Feek gave technical backup. Dr M. McGlone provided helpful criticism of an earlier version of the manuscript. We also thank Drs. M. Brenner and P. Kershaw, and one anonymous referee, whose advice and comments greatly improved this paper. The work was funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology, Grant number FLE 102. 125 REFERENCES Allan, H. H. 1961. 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Name changes in the indigenous New Zealand flora, 1960-1986 and Nomina Nova IV, 1983-1986. New Zealand Joumal 0/ Botany 25: 115-170. Davidson, J . 1984. The Prehistory o/New Zealand. Longman Paul, Auckland, 270 p. Dodson, J. R., Enright N. J. and McLean, R. F. 1988. A late Quaternary vegetation history for far nonhern New Zealand. Joumal 0/ Biogeography IS: 647-656. E1liot, M. B. and Neall, V. E. 1996. The age and origins of Lake Tauanui, Nonhland, New Zealand. Geological Society o/New Zealand Newsletter 1 1 1: 36-39. Elliot, M. B., Striewski, B., Flenley J. R. and Sutton, D. G. 1995. Palynological and sedimentological evidence for a radiocarbon chronology of environmental change and Polynesian deforestation from Lake Taumatawhana, Nonhland, New Zealand. Radiocarbon 37: 899-916. Enright, N. J., McLean R. F. and Dodson, J. R. 1988. Late Holocene development of two wetlands in the Te Paki region, far northern New Zealand. Joumal o/the Royal Society o/New Zealand 18: 369-382. Fa:gri, K. and Iversen, J. 1989. Textbook o/PollenAnalysis, 4th edition. John Wiley, Chichester, 328 p. Flenley, J. R. 1994. Pollen in Polynesia: the use of palynology to detect human activity in the Pacific islands. In Hather, J. G.(ed.) Tropical Archaeobotany: applications and new developments. Routledge, London: 202-214. Flenley, J. R. and Richards K. (eds.). 1982. The Krakatoa centenary expedition. Final report. Department of Geography, University of Hull Miscellaneous Series, 25. Grimm, E. C. 1987. CONISS: A FORTRAN 77 programme for stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis by the method of incremental sum of squares. Computers in Geoscience 13: 13-35. Grimm, E. C. 1991a. Tilia version 1. 12. Research and Collections Centre, Illinois State Museum. Grimm, E. C. 1991b. Tiliagraph version 1. 18. Research and Collections Centre, Illinois State Museum. 126 Kershaw, A. P. and Strickland, K. M. 1988. A Holocene pollen diagram from Northland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal o/Botany 26: 145-152. McFadgen, B. G., Knox, F. B. and Cole, T. R. L. 1994. Radiocarbon calibration curve variations and their implications for the interpretation of New Zealand prehistory. Radiocarbon 36: 221-236. McGlone, M. S. 1978. Forest destruction by early Polynesians, Lake Poukawa, Hawkes Bay, New Zealand. Journal o/the Royal Society o/New Zealand 8: 275-28l. McGlone, M. S. 1983. Polynesian deforestation of New Zealand: a preliminary synthesis. Archaeology in Oceania 18: 1 1-25. McGlone, M. S. 1988. New Zealand. In Huntley, B. and Webb rn, T. (eds.) Handbook o/Vegetation Science Volume 7: Vegetation History. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 557-599. McGlone, M. S. 1989. The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes. New Zealand Journal 0/ Ecology 12: 1 15-129. McGlone, M. S. and Moar, N. T. 1977. The Ascanna decline and post-glacial climatic change in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal a/Botany 15: 485-489. McGlone, M. S., Salinger, M. J. and Moar, N. T. 1993. Paleovegetation studies of New Zealand's climate since the Last Glacial Maximum. In Wright, H. E., Kutzbach, J. E., Webb rn, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott, F. A. and Bartlein, P. J. (eds.) Global Climates since the Last GlacialMaximum. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 294--3 17. McGlone, M. S., Mark, A. F. and Bell, D. 1995. Late Pleistocene and Holocene vegetation history, Central Otago, South Island, New Zealand. Journal 0/ the Royal Society o/New Zealand 25(1): 1-22. McGlone, M. S., Mildenhall, D. C. and Pole, M. S. 1996. History and palaeoecology of New Zealand Nothofagus forests. In Veblen, T. T., Hill, R. S. and Read, J. (eds.) The Ecology and Biogeography 0/ Nothofagus Forests. Yale University Press, New Haven, 84--130. Mildenhall, D. C. 1976. Exotic pollen rain on the Chatham Islands during the Late Pleistocene. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 19: 327-333. Mildenhall, D. C. 1979. Holocene pollen diagrams from Pauatahanui Inlet, Porirua, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal 0/ Geology and Geophysics. 22: 585-591. Moar, N. T. 1970. Recent pollen spectra from three localities in the South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal 0/ Botany 8: 210-221. Moir, R. W., Collen B. and Thompson, C. S. 1986. The climate and weather of Northland. New Zealand. Meteorological Sen.;ice Miscellaneous Publication 1 15(2), 37 p. Molloy, B. P. J. 1969. Evidence for post-glacial climatic changes in New Zealand. Journal o/Hydrology 8 : 56-67. Molloy, B. P. J. 1995. Manoao (podocarpaceae), a new monotypic conifer genus endemic to New Zealand. New Zealand Journal 0/ Botany. 33: 183-201. Moore, L. B. and Edgar, E. 1976. Flora o/New Zealand, Vol. IT. Government Printer, Wellington, 354 p. Newnham, R. M. 1992. A 30,000 year pollen, vegetation and climate record from Otakairangi (Hikurangi), Northland, New Zealand. Journal o/Biogeography 19: 541-554. Newnham, R. M., de Lange P. J. and Lowe, D . J. 1995. Ho1ocene vegetation, climate and history of a raised bog complex, northern New Zealand based on palynology, plant macrofossils and tephrochronology. The Holocene 5(3): 267-282. Pennington, W., Cambray, R. S., Eakins J. D. and Harkness, D. D. 1976. Radionuclide dating of the recent sediments of Blelham Tarn. Freshwater Biology 6: 3 17-331 . Richards, P. W. 1964. The Tropical Rain Forest. An Ecological Study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 450 p. 127 Stockmarr, J. 1971. Tablets with spores used in absolute pollen analysis. Pollen et Spores 13(4): 615-621 . Stuiver, M. and Polach, H. A. 1977. Discussion: reporting of HC data. Radiocarbon 19(3): 355-363. Sutton, D. G. 1994. Conclusion: Origins. In Sutton, D. G. (ed.) The Origins 0/ the First New Zealanders. Auckland University Press, Auckland, 243-258. Taylor, B. W. 1957. Plant succession on recent volcanoes in Papua.Journal a/Ecology 45: 233-243. Tomlinson, A. 1. 1975. Structure of the wind over New Zealand. New Zealand Meteorological Service Technical Information Circular, 147. Troels-Smith, J. 1955. Karakterisering af 10se jordater. Danmarks Geologiske Undersegeise Series IV 3 (10): 73 p. Walker, D. 1964. A modified Vallentyne mud sampler. Ecology 45: 642-644. Wardle, P. 1991. Vegetdtion o/New Zealand. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 672 p. --------�-��-- -- -- - - - -- - 128 Chapter 6 WHARAUROAD SWAMP A 4300 year palynological and sedimentological record of environmental change and human impact from Wharau Road Swamp, Northland, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society o/New Zealand (in press). M. B. Elliotl,3, B. Striewskil, J. R. Flenleyl, J. H. Kirkman3 and D. G. Sutton2 lDepartment of Geography, Massey University, Private Bag 1 1-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand 2Centre for Archaeological Research, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand 3 Present address: Department of Soil Science, Massey University, Private Bag 1 1-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand. 129 Plate 6. 1 The Wharau Road Swamp. 130 Abstract The palynology and sedimentology of the late Holocene Wharau Road Swamp, Northland, are described. Organic sediment began accumulating ca 4300 yr B.P. in a valley as a result of damming by a basaltic lava flow from nearby Mount T e Puke. Mixed conifer-hardwood forest dominated the region until major anthropogenic forest clearance dated by radiocarbon at ca 600 yr B.P. Dacrydium cupressinum was the dominant taxon. Agathis australis was always present until European clearance, with peaks in the pollen record at inferred ages of ca 3700 yr B.P. and ca 1800 yr B.P. Climate changes similar to those registered in other pollen diagrams from northern New Zealand are evident, and suggest that climate was wetter and warmer than at present before 4000 yr B.P. From about 2600 yr B. P. the climate became drier and cooler, indicated by a decline in Ascanna lucida and D. cupressinum. A period of milder and wetter climate from ca 2000 yr B. P. is suggested by increases in D. cupressinum, A. lucida and Cyathea. Major forest disturbance at ca 600 yr B. P. is recorded by a sharp decline in all tree and shrub taxa accompanied by increases in herbs and pteridophytes, and a coincident sharp rise in charcoal influx. Also of particular importance at this time is the dramatic rise in the curve for Pteridium esculentum (bracken), which is associated with Polynesian land clearance and cultivation. The date for forest clearance is much later than the widely accepted date of ca 1000 yr B.P. for first settlement. Sedimentological evidence, ID particular changes in gram-slZe distribution, supports palynological inferences of anthropogenic disturbance of local vegetation and associated soil instability. Increased rates of erosion are indicated by sharp rises in coarse grain-size fractions from ca 700 yr B. P. These granulometric trends are accompanied by changes in sediment chemistry, especially potassium and sodium, which show increased concentrations. Keywords: palynology, sedimentology, pollen diagram, forest clearance, Holocene, Wharau Road Swamp, charcoal, climate change, Agathis australis, Dacrydium cupressinum, Pteridium esculentum Introduction Investigation of the vegetational history of many parts of New Zealand has indicated that Postglacial climate change can be identified in pollen records. One of the most widely documented changes has been that of the Ascanna lucida decline (McGlone and Moar, 1977) . However, the most significant feature of the Holocene has been the late and severe human 131 impact on the environment. It has been widely accepted that human settlement first occurred at around 1000 radiocarbon yr B. P. (Davidson, 1984), or soon after (Anderson and McGovern­ Wilson, 1990). The evidence for this derives largely from dated archaeological sites. More recently, assessments of radiocarbon dates by Anderson (1991), McGlone et al. (1994) and McFadgen et al. (1994) suggest that first settlement occurred nearer 700 yr B . P. The effect of Polynesian settlement on the vegetation of New Zealand has been profound. Large areas of forest were cleared, chiefly by fire, for a variety of reasons including agriculture, travel, hunting and settlements (McGlone, 1983). Perhaps one of the more important reasons for clearance of forest was to promote bracken growth - bracken (Pteridium esculentum) was a major carbohydrate food source for Maori in prehistoric New Zealand (Best, 1942). The concordance of evidence from pollen records, charcoal fragments and sediment analyses indicates that forest clearance was often rapid and it is now well established that the sharp rises in the curves for Pteridium esculentum and charcoal influx are firmly associated with anthropogenic modification of the landscape (McGlone, 1983, 1989; Newnham et ai., 1989). This paper presents a radiocarbon-dated pollen profile and sedimentological data from Wharau Road Swamp, extending from approximately 4300 yr B. P. to the time of European settlement, recording pre-human environmental change and deforestation of that region. Despite previous work, there remains controversy as to the dating, amplitude and nature of these climatic and anthropogenic changes, and especially as to their date in northern New Zealand. The present paper is an attempt to apply the palynological technique in an area where there are traditions of long Maori occupancy, and where previous work by Chester (1986) had found possible evidence of early forest clearance. In addition, integration of sedimentology (especially grain-size analysis and sediment chemistry) with pollen analyses permits the correlation of erosive events with vegetation disturbance. This work forms part of a larger multi-disciplinary project using peat deposits and lake sediments from Holocene sites in the Northland peninsula aimed at reconstructing the timing of first human disturbance in northern New Zealand (see Elliot et al., 1995). Description of the Wharau Road site The Wharau Road Swamp is located just south of the Hauparua Inlet, an arm of Kerikeri Inlet, west of Onewhero Bay in the Bay of Islands (Figure 6. 1, NZMS 260 GR P05/052635; Plate 6. 1) . The peat swamp from which the cores were extracted covers approximately 17.5 hectares, and includes an ephemeral lake at its western end. The surrounding hills are of low relief, nowhere 132 exceeding 100 m a.s.l., comprising Triassic-Jurassic greywacke basement rocks of the Waipapa Series (Kear and Hay, 1961) . The swamp slopes gently to the west and is enclosed in a valley basin partially dammed by a basaltic lava flow from Mount Te Puke (Ferrar, 1925). Volcanic bombs presumed to derive from nearby Mount Te Puke (Wellman, 1962), and which stratigraphically underlie Taupo Pumice (pullar et al., 1977), indicate that the formation of the swamp pre-dates the Taupo eruption of ca 1850 yr B. P. (Froggatt and Lowe, 1990). This assumes that damming of the swamp occurred at the same time as the formation of Mount T e Puke, which is thought to have formed from a single eruption (Chester, 1986). Although Smith et al. (1993) dated Te Puke basalts by KI Ar to 140,000 ± 60,000 yr B. P., earlier work using the KI Ar method (Stipp and Thompson, 1971) indicated a much younger age for Te Puke of 17,000 ± 6,000 yr B. P. Stipp and Thompson concluded that, whilst KI Ar dating of these rocks could not be accepted with any great confidence, there was little doubt that T e Puke basalts were late Quaternary and probably Holocene. The modern, undisturbed vegetation of the swamp is relatively rich floristically. Numerous shrubs and small trees tolerant of high water tables are present; especially abundant are Cordyline australis, Leptospermum scoparium and Coprosma tenuicaulis. Typha orientalis is common, and the sedge Eleocharis acuta is widespread. Many small herbs occur as scattered individuals, including Isachne sp., an aquatic grass. The swamp margin is fringed in many places by A cacia species. The extra-local vegetation includes the Waitangi State Forest, which is planted in exotic trees, mainly Pinus sp. Elsewhere the land is either cleared and in pasture or supports shrubby vegetation, chiefly Leptospermum scoparium and Vlex europaeus. [CJ Bush G Ephemeral lake ..-To Keriken 100 200 , metres 300 I Figure 6. 1 Location and physiography of the Wharau Road Swamp, Bay of Island. Values are elevations (in metres) . A-B line shows coring transect across swamp. 134 MATERIALS AND METHODS Stratigraphy Using a D-section sampler Gowsey, 1966) a series of boreholes was made along a transect across the swamp (Figure 6. 1) . This transect location was chosen because of its relatively undisturbed state. Much of the lower, western parts of the swamp have been drained and cleared for farming. Borehole 5 was selected for pollen analysis because it provided the longest sequence of organic deposition. This core can be divided from top to bottom into six broad stratigraphic units (Figure 6.2): loose peaty mud; coarse peat; organic mud (gyttja); coarse peat; organic mud; and a substratum of sandy clay. The adjacent boreholes (4 and 6) have similar stratigraphy. Field descriptions of borehole 5 following the Troels-Smith (1955) system are discussed below. The uppermost unit extends to a depth of 0.33 m, the top 0.20 m of which was too loose to be retained in the sampler. This dark brown material was made up of A rgilla, Grana and Substantia humosa in a ratio of 2: 1 : 1. The second unit extends to 1 .60 m and can be subdivided into two sub-horizons. The uppermost sub-horizon, between 0.33 and 0.50 m, consists of dark brown Detritus herbosus and Substantia humosa in a ratio of 2:2. The lowermost sub-horizon, between 0.50 and 1.60 m, consists of red-brown Detritus herbosus and Substantia humosa in a ratio of 3 :1 . The third unit, between 1 .60 and 1 .74 m, consists of a brown gyttja made up of Detritus herbosus, Substantia humosa and A rgilla in a ratio of 2: 1 : 1 . A transition, extending from 1 .74 to 1.88 m, includes equal amounts of A rgilla, Grana, Limus detrituosus and Detritus herbosus. The upper and lower boundaries of this unit are not well defined, and transitions are noted in the field records. From 1 .93 to 2.46 m the fourth unit consists of dark brown/black Detritus herbosus and Substantia humosa in a ratio of 3 : 1 . The fifth unit, extending from 2.46 to 3.5 1 m, consists of brown Limus detrituosus, Argilla, Grana and Detritus herbosus in equal parts. The lowermost unit, from 3.5 1 m to the base (4.00 m), comprises A rgilla and Grana in a ratio of 3 : 1 . Palynology Pollen slides for microscopic examination were prepared using standard alkali and acetolysis procedures (Fregri and Iversen, 1989). At the onset of the chemical preparation Lycopodium marker spore tablets were added for absolute pollen frequency calculations (Stockmarr, 1971) . Where necessary, hydrofluoric acid treatment was used to remove sand and fine silt; sodium pyrophosphate was used to deflocculate clay-rich samples (Bates et al., 1978); and oxidation of some samples was necessary to remove lignic material. Samples were then mounted in silicone oil (Andersen, 1960) and examined under a Zeiss Axiophot photomicroscope. Counts of pollen 135 and spores were continued until at least 200 grains of dryland taxa were included. Taxonomic nomenclature used follows Allan (1961), Moore and Edgar (1970) and Connor and Edgar (1987). Charcoal counts were obtained by counting across a centre traverse until at least ten Lycopodium spores had been counted (after Bush et al., 1992). From these counts estimates were obtained of charcoal concentration. Sedimentology Sedimentological analyses were carried out for grain-size, mineralogy, chemistry, and organic content. Cores 1-3 were used for determination of grain size and organic matter measurements (a total of 69 samples), core 7 for sediment mineralogy (a total of 30 samples) and core 5 for sediment chemistry (a total of 33 samples) . Additional grain-size analyses were carried out on core 5 but these were restricted to coarse (> 60 �) and fine ( < 60 �) fractions because of the limited amount of sediment remaining after pollen and chemical analyses. All these investigations required the same basic sample preparation. Samples were subdivided and oven­ dried at 40°C. The sub-sample slices ranged from 0.04 m to 0. 145 m in length depending on the lithology. Sections of the cores rich in organics (such as gyttja and peat layers) required longer sub-samples than more silty and clay-rich sections to yield sufficient inorganic material for the above-mentioned analyses. Dry sub-samples were gently pestled to break down aggregates, and dry sieved at 2.0 mm to separate coarse and fine sediment (Loveland and Whalley, 199 1) . All of the compositional analyses were made on the fine sediment fraction ( < 2.0 mm) . For grain-size analysis, samples were oxidised with hydrogen peroxide (after Kretzschmar, 1989). Sample size ranged from 5.0 to 14.0 g, and silt and clay fractions were analysed using a particle size analyser ("Sedigraph"). The sand fraction (62.5 ).im to 2.0 mm) was separated from the bulk sample by wet sieving and determined separately as an individual fraction. Organic content was measured by loss-on-ignition (after Kretzschmar, 1989), Sediment chemistry was analysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrometry on liquid digest. Sample digestion involved a 1 : 1 concentrated hydrofluoric acid/concentrated nitric acid solution treatment in combination with hydrogen peroxide (30%) oxidation to destroy the organics of the sub-samples and hydrochloric acid (2 M) extraction. The mineralogy of the silt and clay fraction was investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Preparation for this method was identical to that required for determination of grain size apart from sample drying at 40°C. Instead, the samples were treated with hydrogen peroxide for 136 organic matter destruction at their field moisture in order to avoid a collapse of cenain clay minerals through drying. RESULTS Dating Seven samples were radiocarbon dated by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at the Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, Lower Hutt, New Zealand (Table 6. 1) . An age-depth graph is shown in Figure 6.3. The lowermost and oldest sample was dated for two fractions: a plant fragment fraction which returned a date of 4241 ± 70 yr B. P. (NZA-2804), and a humin fraction which returned a date of 4448 ± 74 yr B. P. (NZA-2805). These dates are in good agreement and afford a high degree of confidence in their accuracy. Using an error weighted mean of the two ages provides a chronology for onset of organic deposition beginning ca 4300 yr B. P. Initially the rate of sedimentation is relatively slow (ca 0.55 nunlyr), but the rate increases sharply after ca 750 yr B. P. Because sedimentation is still continuing, the line in Figure 6.3 would be expected to pass through the origin, and to be progressively steeper near the origin because either the upper sediments are less compacted than lower ones, or the sedimentation rate increases owing to increased erosion. This gives the dotted line shown in Figure 6.3. NZA-3146 and 3607 are therefore probably slightly too old for the expected sedimentation rate. If so, this may be due to inwash of old soil carbon into the swamp during forest clearance (cf. Pennington et al. 1976). Age estimates for events occurring between dated samples are interpolated from the age-depth curve in Figure 6.3. A rhyolitic ash was observed in borehole 2 at 1 . 1 1-1 . 13 m and identified by electron microprobe analysis of glass as Kaharoa T ephra. The same tephra correlates with NZA-3606 of core 5 (756 ± 62 yr B. P.) eo I ID , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I j � D S t2j 1 37 Figure 6.2 Core stratigraphy for boreholes 1 -7 (terminology after Traels-Smith, 1 955) showing radiocarbon chronology and position of Kaharoa Tephra. Table 6 . 1 Radiocarbon dating of samples from core 5 Depth (m) Material dated Conventional 14C age a NZA # b ODC (%0) 0.60-0.65 litter 405 ± 63 3607 -25.67 0.75-0.80 treated peat 406 ± 61 3 146 -26.60 1.28- 1.33 treated peat 605 ± 60 3 109 -27. 10 1 .45·1 .50 litter 756 ± 62 3606 -27. 13 2.35-2.40 treated peat 2314 ± 63 3 147 -29.80 3 .43-3.48 plant 4241 ± 70 2804 -28.50 fragments 3.43-3 .48 4448 ± 74 2805 -29.20 humin fraction a In yr B. P. ± 1 s. d. based on old Tlh after Stuiver and Polach (1977) b Accession number for Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, Lower Hutt, N.Z. o I -5 2 D-ID o 3 \ o \ \ \ -;- NZA·3607 t- NZA-3146 \ \ � NZA-3109 � +. NZA-3147 NZA-2804 2 3 4 Age (thousand "c years B. P.) +' -+- NZA-2B05 5 138 Figure 6.3 Age-depth curve for core 5. The horizontal bars represent the magnitude of statistical counting error on the HC dates (2 SD); the vertical bars are sample slice thicknesses. 139 Palynology The pollen sum includes all dryland pollen and spores. The results are displayed as relative frequency (Figure 6.4) and absolute data (Figure 6.5), and in both diagrams charcoal data are displayed as charcoal concentration in grains/cm}. Three pollen zones are recognised on the basis of cluster analysis (Grimm, 1987). Dates for zone boundaries are interpolated from the sedimentation rate (Figure 6.3). Zone W3: 3. 55-2.60 m, ca 4300 - ca 2600 yr B. P. The terrestrial pollen is dominated by Dacrydium cupressinum and Cyathea. Ascarina lucida and Coprosma are also well represented. Metrosideros rises sharply towards the top of this zone, but then falls away abruptly. Podocarpus, though common in the early stages of this zone, is significantly reduced in the latter stages. Pollens of numerous other tree taxa are present, but generally at lower percentages than subsequently, e.g. Agathis australis, Phyllocladus. High values of the aquatic genus Myriophyllum are recorded initially; other wetland pollen types include Cyperaceae and Restionaceae. Grasses are also significant in the upper part of the zone, but these may also include aquatic types. Zone W2: 2.60-1.20 m, ca 2600 - ca 600 yr B. P. Cyathea declines sharply towards the middle of the zone, while Dacrydium cupressinum rises to a mid-zone peak. Thereafter Dacrydium remains the dominant tree taxon, though less important than formerly, and the curve for this taxon exhibits a number of peaks and troughs. Agathis australis pollen is abundant and Phyllocladus rises to a peak at the top of the zone. Coprosma rises steadily throughout the zone to a peak at the top, and Leptospermum is very abundant in the lower part of the zone. Ascarina lucida, from low initial values, increases in abundance at the top of the zone. Herbs and pteridophytes are less abundant than previously. Cyathea still maintains a strong presence, but declines markedly in the upper stages. Restionaceae and Cyperaceae pollens are abundant throughout this zone. An overall decline in the curve for trees with coincident increase of small trees and shrubs is noted in the latter stages. The decline in pollen from large trees is mainly due to reduced abundance of the conifer species. Zone Wl: 1.20-0.30 rn, ca 600 yr B. P. - present This zone is notable for a sharp decline in all trees and shrubs. Dacrydium cupressinum is still the dominant tree taxon and Leptospermum, though somewhat reduced in abundance, maintains a strong presence. Pteridophytes rise sharply, especially Pteridium esculentum, which becomes important for the first time. Gleichenia is also common. Cyperaceae pollen continues to 405 ' 63 . r 406 . 6 1 . r--- 605 • 60 . 756 • 62 1 23 1 4 . 63_ 4340 ± 500 1 .0 t::... 2.0 3.0 t ;:' � � � � r- � l- � -- � f=- � l=-f---- f=-- =- =- =- =-- r- I-- 10 � - '" � : - � :. f0o- i- � ::- ;'" • ;:- � I- :: I=. ... � r---- � • foo- r . � i- � � f-.-, f-.-, f-,-, f-,-, r-, f-.-, I-z'Ci-' � r r � r �( l- t- )- I- r- f=. : ::- � l:- � - r i- . � - � • � t- • � :: I"" r- • � • t-r r r r h r r � r r � r r r i-' r r r r r i-' r r r Figure 6.4a Percentage pollen diagram, core 5 - tall trees, small trees and shrubs. The pollen sum includes all dryland taxa. Charcoal concentration is shown in grains cm,3. W l W2 W3 0.0 405 *' 63. 406 ,* 6 1 . 1 .0 605 :t 60. 756 * 62' 2.0 23 1 4 i 63 ' 3.0 4340 *' 501 Ferns and fern allies "",r� ­ �o <$-is'' / ----- Wetlond species ---------, Figure 6.4b Percentage pollen diagram, core 5 - herbs, climbers, ferns, fern allies and wetland species. CON1SS Totol sum of squares Zone 0.0 405 * 63. 406 * 6 1 . W l 1 .0 605 * 60. 756 * 62 . 2.0 W2 23 1 4 * 63. 3.0 W3 4340 • 50. 20 1 00 200 300 20 40 60 80 1 000 2000 Figure 6.5 Pollen concentration diagram, core 5 - selected taxa only. Pollen data are expressed as grains cm-3• 143 illcrease ill abundance. Charcoal concentratlOn, from a negligible background level, rises sharply to a peak in the middle of the zone. From this point the frequencies for trees and shrubs remain steady but low, and the profIle is dominated by high frequencies of Poaceae pollen and fern spores, particularly Cyathea, Gleichenia and P. esculentum. The importance of aquatics declines significantly, although Cyperaceae pollen is still abundant. The charcoal concentration maintains high values. Sedimentology Grain size Cores 1-3 and 5 (Figure 6.6) were analysed for their grain-size distribution. Borehole 3, with an overall length of 3 .00 m was analysed to a depth of only 2.00 m, and borehole 2 was missing the first 0.30 m from the top because this section was lost during coring. Despite their different overall length (borehole 1 , 0.85 m; borehole 2, 0.30 to 2.50 m; borehole 3, 3.00 m, analysed to a depth of 2.00 m; borehole 5: 4.00 m, analysed to a depth of 3.00 m), the cores all show an almost identical grain-size distribution pattern with depth. Cores 1-3 are characterised by high clay content (average 50-60%) throughout; this trend is interrupted only by a sudden increase in the sand fraction from values below 1% up to 15%. This increase occurs at the expense of the clay fraction. The clay fraction is reduced by almost half to an average 25-30%. In cores 2 and 3 the reduced clay content is located from 1 .30 m to 0.72 m and 1 .42 m to 0.84 m, respectively, ;md in core 1 from the base to 0.28 m. The content of the finer silt fractions for cores 1 and 2 (i.e. very fine, fine, and medium silt) remains largely unaffected by the increase of sand (where sand is present). However, core 3 shows a strong increase in these fractions (also cumulative values) from 2 1% (bottom) up to 43 % (top). Of the coarse silt fractions, initial values of 3% (core 2) and 5% (core 3) were observed which remain quite stable up to 1 .30 m and 1 .42 m, respectively. The total content of these fractions then rises abruptly to a maximum of 24% and 3 1%, respectively, and then declines sharply from about 0.60 m. Core 1 shows a similar trend. The proportion of coarse to fine sediments in core 5 follows a very similar pattern to the grain-size distribution for cores 2 and 3. A sharp rise in the sand fraction occurs at 1 .32 m (20 %) and remains elevated until 1 .07 m before declining. Organic content Cores 1-3 are all dominated by a high organic matter content with maximum values of 50-60%. In core 1 (Figure 6.6) the organic matter rises from a low value of 0.5% at the base to a peak of 144 49% at 0047 m, then declines sharply from 0.39 m to a low of 1 1% between 0.35 and 0.31 m. A sharp rise to 30% occurs at 0.28 m, followed by a more gradual increase to 52% at the top. Cores 2 and 3 (Figure 6.6) show similar trends for their organic content, i.e. steadily increasing organic content from the base upward, marked only by minor fluctuations in this trend until the surface is approached where both cores exhibit declines from about 0040 m depth. Sediment mineralogy XRD analysis of mineral species in the clay and silt fraction of core 7 revealed major amounts of halloysite and smectite, and lesser amounts of mica (probably biotite) and vermiculite throughout the core. Trace amounts « 5%) of quartz and feldspar are also present in the silt fraction. The NaP test for allophane (Fieldes and Perrott, 1966) indicated that small amounts of ' this short range order mineral are present in the clay fraction. Halloysite and smectite are the dominant clay mineral species, and show a distinct pattern of distribution throughout the core. From the base of the core to 2.56 m depth, smectite dominated over halloysite. Thereafter to the top of the core, halloysite and smectite were present in approximately equal amounts. Sediment chemistry The results for Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, S and P for core 5 are plotted as a concentration versus depth graph (Figure 6.7). Elements (or cations) such as Al, Ca and Mg show an irregular concentration distribution with depth without any conspicuous peaks. Fe and P show an increasing tendency from low values at the bottom of the core (Fe approximately 200 mg/ g dry matter, and P 25 mg/ g dry matter) to comparatively high values at the top of the core (Fe approximately 1250 mg/ g dry matter, and P approximately 475 mg/ g dry matter). Potassium and sodium show sharp rises in concentration from 1 . 50 m and then decline sharply at about 0.75 m. Manganese follows a similar trend. Core 1 0 .0 Core 3 Core 5 Core 2 1 .0 Kaharoa Tephra 2.0 Key rn Sand a Medium silt � Clay 3.0 I J J � Very coarse silt • Fine silt 8 Silt and clay 0 50 100 0 W Analyst: B. S. lSJ Coarse silt Very fine silt Organic matter Figure 6.6 Grain-size classes and organic matter, cores 1-3 and 5. (})re 5 shows only proportion of coarse (sand) to fine (silt-day-size) sediment. Sand fraction values for core 5 are exaggerated 5x. Nutrient Major elements Carbonate elements elements Mobile elements r---J I .�,, �.::f i$", i/P ,,'0 rl' .§ 0' r:.-e is", r:.-e o'o 0 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 I I I I I I r---J r---J I I 0 200 400 600 800 200 200 50 2000 Concentration I< x ! .c ... a. GI a � ')(' . . o 1 2 3 5 6 NZA-471 4 NZA-4660 x � \ NZA-61 32 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ NZA-31 08 \ . . . x: . . . . .. ... .... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · ·· · · . . · 0 NZA-3817 NZA-5801 NZA-5735 NZA-5734 IA/"""/''' ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ...... N . .?;A�.�7.�R .... _-__ NZA-381 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 5 Key: Peat 10 Age kyr B. P . Sandy organic mud . . , . . . . . . . . ...... . . . ::;:::��::�:��::::��:����: :��mm��:�:::�m�: : �::::::: :�:: � �: �: : : �:: ::�: 'IIIIIUIIIUIIII,'I/, ',',','::::::::::::::::. ... ,.,.: .... : ...... ...... ". ...... . 1 5 Sandlorganlcs 20 �-........ . ;..� ........ . :--.. ....... . .. '!. ••••••••• :-...... 11 •••• � ........ . :"' .......... . ;..� •••••••• It :"'-.... ..... . . ........ . Sandy clay Figure 7.2 Stratigraphy and age depth graph of cores from boreholes 3 and 6, Kaitaia Bog See text for description of sediments. Dates for borehole 3 are shown as filled circles, and those for borehole 6 as open circles. 165 age, with a basal date of 7993 ± 66 yr B. P. (NZA-3 108), and an uppermost date at 0.45-0.50 m of 2790 ± 73 yr B. P. (NZA-4659) . The upper part of both peat records is missing; burning by Polynesians and later Europeans is the likely cause. Table 7. 1 . Radiometric dating of Kaitaia Bog samples Depth (m) NZAJI Age 14C yr B. P. &IJC%o Material dated Borehole 3 -- - - - - - - - - ---- - - - - - - - - - --- - - - --- - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - 0.20-0.25 4713 2639 ± 68 -25.51 sieved peat 0.75-0.80 4714 3505 ± 61 -23.90 sieved peat 1 .95-2.00 6132 5521 ± 75 -26.20 treated peat 2.95-3.00 3817 7660 ± 100 -23.78 treated peat 3.49-3.54 5801 9357 ± 78 -27.50 sieved peat 3.95-4.00 5735 100 1 1 ± 94 -27.20 treated peat 4.49-4.54 5734 1 1030 ± 1 10 -26.10 treated peat 4.95-5.00 5736 1 1640 ± 130 -26.90 treated peat 5.49-5.54 3818 224 10 ± 450 -27.68 treated peat Borehole 6 r - - - - - - - - - - -, - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.45-0.50 4659 2790 ± 73 -26.07 sieved peat 1.06- 1 . 13 4660 3968 ± 69 -26. 1 1 sieved peat 3.43-3.48 3 108 7993 ± 66 -26.90 treated peat 166 Palynology The pollen diagrams (Figures 7.3 and 7.4) are displayed as percentage data (with the pollen sum including all dryland taxa). Four pollen zones are recognised based on cluster analysis (Grimm, 1987). Borehole 3 Zone K4 6. 00 · 5. 50 m ca > 25 · 22,500 yr B. P. High levels of Dacrydium cupressinum (35% +) and Fuscospora (probably Notho/agus truncata, hard beech) define this zone. Signilicant pollen frequencies are recorded by Podocarpus, Prumnopitys /erruginea, P. taxi/olia, Libocedrus, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides and Metrosideros. Other ' podocarps recorded are Halocarpus and Manoao colensoi. Also present are Pbyllocladus, Nestegis, Coprosma, Myrsine and various Myrtaceae genera. Tree ferns are signilicant, especially Cyathea smithii type which records its highest values here. Ascarina lucida and Agathis australis percentages are relatively low. Elaeocarpus is consistently recorded and Laurelia novae-zelandiae is present in two samples. Bog taxa are dominated by restiads and Gleichenia. Microscopic charcoal fragments are abundant. Zone K3 5. 50 - 4.20 m ca 22,500 - 10,500 yr B. P. Fuscospora rises to high levels (30% +). Tree ferns decline along with Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus and Libocedrus. At about 5.20 m Fuscospora values peak. Podocarpus, Prumnopitys taxi/olia and Manoao increase. Consistent, relatively low percentages of Agathis persist throughout the zone. Ascarina, initially scarce, and Metrosideros increase up the zone. Microscopic charcoal fragments are abundant but decline towards the top of the zone. Dodonaea viscosa first appears in the profile at 5 . 10 m and persists thereafter. Nestegis pollen is common. Initially the bog flora is dominated by sedges (Cyperaceae), but following a peak in charcoal concentration, Leptospermum and restiads increase sharply. Lycopodium later ale spores are common. Zone K2 4. 20 - 1. 60 m ca 10,500 - 5000 yr B. P. A sharp decline in Fuscospora values, rapidly so from ca 9.5 ka, and high levels of Dacrydium, rising to 40%, define this zone. Ascarina is abundant, particularly in the lower half of this zone, and Metrosideros sp. are common. From 3.75 m (ca 9.5 ka), levels of Agathis pollen increase markedly. This trend is matched by the curve for Pbyllocladus. Dacrycarpus increases towards the top of the zone. Pollen of Knightia excelsa occurs throughout. Elaeocarpus and Nestegis are consistently present, and Cyathea is abundant. Prumnopitys /erruginea, Halocarpus and Manoao are less common than previously, but Libocedrus is consistently recorded. The bog flora is 167 initially dominated by restiads and Leptospennum, but from mid-zone Gleichenia becomes increasingly important. Charcoal concentration is low throughout. Zone Kl 1.60 - 0. 00 m ca 5000 - 2500 yr B. P. This mid- to late Holocene zone is characterised by very high levels of Dacrydium (45-60%) . Phyllocladus, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys ferruginea and Agathis australis are significant, and increased frequency of Prumnopitys taxi/olia is recorded. Ascarina becomes less abundant than previously, and Metrosideros values also decline. Halocarpus, Libocedrus and Manoao, initially common, show declining abundances upward through the zone. Bog taxa are most strongly represented by Gleichenia and restiads. Microscopic charcoal fragments are scarce. The uppermost sample records a significant amount of Pteridium esculentum spores and Poaceae pollen, along with reduced tree pollen generally. Borehole 6 Zone K2 3.40-1. 70 m ca 8000 - 5000 yr B. P. Significant, but low, values of Fuscospora decline abruptly from the base of the zone. Conifer pollen types are dominant, of which Dacrydium is the most common (35% +). High levels of Libocedrus, Phyllocladus, and Podocarpus are recorded. Prumnopitys taxi/olia, from initially low values, and Agathis become increasingly abundant. Of the angiosperm taxa, only Metrosideros is common. Significant amounts of Ascarina are recorded, and Dodonaea is always present. Only low frequencies of ferns are recorded, of which Cyathea dealbata type is the most common. Bog species are initially dominated by sedges (Cyperaceae) and restiads, but Gleichenia becomes increasingly common as Cyperaceae declines. Restionaceae pollen records high values throughout. Charcoal concentration is high in the lower half of the zone, but is reduced in the upper half. Kl 1. 70-0. 00 m ca 5000-2500 yr B. P. Agathis pollen is generally common. High frequencies of Dacrydium (40% +) are recorded throughout. Libocedrus and Prumnopitys taxi/olia are less common than previously, but levels of Podocarpus increase. Ascarina is consistently recorded, but is generally less abundant. Values of Dodonaea and Metrosideros fluctuate. Knightia excelsa is significant in the lower part of the zone. Bog species are dominated by Gleichenia and restiads. Charcoal concentration is generally significant. 2639 • 6B - 3505 • 6 1 - 1 .0 552 1 • 75 - 2.0 7660 • 100 - 9357 • 7B - 100 1 1 . 94 - 1 1030 :t 1 10 - 1 1640 • 1 30 - 224 1 0 • 450 - Figure 7.3a Percentage pollen diagram for borehole 3 showing Fuscospora, gymnosperms, and angiosperm trees. Pollen sum includes all dryland taxa. K l K2 K3 2639 • 6B . r-- r-- r--- l- t-"- r-- l- t-"- I- l- t-"- I- r-- r-- t-"- I- i"-- � I- r r r r r r r-- r-- r r-- ,.., r-- r � r- I- � I- r 3505 • 6 1 . 1 .0 " K l � "" � 552 1 • 75· 2.0 � 7660 > 100. 3.0 � K2 9357 • 78 · 1 00 1 1 > 94 · 4.0 � Co .. I: t ;.. 1 1 030 • 1 1 0 · F � � 1 1 640 > 1 30 - 5.0 :- K3 224 10 . 450 . 6.0 K4 ,.., r �C � h � � � r r r r r r r r � r r r ,.., r r r ,.., r ,.., r r r ,.., r r r � �( r ,.., Figure 7 .3b Percentage pollen diagram for borehole 3 showing small angiosperm trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers. and fern a l l ies -----" �------ Wei lond species ------� Tota l sum of squares Figure 7.3c Percentage pollen diagram for borehole 3 showing ferns, fern allies and wetland species. Pollen concentration and charcoal concentration are shown in grains cm-3• Figure 7.4a Pollen percentage diagram for borehole 6 showing FUJco.pora, gymnosperms, and angiosperm trees, small trees and shrubs. 7993 ' 661 fern a l lies ------;e r------- Wet land species ------ -;7 l Figure 7.4b Pollen percentage diagram for borehole 6 showing herbs, ferns, fern allies and wedand species. Pollen concentration and charcoal concentration are shown in grains cm-3• GrOins/cc x l 00 K 1 K2 173 Discussion The inferred regional vegetation and palaeoclimates derived from the Kaitaia Bog pollen profiles are summarised in Table 7.2. Pollen zone K4 indicates that prior to the LGM, from ca 25 - 22.5 ka, a tall complex conifer-beech forest dominated by Dacrydium cupressinum and Fuscospora formed the principal vegetative cover of the Kaitaia region. Newnham (1992) concluded on the basis of aperture counts, and evidence of modem distributions and ecology, that Fuscospora pollen in far northern New Zealand is most likely to be Nothofogus truncata. Newnham's conclusion is accepted in this study. All conifers occurring in the region today are represented in this forest, though tree fern-rich conifer-hardwood forest was probably restricted at this time. Warmth-loving, drought-intolerant taxa such as Agathis australis and Ascarina lucida, are reduced in frequency when compared to more recent spectra. An abundance of charcoal fragments indicates that fires were frequent events. A predominance of large charcoal fragments (> 50 /lm) over [mer charcoal implies a local source suggesting direct disturbance of bog vegetation due to fire. The occurrence of Laurelia novae-zelandiae and Syzygium maire, typical swamp forest trees, suggests that the water table was high. Cyathea smithii type tree ferns are typical of cool, moist upland areas in Northland. Climate during this period is interpreted as being cool, moist and windy. Other evidence from south of Auckland (McGlone et al., 1984a) indicates deterioration of climate from ca 28 ka. Sharp changes in the regional vegetation occurred at the beginning of the LGM. Nothofogus if. truncata dominated the forest flora. At the same time as N if. truncata was rising, tree ferns, Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus and Libocedrus declined in frequency, while the hardy podocarps, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys taxifolia and Manoao, increased. Leathwick (1995) correlates greatest abundance of these taxa with cooler/lower insolation environments. Manoao is frost-tolerant (Sakai and Wardle, 1978) and its increased abundance here suggests a cooler climate. In northern forests today it is found at frosty sites or on infertile swamp soils (Newnham, 1992). Ascarina lucida, a small understorey tree intolerant of frost and drought (McGlone and Moar, 1977), was scarce and only low percentages of Agathis are recorded. These features suggest conditions were not only cooler, but also probably much drier and windier than present with frequent fires in the catchment. Cranwell (1953) suggests that Sporadanthus may be favoured by frequent fires (see also McGlone et al., 1984b). Certainly restiads, and also Leptospermum, increase following peak charcoal concentration. Climatic conditions appear to have been coolest and driest at about 5.25 m which, interpolated from the radiocarbon chronology (Figure 7.2), correlates to ca 18 ka. Dodson et al. (1988) do not record a similarly Fuscospora-dominant 174 flora from their North Cape pollen site, and correlation with the Otakairangi pollen site (Newnham, 1992) is difficult owing to the dating problems. In present day Northland, Notho/agus forest is scarce. Small mixed podocarp-beech-hardwood stands covering only a few acres can be found in the Omahuta State Forest 30 km south of Kaitaia. Elsewhere, on mainland Northland, a few isolated trees remain in Waipoua State Forest and near Whangarei. Offshore, NothoJagus truncata occurs on Linle Barrier Island (Wardle, 1984). The end of the LGM is not readily identified in the record owing to the slow sedimentation rate from 5.49-5.00 m. However, the first Dodonaea viscosa pollen appears in the proftle at 5. 10 m, and interpolation from Figure 7.2 suggests this depth correlates to ca 14 ka. Dodonaea prefers warm sunny sites, and is confIned largely to coastal locations south of Auckland. Its presence implies a transition to more equable conditions. From ca 1 1 .3 ka this transition becomes more pronounced as Ascarina becomes more abundant. Its rise from the beginning of the Holocene has been well documented in more southern records (McGlone and Moar, 1977; McGlone and Neall, 1994; Newnham et ai., 1989). The Postglacial section of the Kaitaia Bog pollen record has many similarities to other Northland pollen records (MacDonald, 1984; Kershaw and Strickland, 1988; Elliot et ai., 1995), as well as those of the Waikato, Tongariro, and Taranaki (McGlone, 1988). All include a regional vegetation of mixed conifer-hardwood forest of which Dacrydium, Pbyllocladus and Metrosideros were the most prominent taxa. By 10 ka climate was warm and moist. Fires were still common but burning was much reduced. The fmer nature of the charcoal fragments at this time implies a more distant source. At Kaitaia, NothoJagus if. truncata declined sharply after 9.5 ka, and by ca 8 ka was only a minor component of the northern forest. From ca 9 ka Agathis pollen became more abundant whilst Dacrydium and Metrosideros sp. were the most common emergent taxa. The curve for Pbyllocladus rises progressively through the early Holocene. This successional species is commonly associated with Agathis communities (Ecroyd, 1982). Thus the general trend for the early Holocene, is one of replacement of NothoJagus-podocarp-hardwood forest by an Agathis australis-podocarp-hardwood association. This community persists as the dominant vegetation type into the late Holocene. Prumnopitys sp., Manoao and Halocarpus are less common than previously, while Libocedrus becomes more abundant. These features in the record lend further support for a moister, milder early to mid-Holocene climate. Ascarina is most abundant from ca 10.5 to 7.6 ka suggesting that this period enjoys the warmest, most equable climate over the last 25 ka. Evidence from speleothem records suggests that early Table 7.2. Vegetation and climate history of far northern New Zealand during the past 25,000 years Pollen zone Timespan Key pollen taxa Regional vegetation Climate ca 2,500 Daclydium, Agathis, Kauri-podocarp-hardwood Mild, summer Kl to Prumnopitys taxi/olia forest drought 5,000 ca 5,000 Dacrydium, Agathis, Kauri-podocarp-hardwood Warm, moist K2 to Metrosideros, Ascarina forest 10,500 ca 10,500 Ascarina, Dacrydium, Metrosideros, Podocarp-beech-hardwood Cool-mild, moist, to Prumnopitys taxi/olia, forest windy Podocarpus, _��Q� _ _ -F3�£��� _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ K3 ca 14,000 K4 to 22,500 ca 22,500 to > 25,000 Fuscospora, Daclydium, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys taxi/olia, DaClydium, Fuscospora, Podocmpus, Prumnopitys taxi/olia, P. ferruginea Beech-podocarp-hardwood forest Cold, dry, windy Podocarp -beech­ hardwood forest Cool, moist, windy 176 Holocene temperatures were 1-2 °e warmer than present (Hendy and Wilson, 1968) . Pollen and macrofossil evidence from more southern regions also indicates milder and less frost-prone climates during the early Holocene (McGlone et al., 1 993). The Postglacial expansion of Agathis is noted in other Northland records from ca 8 ka (MacDonald, 1984; Newnham, 1992) , and increased abundance of Knightia excelsa and Phyllocladus occurred during the early Postglacial from ca 7 ka at other northern North Island sites (McGlone, 1988; Newnham et al., 1 989). Agathis requires a climate which is generally warm and humid with a rainfall between 1000 and 2500 mm per annum (Ecroyd, 1 982) . The mid- t o late Holocene is characterised by significant rises in hardy podocarps, especially P. taxi/olia and Manoao. Metrosideros sp., Ascarina and Libocedrus are less abundant. This is suggestive of some cooling or drying and may well indicate a more frequent occurrence of summer drought. McGlone et al. (1993) argue that drought was more common from 6000 yr B. P., and more frequent incursion of cool polar air masses brought cooler average temperatures overall. At Lake Taumatawhana a cooler, drier climate is suggested as having occurred between 5000 and 3400 yr B. P. (E11iot et al., 1995) . The uppermost samples of both Kaitaia records are typical of pollen spectra associated with Polynesian deforestation (McGlone, 1983) . These features are commonly seen in many late Holocene profiles (e.g. McGlone, 1978; Newnham et al., 1995; Elliot et aI. , 1995). The onset of Polynesian deforestation is generally accepted as having occurred at ca 700 B. P. (McGlone et al., 1 994). However, the proximity of these samples to the surface makes their dating ambiguous, and they may represent mixing of recent pollen with bog erosion. Conclusions At Kaitaia, forest cover has probably been continuously present throughout the last 25,000 years. The inferred regional vegetation of the Last Glacial Maximum was mixed beech-conifer-hardwood forest in contrast to the Postglacial' pre-human contact Northland forests which are typically conifer-hardwood associations. The persistence of forest cover through the LGM contrasts sharply with pollen records from more southern regions where forest was very restricted in extent, and grass-shrubland communities were widespread (McGlone, 1988; McGlone et al., 1993). The Kaitaia record indicates a very diverse assemblage of conifer trees similar to that recorded by Newnham 177 (1992) from the Whangarei area. The most climate-sensitive forest taxa, though much reduced at the height of the LGM, were able to maintain a presence, presumably restricted to climatically favoured sites. Typical northern elements were always present. The major limiting factor for forest species in the north seems to have been available moisture. The similarity of forest composition (mixed podocarp-hardwood associations dominated by Dacrydium cupressinum and Nothofagus truncata), notwithstanding the presence of northern elements, to those of the present day northern South Island forests suggests that climate was probably similar to that of the Nelson Sounds area today, (i.e. annual rainfall ca 1000 mm, mean annual temperature ca 12.5°C). This contrasts sharply to the present day climate regime of about 1450 mm annual rainfall, and average annual temperature of ca 15.9°C. However, this is consistent with the reconstructions for lowered mean annual temperatures during the LGM estimated from snowlines (Soons, 1979). The sharp rise in Ascarina lucida which commenced towards the end of the Lateglacial indicates a rapid transition from cool, dry to warm, moist climate. No detection of a cooling event synchronous with the Northern Hemisphere Younger Dryas is apparent in this record. However, dating resolution of the Kaitaia Bog profiles for this period is not good enough to rule it out. McGlone (1995) assessed the New Zealand pollen records for the Lateglacial and reached a similar conclusion. By the early Holocene Nothofagus was a minor element of the northern forests. A Postglacial expansion of Agathis australis from ca 9 ka is consistent with other Northland records (Newnham, 1992), and an early Postglacial climate of warm, moist conditions is in agreement with McGlone (1988) . A mid- to late Holocene climate which became slightly drier and cooler IS consistent with interpretations advanced for other parts of New Zealand (McGlone et al. , 1993). Acknowledgements I thank Drs M. S. McGlone and V. E. Neall for their helpful advice on an earlier version of this paper. Thanks also to Messrs B. Striewski and M. Power for field assistance. The field research and seven radiocarbon dates were funded by FRST grant No. FLE102, and I thank Professor J. R. 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Paleovegetation studies of New Zealand's climate since the Last Glacial Maximum. In Wright Jr., H. E, Kutzbach, J. E., Webb rn, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott, F. A. and Bartlein, P. J. (eds.) Global Climates Since the Last Glacial Maximum. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 294-3 17. McGlone, M. S., Anderson, A. J. and Holdaway, R. N. 1994. An ecological approach to the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand. In Sutton, D. G. (ed.) The Origins 0/ the First New Zealanders. Auckland University Press, Auckland, 136-163. Matthews, S. C. and Matthews, L. J. 1940. Matthews o/Kaitaia. Reed, Wellington, 232 p. Moir, R. W., Collen, B. and Thompson, C. S. 1986. The climate and weather of Northland. New Zealand Meteorological Service Miscellaneous Publication 1 15(2), 37 p . MolIoy, B. P. J. 1995. Manoao (podocarpaceae), a new monotypic conifer genus endemic to New Zealand. New Zealand Journal 0/ Botany 33: 183-20l. Moore, P. D., Webb, J. A. and Collinson, M. E. 1991 . Pollen Analysis (2nd edition). Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 216 p. 1 80 Newnham, R. M. 1992. A 30,000 year pollen, vegetation and climatic record from Otakairangi (Hikurangi), Northland, New Zealand. Journal o/Biogeography 19: 541-554. Newnham, R. M., Lowe, D. J . and Green, J . D. 1989. Palynology, vegetation and climate of the Waikato lowlands, North Island, New Zealand, since c. 18 ,000 years ago. Journal 0/ the Royal Society o/New Zealand 19: 127-150. Newnham, R. M. , de Lange, P. J . and Lowe, D. J. 1995. Holocene vegetation, climate and history of a raised bog complex, northern New Zealand based on palynology, plant macrofossils and tephrochronology. The Holocene 5(3): 267-282. Palmer, A. S. and Vucetich, C. G. 1989. Last Glacial loess and early Last Glacial vegetation history of Wairarapa Valley, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal o/Geology and Geophysics 32: 499-5 13. Sakai, A. and Wardle, P . 1978. Freezing resistance of New Zealand trees and shrubs. New Zealand Journal 0/ Ecology 1 : 5 1-61. Soons, J. M. 1979. Late Quaternary environments in the central South Island of New Zealand. New Zealand Geographer 35: 16-23. Suggate, R. P. and Moar, N. T. 1970. Revision of the chronology of the late Otira glacial. New Zealand Journal o/Geology and Geophysics 13: 742-746. Sutherland, C. F. , Cox, J. E., Taylor, N. H. and Wright, A. C. S. 1979a. Soil map of Kaitaia-Rawene area (sheets 003/04/05), North Island, New Zealand, Scale 1: 100 000. New Zealand Soil Bureau Map 182. Sutherland, C. F., Cox, J. E., Taylor, N. H. and Wright, A. C. S. 1979b. Soil map of Ahipara-Herekino area (sheets N04/05), North Island, New Zealand, Scale 1: 100 000. New Zealand Soil Bureau Map 182. Wardle, J . A. 1984. The New Zealand Beeches: Ecology, Utilisation and Managenzent. New Zealand Forest Service, Christchurch, 447 p. Wilson, D. M. 1921 . Ancient drains Kaitaia Swamp. Journal of the Polynesian Society 30: 184-188. Wright, I. C., McGlone, M. S. , Nelson, C. S. and Pillans, B. J. 1995. An integrated latest Quaternary (Stage 3 to present) paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic record from offshore Northern New Zealand. Quaternary Research 44: 283-293. 181 C h a p t e r 8 LAKE TANGONGE AND LAKE OHIA Introduction As yet few published pollen sequences of long records exist which span the Last (Otiran) Glacial. The best records to date are the deep sea core records of Wright et ai. (1995), and Heusser and van de Geer (1994). These are integrated logs of palynology, sedimentology, CaCOJ content, and isotopic data. That of W right et ai. has a reliable chronostratigraphy provided by dated silicic tephras and in this paper they describe palaeoclimates during the past 59 ka for northern New Zealand. However, long records of late Quaternary continuous sedimentary sequences from terrestrial sources in New Zealand are scarce. The interpretation of late Quaternary climates relies mainly on the correlation of numerous records from widespread studies throughout the region with the integrated logs from marine core studies (e.g. Stewart and Neall, 1984; Fenner et ai., 1992; Nelson et al., 1994) . Land-based pollen records, together with marine core pollen and oxygen isotope analyses, indicate that terrestrial vegetation patterns in New Zealand closely match late Quaternary global climatic changes (pillans, 1994). Beginning during oxygen isotope Stage 3 (59 - 24 ka) Wright et ai. (1995) report Northland Peninsula as being fully covered by Agathis australis­ podocarp-hardwood forest. Stage 3 is subdivided into two sub-stages, a warmer period from 59 - 43 ka, and a period of cooling from 43 - 24 ka. During Stage 2, from 24 - 12 ka, glacial climates prevailed, with full glacial conditions occurring between ca 22 - 18 ka. During this time (Stage 2) a beech forest (probably dominated by Nothofogus truncata), characteristic of cooler, more stressed conditions, spread into Northland (Wright et ai., 1995; Newnharn, 1992). Elsewhere in New Zealand LGM forest cover was much reduced, so that south of Auckland grassland­ shrubland communities predominated (pillans et ai., 1993; McGlone et ai., 1984a) . In Northland the distribution of warm northern elements, such as Agathis and Ascarina lucida, was severely restricted at this time. Instead hardy podocarps, such as Prumnopitys taxi/olia and Podocarpus, became more widespread. Subsequent climate amelioration from glacial to post glacial conditions occurred rapidly as a resurgence of Dacrydium cupressinum-clominant forest, with abundant Asc21rina lucida and tree ferns, re-established throughout Northland. This change in forest cover reflects the increasingly warm and moist climates of the early Holocene (McGlone, 182 Plate 8 . 1 The Lake Tangonge site, Kaitaia Bog. 183 Plate 8 .2 The Lake Ohia site, Karikari Peninsula. 184 1988; Newnham, 1992; Newnham et ai., 1993). By the late Holocene increasing abundance of Agathis australis and Pbyllocladus, along with the decline of Ascarina and tree ferns, is correlated with slightly cooler, more variable climates. In this study two terrestrial pollen records are described which, together with previous work, establish the composition of far northern forest over the past ca 100 ka. A core from "Lake T angonge", in the Kaitaia Bog, provides a ca 68 ka record using a radiocarbon chronology and correlation with other well dated pollen records (e.g. Wright et ai., 1995; McGlone et al., 1984a; Pillans et ai., 1993). Comparisons with other Northland pollen diagrams are made (Newnham 1992; Newnham et ai., 1993; Ogden et al., 1993; Chapter 7, this study). A ca 26 ka record from Lake Ohia is also reported and correlated by palynostratigraphy to other dated proflles and the deep-sea 180 chronostratigraphy of Martinson et ai. (1987) to the period 100-74 ka. Geology "Lake Tangonge" (004/302734; 35° 08' 35" S, 173° 12' 50" E) is part of the Kaitaia Bog complex (Figure 8 . 1) described in Chapter 7. Whilst not truly a lake, "Lake Tangonge' exists as a standing body of shallow water from time to time during periods of prolonged heavy rainfall. The lake is located on the southern margins of Kaitaia Bog approximately half way between Ahipara and Kaitaia, and receives drainage from the northern flanks of the Herekino Range which comprises T angihua Volcanics of Palaeocene - Eocene age (Figure 8.2; Plate 8 . 1 ; Kear and Hay, 1961) . Lake Ohia is also, strictly speaking, not a lake, but rather consists of a shallow, wide peat deposit. However, like T angonge, surface ponding occurs during periods of prolonged heavy rainfall. Lake Ohia is situated at the southern end of Karikari Peninsula (004/4449 1 1 ; 34° 59' S, 173° 22' E; Figure 8. 1) . The site is bounded on the west, north and east by late Quaternary sand dunes. To the south lie Miocene, siliceous claystones, and carbonaceous siltstones, and Eocene calcareous mudstones and greenstones (Figure 8.3, Plate 8.2; Hay, 1975). 185 1 74° E 1 75° E LakeCiia 36° S I 36° S 3r s o 40 80 37° S km + Sanple site 1 730 E 1 74° E Figure 8.1 Location of Lake Tangonge and Lake Ohia sites in far northern New Zealand 186 38° � Swamp �BUsh Kilometres Figure 8.2 The Kaitaia Bog showing physiography and the Lake Tangonge coring site. Key Swa.mp and peat deposits D Alluviwn Moving and senu-fixed dune sand Sand of arcuate fore dunes • • • Sand of fixed parabolic dunes Deposits of terraces up to 5 In Deposits of terraces up to 60 In Carbonaceous and micaceous mudstone Siliceous clays tone and carbona.ceous silts tone • • • 187 _-\rgillaceous limestone and greens and overlain by sand­ stone and calcareous silrstone Calcareous mudslone and greens:lnd Concretionary indurated sandstone and siltstone Paikauri Volcanics Figure 8.3 Lake Ohia geological map (after Hay, 1975). Arrow marks cocingsite. 188 Methods A 4.5 metre long core from Lake Tangonge (Figure 8.2), and a 2.77 metre long core from Lake Ohia (Figure 8.3), were obtained using a d-section Russian corer (fowsey, 1966). Core sediments for pollen analysis were prepared following standard palynological techniques (Moore et ai., 1991; see Chapter 2). A sampling interval of 10 cm was used throughout, except for Lake Tangonge between 1 .0 - 1.5 m where samples were prepared at 5 cm intervals. Samples were stained and mounted in glycerine jelly for microscopic identification. Counts were made of ca 250-300 terrestrial-type pollen grains per sample. The results are presented as percentages of all woody plants and dryland herbs, but excluding wetland species and all fern spores excluding Pteridium esculentum. Fern spores are excluded because of their tendency to be over­ represented. This is particularly likely at Lake T angonge where inwash of soil spores may be a significant component of the pollen spectra. Charcoal concentration is derived after Bush et ai. (1992) and described in Chapter 2. Pollen concentration is shown as grains cm-) based on calculations using exotic Lycopodium spore markers (Stockmarr, 1971). Four samples of 4 -5 cm length from the Lake Tangonge core, and 6 from Lake Ohia, were submitted to the Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory at Lower Hutt for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating. Samples from the same levels as those used for pollen analysis from Lake Ohia were analysed for plant macrofossil remains by Dr. Mike Pole, Department of Botany, University of Queensland. RESULTS Lithostratigraphy and dating The lithostratigraphy of the T angonge core consists of a series of peats, clays, organic muds, and silty/sandy units (Figure 8.4). Numerous wood fragments occur through the core. A chronostratigraphy for the Tangonge core is established by AMS 14C dating (Table 8 . 1), and correlation with other, well dated northern sequences (see Chapter 7 and Wright et ai., 1995). An uppermost date at 0.96 - 1.0 m provided an uncorrected age of 7160 ± 100 yr B. P. (NZA- 6401), and a basal sample at 4.38 - 4.43 m gave an uncorrected age of 43,876 ± 1650 yr B. P. (NZA-3107) . The date at 2.95 - 3.00 m (NZA-6088) was derived from a piece of wood. Particular care was taken in the pre- preparation of this wood sample, and the cellulose fraction was isolated for HC measurement. I .c Q ID o u- Lake Tangonge , . , ' . ' . ' , ' ...... � ..... .L .i.. .>. � ..... . . . , . .L � .... ...... ....... ...... ... . , .... ..... ..4- .L .L ..... ...... . , ..... ... ; ...... ..... ...... .... -:--4 ... . . ...... ...... -'- ...... ..... . ..... . . . . .. . .. . .... .... .... . ...... '"' 71 60 ± 1 00 yr B, P. 2 >:-:-:� :-:- · �» -33 1 50 ± 470 yr B. P. L , _ , "/" ..L .L ...... ...... 3 4 �� � . .;. . � . � .. � .. .:. ' .L ' ':'' : ':'' ' � � .L . � .. .;,. .;.. ':" ; � ' .L � : .:. . .:. : � . .:.. :,� .� � . .:. : � ' , : -46900 ± 1 800 yr B. P. ? Sequence missing ? Lake Ohia --- -- --- -- --- ---- --- - - - - - - - -- ---,--,-.���...,....", -:-�_:_-_:_-_:_-_:_-_:_-:-�-7 Key I L � L L � ; � . � �I . . . . . . . . -:- -:- -:- � -:- : -:- ' 7 -:- Peat Organic mud 4001 0 ± 880 yr B. P. {39840 ± 870 yr B. P. 44500 ± 1 300 yr B. P. 46500 ± 1 700 yr B. P. 42600 ± 1 1 00 yr B. P. 39560 ± 91 0 yr B, P. �����r35460 ± 660 yr B. P. �����r42268 ± 1 275 yr B. P. Silt/sand Figure 8.4 Lithostratigraphy of Lake Tangonge and Lake Ohia cores. 189 190 Cellulose dates on wood samples are considered to provide more accurate measurements, less prone to contamination from young carbon (N. Beavan, pers. comm. 1996). The Ohia core consists of dark brown peat with traces of sand, increasingly so near the base (Figure 8.4). Carbon dating of wood reponed by Hicks (1975) from trees near the surface suggested that the upper sediments might be ca 31 - 38 ka. AMS dating of a basal sample at 2.60 - 2.65 m yielded an age of 42,268 ± 1275 yr. B. P. (NZA-3488). Subsequently, S further samples were also dated by AMS (Table 8.1). Table 8.1 Radiometric dating results Depth (m) NZA# Age 14C yr. BP Material dated Lake Tangonge 0.96 - 1 .00 6401 7160 ± 100 peat 1 .96 - 2.00 6403 33150 ± 470 peat 2.95 - 3.00 6088 46900 ± 1800 wood cellulose 4.38 - 4.43 3 107 43876 ± 1650 wood/peat Lake Ohia 0.25-0.30 6129 40010 ± 880 peat 0.75-0.80 6133 44500 ± 1300 peat/charcoal 0.75-0.80 6657 39840 ± 870 humic precipitate 0.75-0.80 6656 46500 ± 1700 peat 1 .25-1 .30 6130 42600 ± 1 100 peat 1 . 8 1-1 .86 6134 39560 ± 9 10 peat/seeds 2.3 1-2.36 6135 35460 ± 660 peat 2.60-2.65 3488 42268 ± 1275 tWlgS The rationale for the ages assigned to the pollen zones for Lake Ohia and the lower part of the Lake Tangonge core is discussed on pages 21 1-212. Plant Macrofossils Table 8.2 Depth (m) 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 1.05 1 .15 1.25 1.35 1.45 1.55 1.65 1.85 1.95 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.55 Palynology Piant remains unidentified wood Cyperaceae seeds, charcoal Cyperaceae seeds, charcoal roots, charcoal ? Typha, Cyperaceae seeds, charcoal roots, reeds, Cyperaceae seeds roots, ?Cyperaceae charcoal, ?bark reeds and fine roots, seeds reeds and seeds podocarp root nodules podocarp root nodules ?leaves roots, bark Agathis australis, ?bark, dicot. fragments charcoal, fusainised leaf, fruits, Cyperaceae seed reeds, charcoal and seeds podocarp root nodules podocarp root nodules and resin podocarp root nodules podocarp root nodules podocarp root nodules podocarp root nodules podocarp root nodules and resin 191 The results of pollen analyses for Lake Tangonge and Lake Ohia are presented as percentage data in Figures 8.5 and 8.6 respectively. Pollen zones are based on stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis (Grimm, 1987). Variables were standardised to a mean of zero at one standard deviation and standardised Euclidean distance. At Ohia 2 major zones are recognised, the upper zone being subdivided into two; at T angonge 4 major zones are recognised, zones 1 and 2 being subdivided into two. Lake Ohia Zone Oh 2, 2.60 - 1. 80 m, ca100- 91 ka The zone is dominated by Dacrydium cupressinum, Agathis australis, Pbyllocladus, Metrosideros and Quintinia. Agathis declines in the upper part of the zone. Ascanna lucida is present in appreciable amounts. Weinmannia and Elaeocarpus also record notable values. Significant, though low, abundances of Ixerba brexioides are recorded in the upper half of the zone and traces of Beilschmiedia are recorded. Pollen of understorey trees and shrubs is dominated by Myrsine and Neomyrtus type. Coprosma and Griselinia are also present. Tupeia antarctica is 192 common in the lower half of the zone. Tree ferns are not common generally, though significant amounts of Cyathea smithii type are present at the top of the zone. Pollen of typical bog species is not abundant, but sedges, restiads, Gleichenia, Epacridaceae, and Leptospermum are present. Charcoal concentration is low. Zone Oh Ib, 1.80 - 1.00 m, ca 91 - 80 ka At the onset of this zone a number of changes are apparent. Initially, sharp rises in Podocarpus, Prumnopitys /erruginea, and P. taxi/olia are evident. Dacrydium, Agathis and Ascanna decline at this time, and traces of Fuscospora are first recorded at the zone boundary. Gleichenia, Leptospermum, and Restionaceae frequencies, as well as charcoal concentration are elevated in the lower part of the zone. Subsequently Dacrydium rises sharply, reaching almost 80 % of the pollen sum. All other gymnosperms are significantly reduced, except for Agathis which maintains a strong, though less dominant, presence than previously. Metrosideros is greatly reduced in frequency, but the curve for Quintinia follows a similar trend to that of Dacrydium. Weinmannia and Elaeocarpus are well represented throughout the zone. Pollen of Ascanna lucida is scarce. Charcoal concentration declines from elevated values in the lower zone and bog species are all reduced in abundance. Zone Oh la, 1. 00 - 0. 00 m, ca 80 - 74 ka In this upper zone Dacrydium cupressinum declines significantly. Agathis australis is well represented throughout, and all gymnosperms are common, particularly Pbyllocladus, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/olia. Increased frequencies of Elaeocarpus are notable. Metrosideros and Nestegis are markedly more common. A slight increase in Ascanna occurs in the lower part of the zone, but then declines to become scarce, and a number of other shrubs and understorey trees become more abundant. These include Coprosma, Griselinia, Myrsine, and Neomyrtus. Liliaceae and grass pollen are more common. Bog species are much more abundant. Restiads increase throughout the zone. Charcoal concentration is greatly elevated throughout the zone. Lake Tangonge Zone LT 4, 4. 5 - 3. 7 m, ca 67. 5 - 56. 5 ka High levels of Dacrydium cupressinum (40 - 65 %) and Dacrycarpus dacrydioides defIne this zone. Significant, but low, amounts are recorded by all other gymnosperms. The most important of these are, Pbyllocladus, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys /erruginea and P. taxi/olia. Of the angiosperm trees, Knightia excelsa levels are highly significant, and Metrosideros pollen is common. Pollen of 193 Ascarina lucida is notably scarce, while that of Pseudowintera becomes increasingly common toward the middle of the zone, then declines upward. Also present are Pittosporum and Leucopogon /asciculatus. Asteliad pollen is significant, as is that of the parasitic shrub Tupeia antarctica. Ground ferns (represented by monolete fern spores) are common. Bog species are not well represented, but significant levels of Coprosma pollen suggest its widespread occurrence. Charcoal concentration is low. Zone L T 3, 3. 70 - 2.40 m, ca 56. 5 - 39 ka This zone is notable for the increased abundance of Dacrycarpus dacrydioides pollen (15 - 25 %), and the decline in importance of Dacrydium cupressinum which falls from ca 40 % down to ca 10 %. Agathis australis pollen shows a gradual increase up to about 5 %, but other gymnospenns show markedly reduced frequencies. Elaeocarpus pollen records consistent, but low, levels. Knightia excelsa is less prominent than previously. Metrosideros pollen is increasingly important, particularly in the upper part of the zone. Other angiosperm trees to record significant abundances are Nestegis, Quintinia and Syzygium maire. A greatly increased abundance of Ascarina lucida pollen is recorded from the base of the zone. Several other small angiosperm trees and shrubs register significant values through this zone. Of particular importance are Griselinia, Myrsine, Neomyrtusl Lophomyrtus, Pittosporum, and Pseudopanax. Pseudowintera frequency is much reduced. The woody liane Freycinetia baueriana is common throughout. Phormium is present in the lower part of the zone. Ground ferns, including Phymatosorus, are common throughout. Although significant amounts of bog species, such as the sedges (Cyperaceae), Gleichenia, Leptospermum and Coprosma, are present at the base of the zone, they are generally scarce thereafter. Charcoal concentration is low. Zone L T 2b, 2.4 · 1. 9 m ca 39 - 30 ka A sharp decline in Dacrycarpus dacrydioides and Ascarina lucida pollen, accompanied by significant increase in Agathis australis, defme this zone. Dacrydium cupressinum pollen is common throughout. Libocedrus and Phyllocladus increase upward to become abundant at the top of the zone. Tall podocarps, especially Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/olia, are more abundant than previously. Elaeocarpus pollen is consistently recorded, and Metrosideros is common. Nestegis and Quintinia record consistent, but low values throughout. Weinmannia is abundant but declines sharply at the top of the zone. Of the small tree and shrub elements Griselinia is notably less common, and Neomyrtus type pollen declines abruptly from initially high values. The woody liane, Freycinetia baueriana, is much less common than previously. The 194 bog flora is dominated by sedges and Leptospermum which increases upward. Charcoal concentration is low, and total pollen concentration is much reduced. Zone L T 2a, 1.90 - 1.20 m, ca 30 - 12 ka This zone is defined by the abundance of Fuscospora and tall podocarps, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/olia. Fuscospora (20-25%) and Dacrydium cupressinum (20-30%) dominate the tree pollen. Agathis australis and Phyllocladus decline at the base of the zone and. record only low values thereafter. Metrosideros is initially scarce but increases sharply toward the top. Ascanna lucida increases in abundance especially toward the top of the zone. Asteraceae pollen, which was previously scarce, is common in the upper samples. Values for most other small trees and shrubs are reduced from their former importance, but many show small increases near the top of the zone e.g. Cordyline and Neomyrtus type. Grass pollen, though not common, is increased at the top of the zone. Ground ferns are scarce. Of the bog flora, sedges and Gleichenia are widespread, and Leptospermum pollen, though variable, is common. Restiads become common toward the top of the zone. Charcoal concentration increases markedly and in the upper 3 samples of the zone attains it's greatest values. Total pollen concentration is variable but generally low throughout this zone. Zone LT Ib 1.20 - 0. 90 m, ca 12 - 7 ka This zone is notable for a rapid decline in Fuscospora. Dacrycarpus dacrydioides increases from low frequencies to become common by the top of the zone, and Ascanna lucida rises sharply to a mid-zone peak of almost 20 % of the pollen sum. Agathis shows slightly increased values towards the upper levels. Podocarpus, Prumnopitys jerruginea, and P. taxi/olia decline significantly. Metrosideros pollen increases sharply from the base of this zone and is the dominant angiosperm pollen type. Other angiosperm trees which record significant, though low values are Knightia exceisa, Laurelia novae-zelandiae, Quintinia, Rhopalostylis sapida Syzygium maire. Nestegis, and Asteraceae shrubs, become less common than formerly. Liliaceae, grasses, asteliads, and Pteridium esculentum are more common than formerly. Tree ferns are more common in the upper samples, and ground ferns increase markedly. Bog species are initially dominated by sedges, restiads, Gleichenia, and the bog-tolerant shrub, Leptospermum. However, these types decline toward the top of the zone. Charcoal concentration is reduced from the previous high values. eo ko- 91 ko- 100 ko- 1 . 2000 Groins/cc • • • • • • • • • OH 1 0 OH l b OH 2 Figure 8.Sa Percentage pollen diagram from Lake Ohia for gymnosperms, angiosperm trees, small trees and shrubs. F erns and fern allies r------- Bog species -----� 0.5 1 .5 91 ko- 2.0 2.5 100 ko- Groins/cc Total sum of squares Figure B.Sb Percentage pollen diagram from Lake Ohia for herbs, climbers, ferns, fern allies, and bog species. LT 1 0 7 1 60 . l OO· 1 .0 LT LT 20 33 1 50 . 470. 2.0 LT 2b 46900 • 1 800· 3.0 LT 3 4.0 LT 4 43876 • 1650. Groins/cc x 1 0000 Grains/cc x 1 0000 Figure 8.6a Percentage pollen diagram from Lake Tangonge for Fuscospora, gymnosperms, and angiosperm trees. � 7 160 • 1 00 · 1 .0 � : . . . . . ..... . . . . ..... ..... .... .... . ..... .... ..... ..... .... � ..... . . . . . . ... .. . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . ..... ... . .. . . � • • L • • 33150 • 470· 2.0 =-- 46900 • 1 600 · 3.0 � 4.0 43676 • 1 650. � • � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � m �h � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � LT 1 0 L T l b LT 20 LT 2b LT 3 LT 4 Figure 8.6b Percentage pollen diagram from Lake Tangonge for small angiosperm trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers. .... \0 00 -r-------- Ferns and tern al lies -------7 r-------- Wetlond species -------� 7 1 60 · 100- 1.0 33 1 50 • 470- 2.0 46900 • 1800 - 3.0 4.0 43876 • 1650- Total sum of squares Figure 8.6c Percentage pollen diagram from Lake Tangonge for ferns and fern allies, and wedand species. 200 Zone L T la, 0.90 - 0.20 m, ca 7 - 3 ka The uppermost zone is characterised by high levels of Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium and Ascanna. Fuscospora declines to become only a minor element, and Lwocedrus is less common than previously. Pbyllocladus and Agathis frequencies are consistently greater than before, though values are not high. Angiosperm tree pollen is predominantly Metrosideros, but consistent values are recorded for Elaeocarpus, Knightia, Quintinia, and Syzygium. Vitex lucens and Laurelia are also recorded in this zone. Ascanna declines toward the top of the zone. Griselinia, Pittosporum and Pseudopanax are significant understorey species. Grass pollen declines in importance, and ground fern spores become less abundant. The bog flora is dominated by high levels of Coprosma and Leptospermum. Sedges, restiads, and Gleichenia are present throughout the zone, though in reduced amounts. Charcoal concentration is low apart from the uppermost levels when it increases markedly. Correspondence analysis (CA) CA was undertaken on selected data sets from the Lake Ohia and Lake Tangonge pollen profiles. This statistical scaling technique is an analogue of principal components analysis (PCA) (Hill, 1974), but is more appropriate for count data than PCA. (Birks, 1985). CA is closely related to peA but is performed in a sub-space of the variables of interest called a simplex, where all variables are rescaled as proportions. CA aids in the interpretation of stratigraphic geologic data by the detection of stratigraphic patterns and the establishment of relationships between different stratigraphic variables in the same sequence (Birks, 1987). The TlllA software package used here carries out CA which loosely follows the DECORANA program (Grimro, 1991). Only dryland pollen types which consistently attained > 2-5% frequency were included. The components of axes which explain most variance between taxa were plotted against each other, and sample scores of these axes were plotted against each other and against depth. Taxa scores are divided into four groups, defmed by lines y = 0 and x = o. Lake Ohia Figure 8.7 plots the taxa scores for the first two axes. CAl contrasts Prumnopitys /erruginea, P. taxi/olia, Podocarpus and Manoao colensoi with Dacrydium cupressinum and Quintinia; CA2 contrasts Agathis australis, Ascanna lucida and Metrosideros with Prumnopitys /erruginea, P. taxi/olia, Podocarpus and Manoao colensoi. The scores are divided into two main groups: the +y/-x quadrat contains a close cluster of taxa which dominated Zone OH la and are generally associated with cooVdry climates; those taxa in the +y/ +x quadrat are less closely clustered and 201 tend to be most strongly associated with Zone OH 2, particularly those taxa with high CA2 values and low CAl values. These taxa are associated with warm moist climates. One taxon is recorded in each of the other quadrats, clearly well separated from all other scores. Quintinia excels in waterlogged soils, and Dacrydium cupressinum is drought intolerant (Franklin, 1968). Thus CAl separates taxa which thrive in more droughty environments from those which require wetter conditions. CA2 distinguishes those taxa which are more tolerant of cool climates from those which require milder temperatures. The close proximity of Agathis australis and Pbyllocladus scores emphasises their affinity in northern forests. Sample scores plotted on the fIrst two axes (Figure 8.7) illustrate these distinctions clearly. Clusters of the sample scores are highly consistent with the pollen zones. Only one sample score from Zone OH Ib is an exception and plots with the OH la group. The stratigraphic plot of CA2 (Figure 8.8) indicates strong positive values in Zone OH 2 followed by a negative excursion into OH lb. The following scores are generally negative or low positive. The strong environmental signal here is correlated to temperature, with mild-warm conditions in Zone OH 2 which subsequently decreased. The CAl stratigraphic plot (Figure 8 .8) is explained in terms of the moisture regime. A strong negative excursion occurs in Zone OH Ib, with strong positive excursions in Zone OH la and also at 1.75 m. It appears that CAl is strongly influenced by Dacrydium cupressinum which dominates this zone. The total amount of variance explained by these two axes is only 25%. This is very low compared with other datasets from northern New Zealand (Newnham, 1990). This probably reflects the relatively unchanging pollen percentages. Lake Tangonge Taxa scores on the fIrst and second components (Figure 8.9) separate the taxa which dominated Zone LT 2a, the Fuscospora-rich zone, from other trees. The clustering of Prumnopitys taxi/olia, Podocarpus and Manoao colensoi in the +y/ + x quadrat indicates a strong link between these taxa and glacial conditions. The -y/ + x quadrat contains a cluster of taxa which were common both prior to the LG� an�ostglacial; the -y/-x quadrat contains just two taxa, Dacrydium cupressinum an� �acrydium cupressinum is a common regional element throughout the proille, and Pbyllocladus is present in low amounts for most of the sequence except during the LGM when it is scarce. Pbyllocladus scores close to Agathis, again emphasising the relationship between these taxa in northern forests. Dacrycarpus dacrydioides is locally abundant in Zones LT 4-3 and Ib-la when Fuscospora is scarce. Thus it appears that CAl separates dry elements from wet elements, and CA2 separates LGM elements from Post glacial and early LG elements. ...... « t> ...... « t> 2.00 - - Pf + We � Pt Po + Mc Li + Me + Ha Ph + + AI . + Aa 0.00 -+--------+---"-..:..=--- Dc + - + Qu -2.00 I I I -4.00 0.00 4.00 1 .00 - + <> - <> <> OH 1a 8<>< <> � <> t:" 0.00 /\ + � DL..:> t:" t:" OH 2 t:" + + - + + OH 1 b + + -1 .00 I I I -1 .00 0.00 1 .00 CA2 202 Figure 8.7 Lake Ohia Correspondence Analysis: plots of first two principal axes; taxa scores (above) and sample scores (below). Codes: Aa = Agathis australis, Dc = Dacrydium cupressinum, Ha = Halocarpus, Li = Libocedrus, Mc = Manoao colensoi, Ph = Phyllocladus, Po = Podocarpus, pf = Prumnopitys jerruginea, Pt = P. taxi/olia, AI = Ascarina lucida, Me = Metrosideros, Qu = Quintinia, We = Weinmannia. E --- .c. -C- a> Cl E --- .c. -C- a> Cl 0.00 2.00 0.00 2.00 -1 .00 -1 .00 0.00 CA1 0.00 CA2 203 1 .00 1 .00 Figure 8.8 Lake Ohia Correspondence Analysis: stratigraphic plots of first two principal axes. ..- « u ..- « u 4.00 - - 0.00 -4.00 2.00 0.00 -2.00 -1 .00 Pf Dc + I LT 2b � o LT 4 + Fu Mc rl-Pt [f Po + rt U + + Aa +AI Ph + Me + Dd 0.00 CA2 + + + + + LT 2a + I !:::. LT 1 b �D !:::. LT a � 0 0.00 CA2 LT 3 D 204 I 4.00 1 .00 Figure 8 .9 Lake Tangonge Correspondence Analysis: plots of principal axes; axis 1 v. axis 2, taxa scores above, and sample scores below. Codes as for Figure 8.7 plus Fu = Fuscospora, Dd = Dacrycarpus dacrydioides. 0.00 E - .s::. -a. Q) Cl 4.00 0.00 E - .s::. -a. Q) Cl 4.00 -2.00 -1 .00 0.00 CA1 0.00 CA2 205 2.00 1 .00 Figure 8.10 Lake Tangonge Correspondence Analysis: stratigraphic plots for fIrst two principal axes. 206 The plots of samples scores for CA1 and CA2 (Figure 8.9) illustrate these distinctions. Clusters of samples are generally consistent with the pollen zonation defined on the basis of the CONNISS dendrogram. Samples from Zone LT 2a have high positive CAl values. They are clearly distinguished from all other samples and illustrate the dominance of Fuscospora and the hardy podocarps during the LGM. The other CA2 zones form a strong cline with areas of overlap. They reflect the comparatively homogenous suite of dryland taxa throughout most of the profile apart from the LGM. It appears that Northland forest. vegetation is relatively invariable for most of the LG and Postglacial, and only varies significantly when environmental conditions are extreme. Stratigraphic plots (Figure 8.10) for the fIrst two axes also reflect these clusters of taxa and zone comparisons. The ftrst two axes account for only 37% of total variance (Eigenvalues for CA1 and CA2 are 0.26323 and 0.10537 respectively). The third axis accounts for only a further 6% (Eigenvalue 0.05717). The comparatively low variance at L. Tangonge may be due to the long time interval of the profile and the relative persistence of most dryland taxa which vary only a little throughout the record. DISCUSSION Vegetation and climate history A diverse mixed conifer-hardwood forest was present throughout the record at the Lake Ohia site. The pollen diagram is dominated by Dacrydium cupressinum pollen, but this cannot be taken to imply that Dacrydium forest was the dominant vegetation type. D. cupressinum produces large amounts of widely dispersed pollen (Mildenhall, 1976; Macphail and McQueen, 1983). Nevertheless, where high frequencies are recorded it is likely that this is evidence of local or extra-local abundance. The abundance of podocarp root nodules is strong evidence that podocarp trees were close by to the coring site. At the beginning of Zone OH 2 the local forest was dominated largely by angiosperm vegetation. The most important elements were Beilschmiedia, Elaeocarpus, Ixerba brexioides, Metrosideros, Nestegis, and Quintinia. The presence of low frequencies of Beilschmiedia pollen in this zone is a signiftcant fInding. This pollen type is rarely observed in fossil and modem pollen studies (Macphail, 1980). The genus is an extremely low producer (-15 - 60 grains per flower, M. S. McGlone pers. comm. 1996) and is poorly recorded in the late Quaternary vegetation of the North Island. This is in spite of its widespread occurrence throughout contemporary northern forests (Wardle, 1991). Of the two species, B. tarairi is the more common in the present day lowland forests of Northland, and it s southern limit of distribution is approximately 38° S (Wardle, 1991). Ascarina lucida, which is a frost- and drought-intolerant small understorey tree (McGlone and Moar, 1977), records its highest 207 frequencies in this zone. The regional forest was dominated by anemophilous, tall conifers, chiefly Agathis australis, Dacrydium cupressinum and Pbyllocladus. Agathis requires a warm, humid climate, and a rainfall regime of 1000 - 1500 mm year·1 (Ecroyd, 1982). Dacrydium is drought intolerant (Franklin, 1968). Low charcoal concentrations imply that fires were infrequent. A mild, moist climate is proposed for this zone with relatively stress free conditions. From the latter stages of Zone OH 2 to the early part of OH 1b, warmth-loving, drought­ intolerant species are noticeably reduced. Sharp, short-term rises in Podocarpus, Prumnopitys taxi/olia, Leptospermum, Restionaceae and charcoal concentration occur at the zone boundary. These changes are interpreted as indicating a climate which became drier, and slightly more frosty. Subsequently, Dacrydium rose dramatically reaching almost 80% of the pollen sum. All other conifers were significantly reduced except for Agathis which maintained a strong, though less dominant, presence than previously. Charcoal concentration decreased, and wetland species were all but eliminated. The rise in Dacrydium is accompanied by a similar trend in the curve for Quintinia. This climate is interpreted as having been wet and cool. Invasion of Dacrydium onto the bog may have displaced most mire taxa. Quintinia was also able to exploit these conditions and became more abundant. Local forest elements, such as Elaeocarpus, Metrosideros, Nestegis and Weinmannia, diminished at this time. In the upper zone, OH la, the local dominance of Dacrydium cupressinum declined. Typical bog species flourished. However, hardy podocarp species, such as Manoao colensoi, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/olia increased. Manoao is frost-tolerant (Sakai and Wardle, 1978) and Leathwick (1995) relates increased abundance of these taxa to cooler/lower insolation environments. NothoJagus became a slightly more common element. The charcoal concentration curve indicates that frres were common. The peaks in charcoal concentration match those of bog taxa, especially Epacridaceae, Leptospermum and Restionaceae. The abundance of large charcoal fragments (> 50J.UI1) over fine charcoal in most of the samples indicates a local source and implies direct disturbance of bog vegetation due to fire. Restiad bog vegetation is highly inflammable when dry (M:cGlone et al., 1984c) . These features imply that conditions became cooler and drier. Nevertheless, warm elements were still present. The onset of cooler climate in the central North Island with periods of severe erosion following the Otamangakau interstadial is reported by McGlone and Topping (1983) and McGlone et al. (1984b). 208 The Lake T angonge profile indicates a regional forest cover comprising a diverse mixed conifer­ hardwood forest assemblage existed throughout the history of pollen deposition at this site. Traces of Casuanna pollen occur in 5 samples at this site. These grains probably originated in Australia as this genus is not extant in the modem New Zealand flora. Newnham et al. (1993) have also recorded traces of Casuanna in pollen diagrams from this region. At the beginning of zone LT 4 Dacrydium cupressinum dominated the regional forest. Typical northern gymnosperm elements were also present in this forest, but in only low abundances. Warmth­ loving species were scarce. The abundance of Dacrydium and increasing importance of Dacrycarpus dacrydioides imply a strong local presence of these tall conifers. Dacrycarpus has a preference for poorly drained, fertile alluvial soils (Wardle, 1991) where its continued presence is maintained by silt deposition. Its abundance here suggests there may have been recurrent surface flooding. High levels of Pseudowintera pollen and Knightia exceisa, described as a pioneering tree (Hinds and Reid, 1957), indicate a sera! forest in the process of transition. Pseudowintera species are slender, fast growing, and short-lived small trees (Wardle, 1991). The absence of Ascanna lucida pollen from this zone implies that temperatures were sufficiently cool to restrict this species, given that moisture was not a limiting factor. Low charcoal concentrations imply that fires were infrequent. Climate throughout this zone is interpreted as having been cooler and moister than present. The forest and climate of the central West Coast South Island offers a partial modem day analogue to this environment. Similar climates are described from the beginning of the Last Glacial at Lake George in south-eastern Australia dated to 75 - 64 ka (Singh et al., 1981). At Lynch's Crater in northern Queensland Kershaw (1976, 1978) provides evidence for similar climatic decline between 76 - 63 ka, characterised by high proportions of gymnosperm rainforest and significantly reduced rainfall (- 50% of present). The period that followed is characterised by an increased abundance of Dacrycarpus, and Metrosideros species. Dacrydium was a less common component of the regional forest, and other, hardy podocarp trees assumed only minor importance. The curve of Agathis australis shows a gradual increase, but Agathis was still only a minor element. Of more significance is the increase in angiosperm trees, particularly Quintinia and Syzygium maire. These two trees excel in water-logged soils. The pollen of these species is not widely dispersed, thus their occurrence in the pollen record implies a strong local presence as part of a swamp forest. Other broadleaf species also expanded at this time, particularly Griselinia, Pittosporum and Pseudopanax species. The high values of Ascanna recorded in most LT 3 samples imply that temperatures were much milder than previously. Charcoal concentration is low, indicating a low intensity fire regime. ---------------------------------------------- - 209 The inferred climate through pollen zone LT 3 is one of mild, wet conditions, similar to north­ west Nelson of today. Wright et al. (1995) report similar trends for Oxygen isotope Sub-stage 3b (59 - 43 ka) from deep sea core S803. For Northland they interpret this sub-stage was somewhat cooler and moister than present. Ogden et al. (1993) report on pollen and plant macrofossil evidence from Aupouri Peninsula which they believe indicates a mid-Otiran (41 - 34 ka) interstadial with cooler (2 - 3° C), cloudier and wetter conditions than present. Newnham et al. (1993) considered this period to be one of moist mild climates when a diverse mixed conifer­ hardwood forest dominated the landscape of the Far North prior to the last advances of the Otiran Glaciation. McGlone et al. (1984a) describe similar interstadial climates further south in the Bay of Plenty and Gisborne areas between ca 50 - 30 ka which are interpreted as having been 3 - 4° C cooler than present. From ca 39 ka (based on accumulation rates), the beginning of pollen zone LT 2b, expansion of Agathis australis-podocarp-hardwood forest occurred. Dacrydium cupressinum and Libocedrus were important elements of this forest. The rises in abundance of hardy podocarp trees, particularly Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/olia are significant. Dacrycarpus declined from its previous importance, and Ascarina was notably scarce. The first appearance of significant beech (Fuscospora) and microscopic charcoal fragments occur at the base of this zone. Fuscospora, which is tolerant of dry climates, has a competitive advantage over podocarps in areas where either soils or climate are less than optimal e.g. the uplands of the lower North Island axial ranges (McGlone et al., 1984a). These features suggest the onset of a more seasonal climate characterised by drier summers and cooler winters. Locally important species included Elaeocarpus and Weinmannia. From ca 30 ka the climate became progressively colder, drier and windier, as Fuscospora expanded dramatically. Continued expansion of Podocarpus, Manoao colensoi, and Prumnopitys taxi/olia, accompanied by declining abundance of Pbyllocladus and Agathis australis mark the onset of full glacial climates of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Fires became more frequent and conditions were generally harsh compared to the warm­ temperate climates which typify modem day northern New Zealand. However, sheltered locations supported significant populations of some climate-sensitive taxa including Ascarina. Restiads and sedges were common throughout the LGM. Restiads have been suggested by Cranwell (1953.) and McGlone et al. (1984c) to be favoured by a fire regime. Climatic deterioration from ca 38 - 28 ka is recorded in a number of other New Zealand pollen records (e.g. Moar and Suggate, 1979; McGlone and Topping, 1983; McGlone et al., 1984a.; Wright et ai., 1995). In the central and southern North Island the LGM was characterised by widespread erosion of regolith, aggradation of river valleys, and deposition of loess. Pollen data indicate that 210 tall forest was highly restricted (pillans et al., 1993). In the Waikato lowlands the period from 18 - 14 ka was windy, dry and cool (Newnham et al., 1989). Whilst the Waikato region was largely unforested, tall podocarps were rare but not absent, and Fuscospora and Libocedrus levels were increased. In the Lateglacial beech-conifer-angiosperm forest continued to dominate the far northern regional vegetation. The chronostratigraphic record indicates that there may be a paraconformity (sensu stricto Dunbar and Rodgers, 1957) in the sequence. This hiatus appears to be centred over the upper part of pollen zone LT 2b when climatic conditions were at their most severe. The peak in charcoal concentration at 1.2 m indicates a ftre regime which reached its maximum intensity at this time. It is possible that peat growth was suspended, or greatly limited, at this time because of lower temperatures and a reduction in available moisture. Alternatively persistent ftring of the vegetation may have removed part of the sequence. A similar observation is made for the other Kaitaia Bog proflle described in Chapter 7. If one assumes that sedimentation was not interrupted during the LGM, but merely slowed down when conditions became too unfavourable to sustain mire species, then extrapolating between radiocarbon ages NZA-6401 and NZA-6403 gives a date of ca 12 ka at the time in the pollen record when the Ascanna and Dacrycarpus curves increase sharply, and Fuscospora and charcoal concentration drop sharply. This would correlate with the end of Oxygen Isotope Stage 2, by which time reafforestation had begun in more southern regions of New Zealand (McGlone et al., 1993). In the Waikato region rapid reafforestation occurred from ca 14.5 ka (Newnham et al., 1989). These early forests were dominated by Prumnopitys taxifolia. In Taranaki, McGlone and Neall (1994) describe a rapid transition beginning ca 12.5 ka from open grasslandlshrubland to tall complex conifer-broadleaf forest of which P. taxifolia was the most abundant element. The early Postglacial record is characterised by rapidly ameliorating climates as ftrst, Ascanna increased signiftcantly, and then expansion of Agathis australis-podocarp-hardwood forest replaced the beech association. The abundance of microscopic charcoal declined, and Dacrycarpus forest reoccupied the site locality. The warm moist climates of the early Holocene are identmed by the abundance of Ascanna lucida. In T aranaki the last of the cool temperate elements was eliminated by ca 9.5 ka (McGlone and Neall, 1994). Dacrydium cupressinum replaced Prumnopitys taxifolia, and Ascanna was common. They compare this early Holocene climate with that of the present but climatic variability and extremes were much reduced. In the Far North by ca 5 ka Ascanna had declined signiftcantly. This pattern has also been identifted by McGlone and Moar (1977), and McGlone and Neall (1994). McGlone and Neall (1994) 211 consider that summer droughts and vegetation disturbance were more common in the late Holocene and this suggestion is supported by Waikato data (Newnham et al., 1989) where increased droughtiness/frostiness is indicated after ca 5.5 ka. Similar observations have been made for the records from Lake Tauanui (Chapter 5), and Wharau Road Swamp (Chapter 6). The uppermost pollen samples have elevated charcoal concentrations and reduced abundance of Agathis. This may be evidence of increased windiness and frequency of fires, and this is also suggested in the Aupouri Peninsula from ca 3.4 - 2.6 ka (Elliot et al., 1995; see Chapter 4). The climate may have been drier and/or windier in the North Cape region between ca 2.6 - 2. 1 ka (Dodson et al., 1988). Chronology and correlations The vegetation and climatic sequences derived from these profiles suggest that the Ohia peats were laid down during the closing stages of an interglacial or interstadial. The lack of control over the chronology for this site is problematical. The series of 14C dates (Table 8.1) all indicate that the site is older than the limits of radiocarbon dating. The pollen flora of Zone OH 2 is of an interglacial type, though cooler than present. Moar and Suggate (1996) report a period of mild climate from the West Coast during Substage 5c. That of subsequent zones is indicative of generally cooler, drier climate, although a period of wet, cool climate is indicated in the latter stages of Zone OH lb. A period of cool climate is recorded in South Taranaki by McGlone et al. (1984b) which they correlate with Substage 5b. The fact that Fuscospora remains only a minor element of the upper zone vegetation suggests that conditions were not greatly harsher than present if. the cold interval of the LGM at Lake T angonge and Kaitaia Bog (borehole 3, Chapter 7). Moar and Suggate (1996) have described climates of Stage 5 as fluctuating, but generally deteriorating towards the Otira Glaciation. The oldest parts of the offshore record for northern New Zealand covering oxygen isotope stages 1, 2 and 3 (Wright et al., 1995) do not match the Ohia record. It is unlikely that the sediments date to the previous glacial i.e. > 128 ka. Therefore on available evidence I conclude that this profile correlates to the Last Interglacial (Kaihinu), and possibly the early part of the Last Glacial (Otiran). Pollen zone OH 2 is here correlated with oxygen isotope sub-stage 5c commencing at ca l00ka or slightly after. The lower boundary of pollen zone OH lb marks the boundary between sub-stage 5c and stage 5b i.e. ca 91 ka. The uppermost pollen zone, OH la, is correlated with the stage Sa. Thus the boundary between OH lb and la is ca 80 ka and the top of the sequence may be ca 74 ka or later. The ages for these isotopic stages follow those of Martinson et al. (1987). If these age estimations are accepted then the palynostratigraphy of the Ohia profile is in broad agreement with those of 212 McGlone and Topping (1983), McGlone et al. (1984b) and Moar and Suggate (1996). The climatic inferences are also not dissimilar to those described for sites in eastern Australia (Singh et al., 1981). The chronology for the lower part of the Lake Tangonge sequence rests in part on extrapolation of the accumulation rate, assuming a constant rate of sedimentation from 2.0 m to the base, and accepting the two ages (NZA-6403, NZA-6088; Table 8. 1) as real dates. Quartz grains present at 4.0-4. 15 m consist of highly angular fractured fragments, some with euhedral terminations, implying they have been deposited as direct airfall material. They show no evidence of saltation and are typical of rhyoIitic sourced quartz (R. C. Wallace pers. comm. 1997). The most reasonable explanation for the source of �olcanic quartz for this period is the iv4f"", Rotoehu Ash�was distributed across Northland. The currendy accepted best age for the Rotoehu Ash is 64 ka (Wilson et al., 1992; Lowe and Hogg, 1995) thus providing some independent support for the intetpolated radiocarbon chronology. The inferred climates for pollen zones LT 3 and LT 4 are consistent with this chronology when compared with other New Zealand pollen sequences (e.g. McGlone et al., 1984a; Ogden et al., 1993; Wright et al., 1995), and those Australian records reported by Singh et al. (1981). Strength is lent to this argument by comparing the well-dated Kaitaia Bog sequence with pollen zones LT 2a and 2b. There is no suggestion of any hiatus in the lower parts of the T angonge profile which might weaken this line of argument. Conclusions Regional vegetation and climates over the past 100 ka for northern New Zealand are summarised in Table 8.3. The far north of the North Island was forested throughout the Last (Otiran) Glacial. However, the composition of this forest cover varied over time in response to changing climatic conditions related to the maximum extent of glaciation, drought, strong winds, and the incursion of cold maritime southerly air masses. The replacement of diverse kauri-podocarp-hardwood forest typical of modern day Northland with a beech-dominated podocarp-hardwood association is not, however, a new phenomenon. This trend is recorded at other times in the lower Pleistocene (Murray and Grant-Mackie, 1989), and it is likely that a cycle of beech-podocarp-hardwood forest/kauri-podocarp-hardwood forest has been part of the changing northern landscape throughout the climate changes of the Quaternary. The beech association is rare in present day northern forests, and refugial stands are only found in isolated locations such as the Omahuta-Puketi Forest stands (see Wardle, 1984). Kauri (Agathis australis) forest appears to have reached its maximum extent during oxygen isotope stages 5c and 3b indicating that the climates prevailing during these intervals were optimal for this taxon. A. 213 australis is favoured by dryish, warm summers (Ogden and Ahmed, 1989). Maximum cooling and harshest climatic conditions occurred between ca 30 - 14 ka. The peak of this cold interval, between ca 22-16 ka, may have been as much as 40 C cooler than present. This inference is consistent with the reconstructions of Soons (1979) for low mean annual temperatures during the LGM. However, it is likely that the most influential factor in the changing shape and composition of northern forests was effective precipitation. The early Postglacial is characterised by a rapid expansion of warm-temperate conifer-hardwood forest dominated by Dacrydium cupressinum and Metrosideros. Ascarina lucida was a common understorey tree in lowland forest. Fuscospora became very much restricted in its distribution, and from ca 9 ka was only a minor element of far northern forests. Alluvial flats and poorly drained areas were dominated by Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, Laurelia novae-zelandiae, Quintinia and Syzygium maire. In the mid-to-Iate Postglacial, Agathis australis became a somewhat more common element of regional forest, but did not attain the same level of abundance it had enjoyed just prior to the LGM (ca 39 - 30 ka). Declining abundances of Ascarina lucida from ca 5 ka, accompanied by minor expansion of Manoao colensoi and Prumnopitys taxi/olia, suggest slight climatic deterioration toward a more seasonal dry summer-wet, cool winter regime. This trend has been identified in other parts of the North Island {Newnham et al., 1989, 1995; McGlone et aI., 1993}. 214 Table 8.3 Vegetation and climate history of far northern New Zealand during the past ca 100,000 years. Pollen Age (yr B. P.) Key pollen taxa zone LT l 3000 7000 Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Ascarina Regional vegetation Kauri-podocarp­ hardwood forest Climate Mild, summer drought Warm, moist Dacrycarpus, Ascarina, Kauri-podocarp- Warm, wet _��� _ _ _ __ ��� ________ �arj�£�i�� _ _______________ _ LT 2a Fuscospora, Podocarpus, Beech-podocarp- Cold, dry, windy LT 2b LT 3 LT 4 22,000 Asteraceae, hardwood forest Prumnopitys taxifolia, Fuscospora, Prumnopitys Beech-podocarp- taxifolia, Podocarpus hardwood forest 39,000 Agathis, Dacrydium, Libocedrus Kauri-beech-podocarp- hardwood forest Dacrycarpus, Kauri·podocarp- 56,500 Dacrydium, Ascarina, hardwood forest Metrosideros, Agathis Dacrydium, Podocarp-hardwood Dacrycarpus, Knightia, forest Pseudowintera OH la 74,000 Agathis, Prumnopitys Kauri-podocarp- taxifolia, Dacrydium, hardwood forest Phyllocladus, Podocarpus, Manoao colensoi OH lb 80,000 Dacrydium, Agathis, Kauri-podocarp- Quintinia, hardwood forest Weinmannia 91,000 Dacrydium, Agathis, Kauri-podocarp- OH 2 Phyllocladus, Quintinia, hardwood forest 100,000 Ascarina, Metrosideros, Beilschmiedia Cooling, drying Wet, mild Cool, moist Cool, dry Drying, cool Mild, moist REFERENCES Birks, H. 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Vegetation history and environmental significance of pre-peat and surficial peat deposits at Ohinewai, lower Waikato lowland. Journal o/the Royal Society o/New Zealand 14: 233-244. McGlone, M. S., Salinger, M. J., and Moar, N. T. 1993. Paleovegetation studies of New Zealand's climate since the Last Glacial Maximum. In Wright, J. H., Kutzbach. E. E., Webb rn, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott, F. A. and P. J. Bartlein (eds.) Global Climates Since the Last Glacial Maximum. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 294-3 17. Macphail, M. K. t980. Fossil and modern Beilschmiedia (Lauraceae) pollen in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal 0/ Botany 18: 453-457. Macphail, M. K. and McQueen, D. R. 1983. The value of New Zealand pollen and spores as indicators of Cenozoic vegetation and climates. Tuatara 26: 37-59. 2 17 Martinson, D. G., Pisias, N. G., Hays, J. D., Imbrie, J., Moore, T. C. Jr. and Shackleton, N. J. 1987. Age dating and the orbital theory of the ice ages: development of a high-resolution ° to 3oo,00�year chronostratigraphy. Quaternary Research 27: 1-29. Mildenhall, D. C. 1976. Exotic pollen rain on the Chatham Islands during the late Pleistocene. New Zealand Journal o/Geology and Geopbysics 19(3): 327-333. Moar, N. T. and Suggate, R P. 1979. Contributions to the Quaternary history of the New Zealand flora 8. Interglacial and glacial vegetation in the Westport District, South Island. New Zealand Journal 0/ Botany 17: 361-387. Moar, N. T. and Suggate, R P. 1996. Vegetation history from the Kaihinu (Last) Interglacial to the present, West Coast, South Island, New Zealand. Quaternary Science Reviews 15: 521-547. Moore, P. D., Webb, J. A., and Collinson, M. E. 1991. Pollen Analysis (2nd edition). Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 216 p. Murray, D. F. and Grant-Mackie, J. A. 1989. Lower Pleistocene pollen profile, Rototuna Formation, North Kaipara Barrier, New Zealand. In Sporli, K. B. and Kear, D. (eds.) Geology of Northland - accretion, allochthons and arcs at the edge of the New Zealand micrcrcontinent. Raya! Society o/New Zealand Bulletin 26: 225-235. Nelson, C. S., Hendy, C. H. and Cuthbertson, A. M. 1994. Oxygen isotope evidence for climatic contrasts between Tasman Sea and Southwest Pacific Ocean during the late Quaternary. In van der Linden, G. J., Swanson K. M. and Muir, R J. (eds.) Evolution o/the Tasman Sea, Balkema, Rotterdam, 181-196. Newnham, R M, 1990. Late Quaternary palynological investigations into the history of vegetation and climate in northern New Zealand. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Auckland, 359 p. Newnham, R. M. 1992. A 30,000 year pollen, vegetation and climatic record from Otakairangi (Hikurangi), Northland, New Zealand. Journal 0/ Biogeograpby 19: 541-554. Newnham, R M., Lowe, D. J. and Green, J. D. 1989. Palynology, vegetation and climate of the Waikato lowlands, North Island, New Zealand, since c. 18,000 years ago. Journal o/the Royal Society o/New Zealand 19: 127-150. Newnham, R M., Ogden, J. and Mildenhall, D. 1993. A vegetation history of the far north of New Zealand during the late Otira Gast) glaciation. Quaternary Research 39: 361-372. Newnham, R. M., de Lange, P. J. and Lowe, D. J. 1995. Holocene vegetation, climate and history of a raised bog complex, northern New Zealand based on palynology, plant macrofossils and tephrochronology. The Holocene 5(3) : 267-282. Ogden, J. and Ahmed, M. 1989. Climate response function analysis of kauri (Agathis australis) tree-ring chronologies in northern New Zealand. Journal 0/ the Royal Society o/New Zealand 19: 205-221. Ogden, J., Newnham, R M., Palmer, J. G., Serra, R G. and Mitchell. N. D. 1993. Climatic implications of macro- and microfossil assemblages from Late Pleistocene deposits in Northern New Zealand. Quaternary Research 39: 107-119. 218 Pillans, B. J. 1994. New Zealand Quaternary stratigraphy: integrating marine and terrestrial records of environmental changes. Journal o/Geography 103 (7): 760.769. Pillans, B. J., McGlone, M. S., Palmer, A., Mildenhall, D., Alloway, B. and Berger, G. 1993. The Last Glacial Maximum in central and southern North Island, New Zealand: a paleoenvironmental reconstruction using the Kawakawa Tephra Formation as a chronostratigraphic marker. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 101: 283·304. Sakai, A. and Wardle, P. 1978. Freezing resistance of New Zealand trees and shrubs. New ZealandJournal o/Ecology 1: 51·61 . Singh, G., Kershaw, A. P. and Clark, R. 1981. Quaternary vegetation and fire history in Australia. In Gill, A. M., Graves, R. A. and Noble, I. R. (eds.) Fire andAustralia Biota, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, 23-54. Soons, J. M. 1979. Late Quaternary environments in the central South Island of New Zealand. New Zealand Geographer 35: 16-23. Stewart, R. B. and Neall, V. E. 1984. Chronology of palaeoclimatic change at the end of the last glaciation. Nature 311 (5981): 47-48. Stockmarr, J. 1971. Tablets with spores used in absolute pollen analysis. Pollen et Spores 13: 615-621. Wardle, J. A. 1984. The New Zealand Beeches: Ecology, Utilisation and Management. New Zealand Forest Service, Christchurch, 447 p. Wardle, P. 1991. Vegetation o/New Zealand. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 672 p. Wilson, C. J. N., Houghton, B. F., Lanphere, M. A. and Weaver, S. D. 1992. A new radiometric age estimate for the Rotoehu Ash from Mayor Island volcano, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal 0/ Geology and Geophysics 35: 371-374. Wright, I. C., McGlone, M. 5., Nelson, C. S. and Pillans, B. J. 1995. An integrated latest Quaternary (Stage 3 to present) paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic record from offshore Northern New Zealand. Quaternary Research 44: 283-293. 219 C h a p t e r 9 THE VEGETATIVE COVER OF FAR NORTHERN NEW ZEALAND AND ITS CLIMATE IN THE LATE QUATERNARY: A SUMMARY OF THE LAST CIR CA 100,000 YEARS Kaihinu Interglacial: 180 Sub-stage sa-c, 100 - 74 ka Records derived from oxygen isotope stratigraphy of deep sea cores indicate that the period of time between ca 100 - 74 ka was part of an interglacial sequence referred to as 180 Stage 5. This Last Interglacial is subdivided into sub-stages 5a-e, and the period from ca 100-74 ka comprises sub-stages Sa-c (.M'artinson et al., 1987). In the New Zealand chronostratigraphic nomenclature the Last Interglacial is known as the Kaihinu Interglacial (Suggate, 1992). Proxy temperature curves based on &180 data indicate that succeeding warm intervals (Se, Sc, Sa) became progressively cooler and were separated by the cool intervals sd and Sb (e.g. see Pillans, 1994). Sub-stage Sa was probably not as warm as the present (Aranuian) Interglacial. Pollen data (.M'cGlone and Topping, 1983; McGlone et al., 1984a) support the oxygen isotope evidence suggesting that sub-stage Sa climates in New Zealand were mild, and may have been 1 - 2°e cooler than present. Given that the age estimates are reasonable, the pollen data from Lake Ohia confirm the broader picture of New Zealand climates at this time. Regional vegetation of the Far North was dominated by kauri-podocarp-hardwood forest. The most important elements of this regional forest were Agathis australis, Dacrydium cupressinum, and Phyllocladus. The small, frost and drought-sensitive, understorey tree, Ascarina lucida was common. Coastal forests were dominated by angiosperm trees, the commonest of which were Beilschmiedia, Metrosideros, Nestegis and Elaeocarpus. Quintinia and Ixerba brexioides were common angiosperm trees of inland/upland forests, although Quintinia may also have been present on the bog at times. Last (Otiran) Glacial: 1 . 180 Stage 4, 74 - 59 ka The onset of the Otiran Glacial at ca 74,000 years ago is marked by a change from mild, warm conditions to a climate which became cooler and drier. Far northern regional vegetation was still dominated by a diverse conifer-hardwood assemblage, but warmth-loving species became 220 more restricted in their distribution, particularly Ascarina lucida. Near Lake Tangonge Agathis australis was scarce. However, to the east, A. australis remained a significant element of regional forest, though less important than previously. Dacrydium cupressinum was a common emergent tree. Climate was generally cool and moist with increased incidence of winter frost in exposed areas. Other North Island pollen records (McGlone and Topping, 1983; McGlone et al., 1984a, 1984b) indicate that the period following the end of the Kaihinu Interglacial was characterised by periods of severe erosion and cooler temperatures. Climatic decline has also been identified in eastern Australia during 180 Stage 4 at Lake George in southern New South Wales, and at Lynch's Crater, northern Queensland (Singh et al., 1981; Kershaw, 1976, 1978). 2. 180 Sub-stage 3b, 59 - 43 ka A period of relative warming and increased precipitation followed Stage 4 during what has been recognised as Sub-stage 3b (Wright et al., 1995). Species associated with wetter conditions were more abundant during this interval in the far northern region, particularly Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, Metrosideros species, Quintinia, and Syzygium maire. Increased occurrence of Ascarina lucida also suggests temperatures were milder at this time. Regional forests were primarily podocarp-hardwood assemblages. Agathis australis was present in these forests, but not dominant. Other northern records which indicate mid-Otiran warming are reported by Ogden et al. (1993), and Wright et al. (1995). Elsewhere in New Zealand interstadial climates have been recognised in the Bay of Plenty (McGlone et al., 1984b), Central North Island (McGlone and Topping, 1983), and southern Taranaki (McGlone et al., 1984a). 3. 1 80 Sub-stage 3a, 43 - 24 ka After the warming of Sub-stage 3b, the cooling trend of the Otira Glaciation continued. As conditions in the far north became cooler and drier, kauri-dominated mixed conifer-hardwood forest expanded. Significant expansion of hardy podocarps Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxi/olia occurred at this time, and Agathis australis reached its greatest abundance since the Last Interglacial. A. australis is identified as warmth-loving and requiring a humid climate with rainfall between 1000-2500 mm (Ecroyd, 1982). It seems unlikely that the climate during this period was optimal for kauri. However, the cooler/drier conditions may have allowed it a competitive advantage over more drought intolerant taxa, especially Dacrydium cupressinum. Ascarina lucida was scarce and climate was characterised by drier summers and cooler winters. As glaciation in the south of New Zealand intensified, northern climates also became progressively colder, drier and windier, particularly from ca 30 ka. Data from 8180 values in Time This study ka o Deforestation Cape Reinga • Otakairangi b Aupouri Peninsula c d Central North Island e Bay of Plenty / Gisborne f --------------- - - - -------------- - - - -- -------------------------------- - - - -- - - ---- 2 mild, moist 5 7 10 14 cool, dry, variable Warm, moist warm, wet drying moist cool, dry warm, wet warm, wet warm, moist mild, wet cool dry 20 cold, dry, cool cool, dry cold, dry cold, dry cold, dry, windy ______ ���L ______________ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______________ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________ __ _ _ _ _ _______ . 30 cooling, moist cool, dry ______ ��K _____________ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ______________ _ _ _ _______________ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ . 40 cool, moist cool, wet cold, dry 50 mild, wet cool, wet, windy 60 cool, moist mild, moist mild, moist, ____ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____________ _ _ _ _ _ _________________ ���L _ _ _____ . 70 cool, dry 80 drying, cool 100 mild, moist cool, wet Table 9. 1 Summary diagram of regional climate change in northern New Zealand from this study over the past 100 ka compared with other studies in northern New Zealand. (' Dodson et al. , 1988; b Newnham, 1992; c Newnham et al. , 1993; d Ogden et al., 1993; eMcGlone & Topping, 1983; f McGlone et al., 1984b). 221 cores between latitudes 30-45°S in the Tasman Sea indicate subtropical surface waters cooled little during the LG, probably <2°C (Nelson et al., 1993). This is in contrast to the results of CLIMAP (1981) whose maps show as much as 4°C cooling at this time. Wright et al. (1995) have identified marked cooling of surface waters off the east coast of northern New Zealand from 43 ka. Progressive cooling of surface waters, and later bottom waters, continued up to the onset of the full-glacial conditions of isotope stage 2 at 24 ka. The data of Wright et al. (1995) give cooler LG sea surface temperatures by about 2-3°C (and locally by as much as 5°C). However, Fenner et al. (1992) suggested that subtropical waters off the east of the North Island, like those of the Tasman Sea, also cooled relatively little. A possible explanation lies in prominent wind-induced upwelling of cool subsurface waters associated with stronger and persistent westerly winds during the LG (Stewart and Neall, 1984; Alloway et al., 1992; Wright et al., 1995). Increased frequencies of microscopic charcoal fragments indicate that fires were more common. The replacement of kauri-dominated conifer-hardwood forest with beech (Fuscospora) -dominated podocarp-hardwood forest followed rapidly. The deep sea core record of Wright et al. (1995) supports this vegetation reconstruction. In the Bay of Plenty McGlone et al. (1984b) argue that climate deteriorated from ca 28 ka. 4. 180 Stage 2, 24 - 14 ka By the Last Glacial Maximum, Northland forests as far north as Kaitaia were dominated by Fuscospora (Figure 9.1) . Newnham (1992) has suggested that Northland beech was probably Nothofagus truncata. North of Kaitaia, on the Aupouri Peninsula, Agathis australis remained a common element in a conifer-hardwood association (Ogden et al., 1993), and there is no evidence to suggest that beech was part of this most northern assemblage (Dodson et al., 1988; Newnham et al., 1993; Ogden et al., 1993). From Kaitaia south all typically warm northern elements were restricted in their distribution. McGlone et al. (1993) have described the LGM landscape south of Auckland (south of 37°S) as being largely devoid of forest, except in micro climatically favoured areas where pockets of forest persisted. Elsewhere grasslandlshrubland communities were common (Figure 9.2). In central and southern parts of New Zealand widespread erosion of regolith, aggradation of river valleys, and loess deposition typified the Glacial Maximum environment (pillans et al., 1993). Temperatures are postulated to have been 4 - 5°C colder than present at the height of this cold interval (ca 18 ka) (McGlone et al., 1996). In the far north temperatures were probably lowered less owing to the moderating influence of the adjacent oceans. Although offshore records for northern New Zealand suggest that sea surface temperatures may have cooled relatively little ( < 2°C) during the LG (W right et 222 ai., 1995), nearshore data indicate greater cooling (e.g. Hendy, 1995 in Wright et ai., 1995). For Northland this may have translated to a maximum temperature depression by 3 - 3.5°C. The most limiting factor was probably available moisture with annual rainfall reduced to about 2/3 it s present level. • J .owland conifer-hardwoodforest [J Lowland-montane beech-conifer-hardwood forest Figure 9.1 Northland forests at the Last Glacial Maximum 170' 35' 40' o 1 00 km o 170' 1 75' 175' i KEY � Ice D Alpine Grassland-shrubland Tall, Iowland-moDWle coniferous-broadle>f forest Present coastline 35' 40' 45' Figure 9.2 New Zealand vegetation at the Last Glacial Maximum (after McGlone et (11. 1993) 223 224 5. The Lateglacial: 14- 10 ka The Lateglacial is characterised by a transition to more equable conditions as warmth-loving species such as Ascarina lucida and Dodonaea viscosa increased in abundance. The abundance of A. lucida was more pronounced at the Lake T angonge site where it may have been one of the most ubiquitous understorey trees of the lowland forest. Further north of Kaitaia, in the dune country, A. lucida and tree ferns were much less widespread, probably because of the proneness of the sandy soils to summer drought. Other taxa also expanded in response to ameliorating conditions, including Dacrydium cupressinum and Dacrycarpus dacrydioides. Trees, such as Fuscospora, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys taxifolia, which had expanded during the harsher climates of the LGM, became more restricted in their distribution. The Lateglacial transition is well recorded in other parts of New Zealand where it is generally characterised by reafforestation, as forest spread rapidly from their refugial stands in a progressively southward trend (Newnham et al., 1989; McGlone, 1988). The Holocene: Early Postglacial, 10 - 7 ka From ca 10 ka the changes in forest composition progressed even more rapidly. Across the far northern region Fuscospora-podocarp-hardwood forest was rapidly replaced by an Agathis australis-podocarp-hardwood association. From 9 ka Agathis australis became more abundant. At ca 9.5 ka, Fuscospora declined sharply, and by ca 8 ka was very much restricted in its distribution. Dacrydium cupressinum dominated regional forests as climates became warm and moist. Manoao colensoi, Podocarpus, Prumnopitys /erruginea and P. taxifolia were less common than previously. Ascarina lucida reached it s greatest abundance between ca 10.5 - 7.6 ka suggesting that the early Postglacial enjoyed the warmest, most equable climates over the past 100 ka. Temperatures in the Kaitaia region may have been 1 - 2°C warmer than present (i.e. 17 - 18°C mean annual temperature). Proxy temperature records for the Holocene from speleothem analyses (Bendy and Wilson, 1968) support this hypothesis. McGlone et al. (1993) have also argued for mild and less frost-prone climates during the early Holocene. Mid-to-Iate Postglacial: 7 - 3 ka In the Far North Ascarina lucida declined significantly by ca 5 ka. Hardy podocarps, especially Manoao colensoi and Prumnopitys taxifolia, increased in abundance. At the same time Metrosideros sp., and Libocedrus became less common. These changes in forest composition were a consequence of climate becoming slightly cooler and drier as a more seasonal dry summer­ wet, cool winter regime became established. Declining abundance of A. lucida was a widespread 225 event in the mid-Holocene New Zealand landscape, and has been well documented (McGlone and Moar, 1977; McGlone and Neall, 1994; Newnham et al., 1989). A mid-to-Iate Postglacial increase in summer droughts, winter frosts and vegetation disturbance has been reported from the Waikato Lowlands (Newnham et al., 1989) and Taranaki (McGlone and Neall, 1994). McGlone et al., (1993) have argued that more frequent occurrence of drought and incursion of cold polar air masses was a widespread phenomenon across most of New Zealand from ca 6 ka. Increased vegetation disturbance recorded in this study, and from elsewhere in northern New Zealand, may be a consequence of an increase in cyclonic activity. The Lake Taumatawhana record provides strong evidence of cooling/drying in the period from ca 5 - 3.4 ka. The pollen profile for Agathis australis from Taumatawhana (Figure 4.3) shows a repeating pattern of local kauri (.4. australis) populations rising to a peak then crashing abruptly before recovering once more. Ecroyd (1982) has shown that kauri is prone to windthrow by hurricanes. Cyclonic storms generated to the north of New Zealand could account for the destruction of hundreds of kauri trees at a time. A period of recovery following such destruction would see mass, synchronous regeneration of A. australis leading to even-aged stands (Ecroyd, 1982; Ogden, 1985; Ogden et al., 1992). Late Holocene: 3 ka - present This period is best divided into two parts: the pre-human period through to ca 1.2 - 0.8 ka, and the human settlement period which followed. The pre-human, late Holocene from ca 3 ka continued to be marked by climatic variability. At Lake T aumatawhana Ascarina lucida became common after ca 3 ka. At Lake T auanui it was common between ca 3.4 - 1.4 ka, but at Wharau Road Swamp A. lucida had a more variable occurrence, being most common between ca 4.3 - 2.6 ka. The Lake Tauanui and Wharau Road records indicate that forest composition was seldom stable. Emergent and canopy trees fluctuated in abundance, and forest disturbance was a common event. The period between ca 3.4 - 1.8 ka has been described as one of slight climate amelioration (McGlone and Moar, 1977), but the general pattern for the late Holocene has been one of climatic variability characterised by increased seasonality (McGlone, 1988). The most significant event in the late Holocene has been that of Polynesian settlement (Molloy, 1969). Prior to the arrival of the Polynesians the New Zealand land surface was in approximately 78% forest cover (Figure 9.3). The commencement of human occupation remains ill defmed. Davidson's (1984) arguments for a 1000 year history of human settlement 226 remain the most widely accepted, but vigorous debate continues over this issue. Some authors argue for a more recent settlement (Anderson, 199 1; McFadgen et al., 1994; McGlone et al. , 1994), while others suggest an earlier date of first settlement is possible (Sutton, 1987, 1994; Flenley, 1994; Kirch and Ellison, 1994). Much of the problem in resolving this debate lies in matching environmental evidence with the archaeological record. Whilst a number of archaeological dates predate 1000 yr B. P., doubt has been cast on all those before 800 yr B. P. (Anderson and McGovem-Wilson, 1990) . Analysis of radiocarbon dates has identified a "tail" of older dates which have been considered statistical outliers (McFadgen et al., 1994) . However, if only small populations of people were present in New Zealand prior to 1000 yr B. P. then one could reasonably expect few archaeological dates associated with early occupation. Recent dating of rat bones (Rattus exulans) imply early human contact with New Zealand as much as 2000 years ago (Holdaway, 1996), though these dates have been challenged (Anderson, 1996). The palynological evidence for the timing of deforestation is not conclusive. Anderson (1995) argues that caution should be exercised in using palynology to identify human colonisation. " Except in rare cases where cultigens or weeds that required human transportation are identified, there is nothing which can be specified as definitively cultural. The argument is dependent on estimation of whether the scale of change requires postulation of human intervention" (Anderson, 1995: 12 1). Nevertheless, it is possible to identify Polynesian deforestation in New Zealand. The association of prolonged forest decline with significant increase in abundance of bracken spores and concentration of microscopic charcoal in late Holocene pollen records is unequivocally interpreted as anthopogenic modification of the landscape (McGlone, 1983, 1989). There are now many published New Zealand pollen diagrams which record such events (e.g. McGlone 1978; McGlone and Basher, 1995; McGlone et al., 1995; Bussell, 1988; Mildenhall, 1979; Elliot et al., 1995; Newnham et al., 1995a). Anderson has further argued that . . . and "The advocacy of palynologically defined cultural change does not take adequately into account the possible range and scale of natural disturbances" (Anderson, 1995: 122) . "Disturbance events of natural origin can produce a long signal in the [palynological] record, especially if a catastrophic event, such as severe hurricane damage and subsequent massive firing of flattened forest, produces a persisting, fire-prone seral community" (Anderson, 1995: 122). 35 Key • 111 � • 1;;1 D 40 45 1 70 NoIflofog.Js toteS! dominant Cl( comnon taD. IOwIand-montone podocorp- hardwood toteS! Inland podocorp-hordwOod toteS! wet upland podocorp-hardwood tCl(est-shrubIond lOwland scrub alpine 1 70 1 75 Figure 9 J The vegetative cover of New Zealand before polynesian deforestation al lOOO yr B. P. (after McGlone et al., 1993). 227 35 40 45 228 However, Wilmshurst and McGlone (1996) have shown that even such widespread deforestation as that which resulted from the massive 1850 yr B. P. Taupo eruption is followed by complete revegetation in 120-225 years, depending on local climate. There is no evidence in Northland for similar catastrophic forest destruction following major volcanic eruptions or other natural events. Even at Papamoa in the Bay of Plenty where 4 cm of Taupo Tephra was deposited only minimal forest damage is recorded (Newnham et ai., 1995b). Charcoal records of natural fires in the pollen diagrams in this study are not accompanied by coincident abundant bracken spores, or evidence of forest clearance. Those which have fire histories interpreted as anthropogenic in origin are all accompanied by prolonged deforestation and abundant bracken. It is possible to pinpoint (notwithstanding confidence limits) the timing of major Polynesian deforestation for many parts of New Zealand. Whilst the dates are not synchronous, most deforestation events south of the Auckland region occurred between 800 - 600 yr B. P. (Bussell, 1988; McGlone and Basher, 1995; McGlone and Wilson, 1996; McGlone et aI. , 1995; Mildenhall, 1979; Newnham et al. , 1989, 1995; Wilmshurst, 1995). The two lake records from this study indicate a somewhat earlier commencement of human impact than those typical, more southern dates. At Tauanui deforestation began just after 1 100 yr B. P., and probably between 1240 - 980 yr B. P. (2 0-). Deforestation at Taumatawhana commenced just after ca 900 yr B. P. (1040 - 780 yr B. P. at 2 0-). However, the Wharau Road deforestation event appears to have occurred much later, ca 600 yr B. P. Whilst the date of forest clearance at Taumatawhana overlaps those in the 800 - 600 yr B. P. range at 2 0- (standard deviation), that of the Lake Tauanui record is much earlier. The Taumatawhana and Wharau Road records for deforestation are supported by significant erosion events which are clearly the result of soil instability following clearance. By the time of European settlement commencing in the early 1800s Polynesian deforestation had removed approximately one third of New Zealand's indigenous forest cover {Kelly, 1980). In the years that followed, European settlement and clearance soon reduced what remained by a further third (Figure 9.4), and by 1976 only 23.2 % of the country's native forest cover remained {Kelly, 1980). Most of the early human settlement, both Polynesian and European, was concentrated in the northern regions. Polynesian clearance by fire is considered to have been relatively modest in Northland when compared to the widespread conflagrations in the south (Newsome, 1987). The European impact can be traced in this study by the advent of exotic taxa, particularly Cupressus, Pinus, Ulex europaeus, and Plantago lanceolata. 36" 40' 174' 1'1 I 174' 176" 176" KEY D Cleared lowlands • Nothofagus and Nothofagus-podocarp forest • Podocarp-hardwood forest � Alpine-subalpine shrubland [§J and grasslands o 100 km , 176" 176" Figure 9.4 Vegetation cover of the North Island in AD 1840 following early European clearance (after McGlone, 1988 and Masters et al., 1957). 229 36" 40' 229a How the research objectives have been met The pollen signatures of the late Holocene spectra from Lake T aumatawhana, Lake T auanui and Wharau Road Swamp clearly identify the impact of human settlement in their respective localities. Anthropogenic deforestation is defined by the abrupt decline of forest species coincident with similarly sharp rises in charcoal concentration and abundance of bracken spores (Pteridium esculentum) . These features have been identified in many other New Zealand Holocene records and are widely recognised as evidence of human impact. The evidence presented in this thesis implies that parts of Northland may have been settled and deforested earlier than other more southern areas of New Zealand. The longer records from Kaitaia Bog and Lake Ohia demonstrate that far northern New Zealand remained forested throughout the Last Glacial including the LGM when most of New Zealand south of Auckland was deforested. The evidence suggests that temperatures during the LGM may have been as much as 3.5°C lower than present. Other, smaller temperature fluctuations during the preceding stadials/interstadials and subsequently in the Holocene are implied. Although far northern New Zealand remained forested throughout the LG the pollen records indicate that significant compositional changes occurred at the major climatic boundaries. This is most clearly indicated by the change from regional podocarp-hardwood forest to beech dominated podocarp-hardwood forest during the LGM, and then back to a podocarp-hardwood association in the Postglacial. Other more subtle vegetational trends are identified which reflect changes in precipitation regimes and cyclone frequency. Plant distribution patterns during the late Quaternary and identified in this thesis show strong evidence for the influence of glacial climates on forest composition. In that respect the pollen records lend support for the glacial refuge hypothesis (Wardle, 1963, 1988). Comparison of the present-day distribution of Nothofagus truncata with Last Interglacial and LGM pollen spectra indicates that regional expansion of beech-dominated forest may have been a recurring feature of Quaternary glacial cycles. However, there is no suggestion in the pollen records presented here which shows major changes in the overall flora. None of the species present during the LG can be shown to have been eliminated from the region in the Postglacial (or vice versa) . Thus changes seen in the pollen records are dominantly changes in abundance of species. Certainly the geological stability of N orthland can be associated with its high proportion of endemism in higher plants. This would lend weight to the tectonic hypothesis (McGlone, 1985). However, 229b the evidence in support of either hypothesis (glacial or tectonic) is not unequivocal and neither hypothesis can be said to be proven. Further work The question of when and where first colonisation occurred in Northland, and indeed New Zealand, cannot be said to have been resolved on the basis of only three sites studied here. Whilst it appears that Northland may well have been settled earlier than elsewhere in New Zealand the issue is clearly worthy of further study using fine resolution techniques. The best results in this study were obtained from lake sites and there are many other similar lake sites in Northland which have yet to be explored. Most of these lakes are situated in the dune country, either on the Aupouri Peninsula, or the bars which enclose the Kaipara Harbour. Fertile soils, which might have attracted early colonists, occur in the Waima Valley and alluvial flats inland from Doubtful Bay. These areas pose problems because of the difficulty in finding polliniferous deposits, and this is a limiting factor in resolving the colonisation question. The possibility of dating actual pollen grains to provide more precise dating of anthropogenic disturbance is currently being studied, and this technique would greatly aid definition of deforestation events in a debate which remains keenly argued. The Last Interglacial and the early part of the Last Glacial palynological and palaeoclimatic records are not yet resolved for Northland, chiefly because of chronological uncertainties. Because the practical limits of 14C dating are confined to the past approximately 30-40 ka, it is necessary to find pollen-bearing sediments which contain identifiable tephras such as the Rotoehu Ash on which a more rigid chronology can be pinned. The Kaipara area of Northland, where there are numerous deep peat deposits, and where Rotoehu Ash has previously been identified, may be a fruitful area for research. The pollen signature for Agathis australis cycles in the Late Holocene, identified at Lake Taumatawhana, deserves further investigation. Cores from within the same locality which indicate similar trends would provide important information about the life cycle and ecology of one of New Zealand's largest and longest-lived trees. 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Quaternary Research 44: 283-293. 234 APPENDIX 1 Modern pollen rain counts: Site Omahuta 1 Omahuta 2 Omahuta 3 Warawara Puketi 1 Acacia 0 0 0 0 0 Agathis austraJis 125 9 1 0 3 1 0 Alectryon excelsus 0 1 0 0 1 Betula 0 0 0 0 0 Caldcluvia rosifoJia 0 1 1 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 1 0 0 0 Corynocarpus laevigatus 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 2 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 3 7 8 3 7 Dacrydium cupressinum 55 7 6 9 1 14 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 3 2 0 18 Fuscospora 8 27 819 0 0 Halocarpus 1 1 1 5 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 5 16 14 7 26 LaureJia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 7 7 3 0 0 Manoao colensoi 0 2 0 0 1 Metrosideros undiff. 10 12 31 5 35 Nestegis 1 4 1 0 1 Phyllocladus 13 16 25 1 736 99 Pinus 44 20 30 0 27 Podocarpus type 36 9 17 4 47 Prumnopitys ferruginea 15 10 12 0 20 Prumnopitys taxifolia 1 1 1 0 1 3 1 4 27 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 1 1 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 3 1 02 25 1 46 Ascarina lucida 3 0 0 0 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 1 1 0 0 1 Coprosma 9 10 12 146 23 CordyJine 0 0 0 3 4 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 1 Epacridaceae 2 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Fuschia 0 0 0 1 0 Geniostoma 2 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 9 3 5 9 Hebe 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexioides 4 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 5 1 13 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 1 0 1 Neomyrtus type 13 1 1 8 2 18 Pittosporum 1 1 2 1 3 Pseudopanax 1 3 4 8 7 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 7 4 0 0 235 Site Omahuta 1 Omahuta 2 Omahuta 3 Warawara Puketi 1 RhopalostyJis sapida 0 0 0 0 3 Schefflera digitata 2 0 0 0 2 Toronia toru 3 5 0 0 0 U/ex 0 0 0 0 0 AsteJia 2 0 0 2 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 Circium 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorjj 2 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 1 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 9 6 6 0 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 1 Liliaceae 1 0 0 0 4 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Plantago lanceolata 6 0 2 4 Poaceae 28 1 7 51 16 1 0 Pleridium esculentum 8 4 4 0 1 1 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 1 1 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 4 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 2 0 Cyathea dealbata type 32 834 121 207 244 Cyathea smithii type 1 2 5 20 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 27 5 0 3 Dicksonia squarrosa 26 1 0 1 2 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 7 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 1 0 1 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 4 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 2 3 2 0 0 Lycopodium volubi/e 0 1 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 1 Monolete fern spores 18 64 14 31 25 Paesia scaberula 0 3 5 2 4 Phylloglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 13 25 1 1 1 7 1 1 Pleris 1 0 0 0 4 Schaezia 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Gleichenia 0 0 0 0 1 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 2 0 0 2 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 2 5 10 Site Puketi 2 Waipoua Tauanui Orere Omaha Acacia 0 0 0 0 31 Agathis australis 79 126 0 1 1 Alectryon exce/sus 6 0 0 0 2 Betula 0 0 0 1 0 Caldcluvia rosifoJia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 236 Site Puketi 2 Waipoua Tauanui Orere Omaha Corynocarpus laevigatus 0 0 0 6 Cupressus 2 0 1 0 1 9 6 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 16 4 2 3 99 Dacrydium cupressinum 74 7 8 0 1 7 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 10 1 1 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 2 Halocarpus 4 1 0 3 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 1 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 24 6 16 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 7 0 4 Libocedrus 0 0 0 6 Manoao colensoi 2 2 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 43 13 5 2 9 Nestegis 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 16 2 5 0 4 Pinus 15 18 34 32 20 Podocarpus type 13 20 25 1 37 7 Prumnopitys ferruginea 8 14 10 0 1 Prumnopitys taxifolia 27 50 23 4 7 Syzygium maire 24 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 8 2 2 Weinmannia 31 8 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 19 2 0 0 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 5 2 6 12 Cordyline 0 6 6 1 8 Coriaria 7 0 1 2 21 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Fabaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 2 Geniostoma 0 0 0 1 0 Griselinia 4 4 1 0 5 Hebe 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 1 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 5 Macropiper 0 4 4 0 0 Malvaceae 1 1 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 2 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 1 2 0 4 Neomyrtus type 7 0 0 1 Pittosporum 4 1 0 3 0 Pseudopanax 3 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 3 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 2 0 0 0 0 Rhopalosty/is sapida 17 0 10 2 10 Scheff/era digitata 1 0 0 0 3 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Ulex 2 0 0 0 Astelia 5 1 1 0 1 1 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Circium 0 0 1 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 4 0 0 0 237 Site Puketi 2 Waipoua Tauanui Orere Omaha Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 1 3 17 1 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 2 0 0 0 5 Parsonsia 0 0 0 3 0 Plantago lanceolata 3 4 9 3 0 Poaceae 30 16 59 19 33 Pteridium esculentum 36 0 0 28 7 Taraxacum type 2 0 0 6 4 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 1 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 199 1 08 102 1 12 9 Cyathea smithi type 14 10 4 4 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 54 36 7 5 0 Hymenophyllum 2 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 2 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 1 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium volubife 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 39 19 48 29 28 Paesia scaberula 1 3 246 0 Phyffoglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 12 4 59 1 23 Pteris 9 0 0 0 5 Schaezia 0 0 0 0 2 Cyperaceae 0 0 0 0 4 G/eichenia 1 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 1 1 0 0 1 Myriophyffum 0 0 2 0 0 Potamogeton 0 1 0 0 12 Restionaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 13 0 2 0 3 Site Rangitoto Taumata' 1 Wharau Rd Te Kao Taumata' 2 Acacia 0 0 0 0 2 Agathis australis 1 0 0 0 Alectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 0 Betula 0 0 0 0 0 Caldcluvia rosifofia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Corynocarpus laevigatus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 3 1 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 0 0 3 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 4 1 8 62 0 Dysoxylum spectabife 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 3 0 0 0 Fuscospora 2 0 3 0 238 Site Rangitoto Taumata' 1 Wharau Rd Te Kao Taumata' 2 Halocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 2 0 Ubocedrus 0 0 0 0 0 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 214 1 8 0 0 Nestegis 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 3 3 1 1 43 0 Pinus 17 51 12 20 7 Podocarpus type 3 7 2 6 1 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 0 0 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 6 2 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 1 0 0 Ascarina lucida 2 2 4 0 Asteraceae 0 3 1 0 1 Carpodetus serratus 1 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 1 25 0 4 Cordyline 0 6 0 0 2 Coriaria 0 0 4 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 1 0 3 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 2 2 2 0 Hebe 0 0 0 0 3 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 0 1 2 3 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 14 0 1 1 0 Neomyrtus type 8 8 13 2 1 30 Pittosporum 1 0 1 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Ulex 0 15 3 0 Astelia 7 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Circium 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 1 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Plantago lanceolata 1 1 5 0 0 Poaceae 16 42 76 237 153 239 Site Rangitoto Taumata' 1 Wharau Rd Te Kao Taumata' 2 pteridium esculentum 36 2 48 23 13 Taraxacum type 4 12 4 20 24 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 2 0 1 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 5 9 30 2 0 Cyathea smithii type 2 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 1 0 0 Hymenophyllum 1 0 2 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 2 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 1 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium volubile 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 100 19 32 3 2 Paesia scaberula 0 3 4 1 Phy/loglossum drummondii 0 0 0 1 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 2 25 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 Schaezia 0 2 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 42 93 4 0 G/eichenia 0 0 21 2 0 Ha/oragis 0 0 5 0 0 Leptospermum type 0 65 133 2 1 00 Myriophyllum 0 1 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 0 6 0 0 0 Typha 0 651 77 4 0 Unknowns 0 2 0 240 APPENDIX 2 Lake T aumatawhana pollen counts: Depth (m) 0.15 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 Lycopodium spike 132 1 75 95 52 85 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 Agathis australis 1 6 2 1 Aiectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 5 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 1 Dacrydium cupressinum 13 47 31 30 18 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 4 4 7 2 6 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 1 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 1 0 Libocedrus 0 0 2 0 3 Metrosideros undiff. 3 8 6 0 3 Nestegis 0 4 1 3 3 Phy/locladus 2 7 3 8 4 Pinus 9 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 4 12 10 40 9 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 0 0 5 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 0 8 4 0 4 Syzygium maire 2 6 7 5 4 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Asteraceae 0 0 1 Ascarina lucida 3 25 1 7 6 3 Coprosma 8 6 4 6 3 Cordyline 4 1 0 2 0 Coriaria 0 2 5 3 6 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 2 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 2 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 29 29 39 55 53 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 1 Myrsine 2 1 0 0 0 Neomyrtus type 0 0 6 0 3 Pittosporum 0 0 5 2 1 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 6 2 0 0 4 Pseudopanax 0 0 3 1 Pseudowintera 0 2 0 0 0 Rubus 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 37 7 3 6 2 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 241 Depth (m) 0.15 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 Phormium 0 0 0 Plantago lanceolata 1 2 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 55 3 0 2 Cyathea dealbata type 0 0 2 4 1 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 1 0 2 0 G/eichenia 0 0 0 2 0 Histiopteris 1 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 2 0 Hypolepis distans 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 4 0 5 Monolete fern spores 3 7 14 7 15 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 3 0 pteridium esculentum 21 19 52 22 56 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 15 4 9 8 8 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Haloragis 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 1 0 1 2 3 Restionaceae 44 23 26 16 47 Typha 2 3 7 5 4 Unknowns 2 0 0 1 2 Charcoal concentration 88.5 71 .8 49.6 168.6 72.1 Depth (rn) 0.75 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1 .1 Lycopodium spike 63 68 66 86 91 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Agathis austra/is 6 5 4 22 1 2 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 1 6 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 25 28 24 51 34 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 1 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 2 6 4 2 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 1 1 1 1 Knightia excelsa 0 0 1 1 0 Ubocedrus 2 6 3 42 29 Metrosideros undiff. 0 8 6 3 6 Nestegis 6 2 7 3 Phyllocladus 1 6 1 17 1 3 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 14 10 6 22 1 0 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 0 1 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 0 0 0 14 8 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 2 0 6 1 3 Syzygium maire 8 1 1 1 1 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 14 3 15 18 10 242 Depth (m) 0.75 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1 .1 Asteraceae 2 0 0 0 2 Coprosma 2 2 2 3 5 Cordyline 6 1 7 0 0 Coriaria 0 14 5 Dodonaea viscosa 2 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 2 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 lleostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 42 28 45 38 29 Malvaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 1 0 0 2 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 2 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pomadenis 0 3 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 2 2 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 1 0 0 0 Rubus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 4 1 1 3 0 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 5 0 2 0 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 2 2 0 8 9 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 1 0 0 0 0 G/eichenia 0 1 0 1 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Hypolepis distans 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 2 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 5 1 1 7 8 17 Paesia scaberula 1 1 0 0 1 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 1 0 3 4 pteridium esculentum 56 51 81 1 8 71 pteris ' 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 9 3 1 7 1 9 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Myriophyl/um 3 0 2 Restionaceae 1 6 29 12 2 Typha 0 7 2 5 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 156.6 1 1 1 .3 1 04.5 17.5 20 243 Depth (m) 1 .15 1 .25 1 .35 1 .45 1 .55 Lycopodium spike 22 24 30 25 1 5 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 Agathis australis 1 7 1 5 14 1 1 8 Alectryon exce/sus 0 1 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 1 0 1 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 48 59 43 62 44 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 9 7 12 1 1 7 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 1 0 0 1 0 Ubocedrus 14 18 12 26 31 Metrosideros undiff. 1 7 3 13 7 Nestegis 6 6 8 1 1 4 Phyllocladus 23 6 8 7 4 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 15 23 38 14 25 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 0 Prumnopitys taxffolia 2 7 7 6 3 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 1 1 Syzygium maire 7 1 1 1 4 9 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 16 17 20 21 13 Asteraceae 0 4 0 0 Coprosma 2 5 1 1 Cordyline 1 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 1 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 58 24 40 33 47 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 5 2 2 Neomyrtus type 0 2 0 1 0 Pittosporum 0 1 3 1 1 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 2 1 0 Pseudopanax 1 1 2 0 7 Pseudowintera 1 0 0 0 0 Rubus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 1 0 0 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 1 0 0 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 1 0 0 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 0 0 244 Depth (m) 1 .15 1 .25 1.35 1 .45 1 .55 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 0 2 9 6 7 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 0 0 5 G/eichenia 0 0 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 Hypolepis distans 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 2 2 1 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 2 3 0 1 pteridium esculentum 5 0 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 3 1 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 7 4 2 4 2 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 1 0 0 Charcoal concentration 4 5.3 3.1 1 .4 3.9 Depth (m) 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 2.05 Lycopodium spike 56 27 47 23 38 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 Agathis australis 6 4 4 5 25 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 4 0 0 4 1 Dacrydium cupressinum 32 28 33 32 51 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 1 1 8 5 3 7 Hedycarya arborea 0 3 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 1 Ubocedrus 25 18 27 25 34 Metrosideros undiff. 5 3 3 1 9 Nestegis 9 5 6 4 1 1 Phy/locladus 4 9 5 6 18 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 21 38 28 27 32 Prumnopitys ferruginea 3 0 0 4 3 Prumnopitys taxifolia 5 0 4 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 2 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 1 8 0 4 4 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 1 9 8 4 9 1 7 Asteraceae 2 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 4 6 1 1 4 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 245 Depth (m) 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 2.05 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 1 Epacridaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Fabaceae 3 0 0 0 2 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 0 2 0 0 Leptospermum type 47 56 71 82 64 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 0 2 Neomyrtus type 1 0 0 1 Pittosporum 3 2 1 2 2 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 2 0 2 0 Pseudowintera 0 1 1 0 1 Rubus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Gunnera 1 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 1 0 1 0 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 1 0 0 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 1 0 3 5 2 1 0 Oennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 2 0 4 1 0 G/eichenia 0 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 Hypo/epis distans 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fem spores 8 3 4 7 1 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 3 Pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 0 3 0 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 7 6 6 8 6 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 1 .9 3.3 0.3 3.1 7.2 Depth (m) 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55 Lycopodium spike 26 30 18 43 35 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Agathis australis 17 16 15 21 1 0 246 Depth (m) . 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 2 0 5 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 50 63 44 57 66 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 2 1 Griselinia 7 8 8 7 8 Hedycarya arborea 0 1 2 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 3 Ubocedrus 25 28 22 42 20 Metrosideros undiff. 1 1 3 1 10 3 Nestegis 4 14 1 0 17 5 Phyllocladus 9 17 5 7 3 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 25 28 24 31 20 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 3 0 2 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 0 10 4 4 1 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 2 6 12 6 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 10 19 9 28 1 1 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 1 Coprosma 2 1 2 2 CorrJyline 0 0 1 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 3 Epacridaceae 0 1 1 0 Fabaceae 0 1 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 37 49 51 80 39 Malvaceae 0 1 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 2 8 0 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 1 0 Pittosporum 1 0 5 2 Plagianthus type 0 () 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 4 () 2 0 5 Pseudowintera 0 2 0 1 Rubus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 3 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 1 0 0 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 1 0 0 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 7 8 7 1 1 1 2 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 247 Depth (m) 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55 Dicksonia 0 0 0 1 Gleichenia 0 0 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Hypolepis distans 0 0 0 1 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 6 7 2 4 0 Paesia scaberula 0 1 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 2 2 3 0 Pteridium esculentum 2 0 0 0 1 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 4 0 1 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 2 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 4 3 4 5 3 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 2.5 1 .4 4.5 0.8 5 Depth (rn) 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 3.05 Lycopodium spike 34 35 49 44 58 Spike concentration 1391 1 13911 1 391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Agathis australis 1 0 12 7 1 7 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 1 0 0 7 6 Dacrydium cupressinum 35 34 48 38 34 Dysoxylum spectabiJe 0 0 1 0 0 Elaeocarpus 3 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 Griselinia 7 8 8 9 4 Hedycarya arborea 0 2 2 3 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 1 0 1 Libocedrus 53 36 51 28 28 Metrosideros undiff. 1 1 3 20 5 13 Nestegis 21 8 7 6 17 Phyllocladus 7 2 2 2 3 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 34 29 31 41 26 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 0 2 2 Prumnopitys taxifolia 8 1 6 0 1 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 2 6 0 7 Weinmannia 0 0 1 0 7 Ascarina lucida 21 5 6 1 7 21 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 4 4 4 6 Cordyline 2 0 0 0 Coriaria 1 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 1 1 0 0 1 Epacridaceae 0 0 1 0 3 248 Depth (m) 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 3.05 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 94 71 72 22 85 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 7 2 4 1 4 Neomyrtus type 5 0 2 0 2 Pittosporum 4 2 2 0 3 Plagianthus type 2 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 7 0 6 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rubus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 4 0 3 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 2 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 2 0 2 0 2 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 1 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 7 3 6 10 1 1 Oennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 1 2 0 0 1 G/eichenia 0 0 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 1 0 0 0 Hypolepis distans 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 Monolete fem spores 8 6 4 4 7 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 6 3 1 Pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 2 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 1 0 2 0 3 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 2 1 0 0 Restionaceae 7 2 8 10 7 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 1 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 0.8 2.2 1 .7 0.8 2.5 Depth (m) 3.15 3.25 3.35 3.45 3.55 Lycopodium spike 63 45 35 57 64 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Agathis austra/is 50 23 16 20 17 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 249 Depth (m) 3.15 3.25 3.35 3.45 3.55 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 1 7 3 4 Dacrydium cupressinum 73 30 47 37 37 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 2 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 8 6 6 6 14 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 1 0 1 Ubocedrus 26 53 12 43 14 Metrosideros undiff. 1 0 2 5 3 Nestegis 1 1 1 5 7 1 3 8 Phyllocladus 3 9 1 1 6 7 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 40 30 69 48 70 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 2 0 3 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 7 4 2 4 4 Rhopalostylis sapida 3 0 0 1 Syzygium maire 2 2 5 0 1 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 1 1 14 12 6 7 Asteraceae 0 0 0 2 0 Coprosma 4 0 4 5 4 Cordyline 1 0 1 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 1 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 2 1 2 1 Epacridaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 fleostylus micranthus 0 0 2 2 Leptosperrnum type 29 77 20 53 1 5 Malvaceae 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 5 1 1 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 4 4 5 6 3 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 4 0 2 0 3 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 Rubus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 2 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chencipodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 0 0 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phorrnium 0 1 0 2 2 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 1 5 6 1 7 4 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 10 0 0 250 Depth (m) 3.15 3.25 3.35 3.45 3.55 G/eichenia 0 1 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 Hypolepis distans 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 8 8 1 2 3 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 1 1 1 2 Pteridium esculentum 1 0 0 0 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 5 0 7 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 4 5 2 7 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 2 0 0 Charcoal concentration 0.7 3.6 2.2 0.8 2.2 Depth (m) 3.65 3.75 3.85 3.95 Lycopodium spike 43 49 23 52 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Agathis australis 9 16 3 3 Alectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 Oacrycarpus dacrydioides 5 5 2 4 Oacrydium cupressinum 18 36 22 28 Oysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 Grise/inia 5 7 5 7 Hedycarya arborea 0 1 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 1 Ubocedrus 22 19 28 13 Metrosideros undiff. 5 4 1 3 Nestegis 8 5 8 4 Phyllocladus 1 1 4 9 4 Pinus 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 53 65 35 79 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 6 3 10 Prumnopitys taxifolia 23 1 1 20 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 1 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 2 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 1 3 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 9 1 0 7 10 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 Oodonaea viscosa 1 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 25 1 Depth (m) 3.65 3.75 3.85 3.95 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 57 14 47 40 Malvaceae 0 0 2 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 0 3 Neomyrtus type 1 0 0 0 Pittosporum 2 1 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 0 1 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 5 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 1 Rubus 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 Gunnera 1 0 0 1 Poaceae 0 0 1 0 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 1 2 2 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 6 7 2 9 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 0 0 G/eichenia 0 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyl/um 0 0 2 Hypo/epis distans 0 0 1 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 4 3 2 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 5 0 9 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 Myriophyl/um 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 0 4 0 10 Typha 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 1 .9 5.6 7.8 0.8 252 APPENDIX 3 Lake Tauanui pollen counts: Depth Cm) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Lycopodium spike 105 19 95 27 37 Spike Concentration 1391 1 1 1300 1391 1 1 1 300 1 391 1 Agathis australis 2 1 2 2 3 Alectryon exce/sus 1 0 0 0 1 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 5 4 8 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 13 13 30 52 24 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 1 Elaeocarpus 4 0 1 3 5 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 2 2 0 2 1 Ubocedrus 0 0 0 2 10 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 3 3 8 1 1 16 Nestegis 0 0 1 4 Phyllocladus 2 2 6 6 0 Pinus 6 4 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 1 5 10 9 13 6 Prumnopitys fenvginea 3 2 0 1 Prumnopitys taxifolia 2 4 4 4 4 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 1 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 0 0 5 3 Asteraceae 6 1 4 1 2 Caldcluvia rosifolia 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 3 7 6 4 0 Cordyline 0 0 1 2 Coriaria 18 1 1 1 5 6 7 Dodonaea viscosa 3 2 1 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 1 1 0 Griselinia 7 0 2 2 4 Gunnera 0 0 1 0 0 Ixerba brexiodes 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 1 0 1 0 7 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Melicytus 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 1 1 0 0 0 Myrsine 2 0 0 0 2 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 0 2 5 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 4 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 1 1 1 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 U/ex europaeus 2 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 253 Depth (m) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Phormium 3 0 0 0 0 Plantago 3 1 0 0 0 Poaceae 39 19 8 14 6 Rumex 0 1 0 0 0 stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 6 3 3 2 4 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Asplenium 2 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 43 73 29 54 43 Dennslaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 6 4 2 0 Hymenophyllum 0 1 0 0 0 Hypolepis 0 0 0 3 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 3 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 1 0 0 Monolete fem spores 16 17 12 6 12 Paesia scaberula 18 1 1 22 15 1 1 Phymatosorus diversifolius 6 12 9 5 5 Polystichum 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 51 64 70 24 22 pteris 5 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 9 6 8 8 8 Haloragis 3 3 4 0 Myriophyllum 6 5 24 47 Restionaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Typha 4 3 2 3 0 Unknowns 3 1 0 1 0 Charcoal 242 626 437 253 60 Depth (m) 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Lycopodium spike 21 75 1 01 84 70 Spike Concentration 1 1300 13911 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 Agathis austra/is 9 5 8 8 1 0 Alectryon excelsus 1 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 4 5 2 1 Dacrydium cupressinum 54 55 65 42 45 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 2 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 2 0 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 2 3 0 0 1 Libocedrus 3 1 1 0 1 5 24 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 7 20 0 14 10 Nestegis 0 5 1 2 Phyllocladus 3 2 1 5 2 Pin us 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 7 9 14 6 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 2 3 1 0 1 Prumnopitys taxifolia 4 1 1 0 6 7 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 254 Depth (m) 0.6 0.7 - 0.8 0.9 1 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 1 4 6 6 5 Asteraceae 0 1 0 0 0 Caldcluvia rosifolia 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 0 0 2 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 1 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 1 0 0 1 0 Griselinia 1 3 4 7 7 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexiodes 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 1 5 3 2 5 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Melicytus 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 4 0 2 2 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 1 1 1 2 1 Pomadenis 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 3 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 1 2 0 4 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Vlex europaeus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 0 Plantago lanceolata 0 0 0 1 0 Poaceae 5 6 2 2 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 1 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Asplenium 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 65 40 66 71 61 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 6 2 0 3 3 Hymenophyllum 1 0 0 0 0 Hypolepis 2 3 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 1 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 1 1 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 9 1 1 1 3 7 6 Paesia scaberula 27 36 40 30 46 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 Polystichum 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 1 1 3 0 4 6 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 255 Depth (m) 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Cyperaceae 4 3 0 2 4 Haloragis 0 1 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 8 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 0 0 0 0 Typha 1 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 Charcoal 179 5 19 10 20 Depth (m) 1 .1 1 .2 1 .3 1 .4 1 .5 Lycopodium spike 82 91 1 1 8 126 90 Spike Concentration 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1300 1391 1 Agathis austra/is 8 5 1 1 1 1 12 Alectryon excelsus 1 0 0 1 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 5 0 0 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 33 43 26 59 65 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 1 0 0 Fuscospora 1 0 0 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 2 0 Libocedrus 20 0 20 0 1 1 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 21 12 10 21 5 Nestegis 2 0 1 0 0 Phyllocladus 6 6 6 2 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 9 9 10 1 8 6 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 0 5 0 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 7 0 12 0 8 Syzygium maire 0 0 1 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 5 10 3 1 1 4 Asteraceae 0 0 0 1 0 Caldcluvia rosifolia 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 7 2 2 Cordyline 1 0 2 Coriaria 3 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 1 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 7 1 6 0 2 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexiodes 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 7 7 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 1 1 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 2 Melicytus 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 0 4 0 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 1 3 3 1 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 256 Depth (m) 1 .1 1 .2 1 .3 1 .4 1 .5 Pseudopanax 0 1 1 1 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 3 2 2 2 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Ulex europaeus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 1 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Uliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phonnium 0 0 0 0 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 3 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Stellaria 0 1 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Asplenium 0 6 0 6 0 Cyathea dealbata type 56 72 76 90 82 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 1 7 1 8 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 Hypolepis 0 0 0 0 2 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium arliculatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fem spores 13 13 8 8 3 Paesia scaberula 28 13 9 1 1 1 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 2 0 1 0 3 Polystichum 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 1 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 4 6 2 17 0 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 2 1 1 0 Charcoal 2 41 3 18 18 Depth (m) 1.6 1.7 1 .8 1 .9 2 Lycopodium spike 100 67 86 94 33 Spike Concentration 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1 391 1 1 1300 Agathis australis 1 1 8 4 13 3 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 0 3 4 4 Dacrydium cupressinum 81 44 69 49 58 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 2 0 0 0 Fuscospora 1 0 1 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 7 2 0 3 2 Libocedrus 12 9 1 3 1 3 7 257 Depth (m) 1 .6 1 .7 1 .8 1 .9 2 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 26 1 20 4 1 3 Nestegis 0 2 0 0 0 Phy/locladus 4 2 7 4 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 25 2 7 6 19 Prumnopitys ferruginea 4 0 0 2 Prumnopitys taxifolia 7 13 0 1 1 2 Syzygium maire 0 0 12 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 10 4 8 2 5 Asteraceae 1 0 0 0 0 Caldcluvia rosifolia 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 3 2 2 2 4 Cordyline 2 0 0 1 1 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 1 0 0 1 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 2 0 3 0 1 Griselinia 0 2 0 3 0 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexiodes 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospennum type 16 0 17 2 6 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 1 0 0 1 5 Melicytus 0 0 0 0 1 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 0 0 2 0 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 6 0 5 2 6 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 1 1 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Ulex europaeus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 2 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phonnium 0 0 0 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 0 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Ste/laria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Asplenium 0 0 0 1 Cyathea dealbata type 72 1 1 0 40 90 55 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 2 0 2 5 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Hypolepis 5 2 0 1 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 258 Depth (m) 1 .6 1 .7 1 .8 1 .9 2 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 7 1 1 3 10 2 Paesia scaberula 13 12 4 4 4 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 2 0 3 0 Polystichum 3 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 3 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 8 2 8 2 2 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 0 0 0 0 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal 16 36 41 27 Depth (m) 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Lycopodium spike 66 46 1 1 1 85 1 1 1 Spike Concentration 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 Agathis australis 8 6 1 0 8 0 Alectryon exce/sus 1 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 2 1 0 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 38 59 50 60 57 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 2 1 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 1 0 Knightia excelsa 1 3 3 0 0 Ubocedrus 27 7 1 3 8 21 Manoao co/ensoi 1 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 34 12 7 18 13 Nestegis 3 0 3 0 3 Phyllocladus 3 8 0 5 2 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type . 17 19 7 1 5 9 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 5 0 4 1 Prumnopitys taxifolia 21 0 1 6 5 20 Syzygium maire 0 0 1 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 12 9 5 7 7 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 2 Caldcluvia rosifolia 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 2 8 0 0 1 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 1 Coriaria 0 0 1 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 1 0 0 Griselinia 1 0 1 0 3 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexiodes 0 0 0 0 0 Leptosperrnum type 12 5 4 4 3 259 Depth (m) 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 1 Melicytus 0 0 0 1 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 0 3 0 0 Neomyrtus type 2 0 0 0 1 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 1 7 2 8 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 6 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 2 0 1 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 U/ex europaeus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 1 0 3 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phonnium 0 0 0 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Asplenium 0 2 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 37 52 47 52 71 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 1 6 4 1 0 Hymenophyllum 0 2 0 0 0 Hypolepis 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 1 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 1 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 5 1 1 5 1 6 Paesia scaberula 1 1 6 2 5 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 2 0 1 Polystichum 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 2 0 2 0 2 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 4 6 0 5 3 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 Restionaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 1 2 0 0 0 Charcoal 9 27 2 18 Depth (m) 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 Lycopodium spike 1 00 59 1 16 53 44 51 Spike Concentration 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1 391 1 Agathis australis 4 5 3 10 5 5 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 260 Depth (m) 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 2 3 3 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 70 47 70 44 57 51 Dysoxy/um spectabile 0 0 0 0 1 0 E/aeocarpus 0 0 1 0 2 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 2 3 Ubocedrus 7 22 5 16 9 20 Manoao co/ensoi 0 0 0 0 0 1 Metrosideros undiff. 7 14 2 21 24 16 Nestegis 0 2 0 5 0 4 Phyllocladus 3 5 2 6 7 6 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 1 3 5 23 18 26 1 1 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 4 0 7 Prumnopitys taxifolia 4 7 5 1 1 2 7 Syzygium maire 3 0 2 1 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 2 4 3 3 3 4 Asteraceae 0 1 0 0 0 1 Ca/dc/uvia rosifolia 0 0 0 1 0 0 Coprosma 2 2 5 4 4 5 Cordyline 0 0 0 1 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 2 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 1 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 3 Griselinia 0 3 0 3 0 5 Gunnera 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexiodes 0 0 0 0 0 1 Leptospermum type 1 1 4 7 5 1 0 9 Leucopagon fascicu/atus 0 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 3 0 0 1 0 Melicytus 0 0 0 0 0 Muehlenbeckia 0 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 3 0 0 2 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 1 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 3 3 4 0 4 1 Pomaderris 0 1 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 3 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 0 1 0 1 2 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 1 U/ex europaeus 0 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 3 0 2 0 3 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 1 Phormium 1 0 2 0 1 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 0 0 1 1 Rumex 0 0 0 0 0 0 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 0 Depth (m) Adiantum type Asplenium Cyathea dealbata type Oennstaedtiaceae Dicksonia squarrosa Hymenophyllum Hypolepis Lycopodium deuterodensum Lycopodium ramulosum Lycopodium varium Lygodium ariiculatum Monolete fern spores Paesia scaberu/a Phymatosorus diversifolius Polystichum pteridium esculentum pteris Cyperaceae Haloragis Myriophyllum Restionaceae Typha Unknowns Charcoal Depth (m) Lycopodium spike Spike Concentration Agathis australis Alectryon excels us Dacrycarpus dacrydioides Dacrydium cupressinum Dysoxylum spectabi/e Elaeocarpus Fuscospora Hedycarya arborea Knightia excelsa Libocedrus Manoao colensoi Metrosideros undiff. Nestegis Phyllocladus Pinus Podocarpus type Prumnopitys ferruginea Prumnopitys taxifolia Syzygium maire Weinmannia Ascarina lucida Asteraceae Caldcluvia rosifolia Coprosma Cordyline 2.6 o 2 65 o o o o o o o 5 o o o o o 4 1 1 3 o o 1 1 3.2 108 1 1300 5 o 2 50 o o o o o o o 9 o 5 o 1 0 1 14 5 o o o o 4 o 2.7 o 66 o o o o 1 o o o 6 2 1 o o o o o 1 o o o o 3.3 67 1391 1 4 2 o 44 o 1 o 5 14 1 o o 5 o 10 o 8 4 o 4 o o 9 o 2.8 o 67 o 2 o o o o o o o 3 4 o o o 6 o o o o o 8 3.4 107 1 1300 2 o o 36 o o o o 2 o 6 o 3 o 6 3 o 6 o 5 1 o 5 2.9 o o 50 o o o o o 1 6 o 2 o o o 1 o o o o o o 3.5 52 13911 8 2 1 39 o 3 o 1 o 19 1 20 2 3 o 1 1 2 9 o 10 o o 3 o 3 o o 31 o 5 o o o o o o 4 o o o o 7 o o 3 o 3 75 3.6 90 1 1 300 1 2 44 o o o o 3 2 o 6 o 7 o 10 3 o 5 o 3 o o 4 4 3.1 o o 38 o o o 1 o o o o 5 o 1 o o 2 o o o o o o 3.8 50 1 1 300 o o o 8 o o o o 2 o o 2 o 4 o o o 6 o o o o o o 261 Depth (m) Coriaria Dodonaea viscosa Epacridaceae Fabaceae Griselinia Gunnera Ixerba brexiodes Leptospermum type Leucopogon fasciculatus Malvaceae Melicytus Muehlenbeckia Myrsine Neomyrtus type Parsonsia Pittosporum Pomaderris Pseudopanax Pseudowintera Rhopalostylis sapida Toronia toru Vlex europaeus Astelia Chenopodiaceae Liliaceae Phormium Plantago Poaceae Rumex Stellaria Taraxacum type Adiantum type Asplenium Cyathea dealbata type Dennstaedtiaceae Dicksonia squarrosa Hymenophyllum Hypolepis Lycopodium deuterodensum Lycopodium ramulosum Lycopodium varium Lygodium articulatum Monolete fern spores Paesia scaberula Phymatosorus diversifolius Polystichum Pteridium esculentum Pteris Cyperaceae Haloragis Myriophyllum Restionaceae Typha Unknowns Charcoal 3.2 o o o 1 o o o 2 o 1 o o o o o 6 o o o o o o o o o 3 o 1 o o o o 5 89 o 1 2 o o o o o 3 3 o o o 4 o o o 23 3.3 1 o 1 1 o o o 4 o o o o 6 o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 o o o o o 63 o o 2 o o o o 6 1 6 o o o o o o o 1 o 3.4 o 3 1 o o o 2 o o o o o o o 6 o o o o o o 2 o o 6 o 3 o o o o 6 92 o o o o o o 5 o o o o o 1 0 o 1 5 o o 1 1 3.5 o o o 2 5 o o 8 o 1 o o o o o 1 o o o 5 1 o o o 3 o o o o o o o 72 o o o o o o o o 6 o 6 o o 1 2 o 4 o o o o 3.6 o 2 o 3 o o o 4 o o o o o o o 4 o o o 5 o o o o 3 o 8 o o o o 1 74 o 3 2 o o o o o 1 o 2 o o o o o 2 2 o o 10 3.8 o o o 1 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 5 o o o o o 14 o o o o o o 2 243 o o o o o o o 7 o 6 o o o 5 2 o 2 o 80 262 263 APPENDIX 4 Wharau Road Swamp pollen counts: Depth (m) 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 Lycopodium spike 62 1 08 162 406 107 Spike Concentration 1 1 300 1 391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 Agathis australis 0 1 0 2 1 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 2 2 3 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 4 2 2 2 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 14 3 1 5 1 9 8 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 2 0 Fuscospora 0 2 0 0 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 2 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 0 0 0 3 0 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 0 2 0 0 1 Nestegis 0 0 0 0 0 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 0 3 2 4 3 Pinus 4 2 2 0 0 Podocarpus type 8 2 3 4 4 Prumnopitys ferruginea 5 0 2 0 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 0 7 0 8 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 0 0 1 0 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 1 0 Coprosma 1 1 2 4 Cordyline 2 0 0 Coriaria 0 6 0 2 4 Dodonaea viscosa 1 1 3 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 0 4 7 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 1 0 0 0 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 1 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 2 2 1 9 2 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 2 Epilobium 1 0 0 0 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 264 Depth (m) 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phorrnium 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 28 1 1 42 7 36 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 24 13 1 1 27 6 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 1 0 0 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 2 0 0 Dicksonia 1 2 1 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllaceae 0 4 3 0 0 Hypo/epis 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 2 0 Lygodium ariicu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Moholete fern spores 1 6 5 9 20 4 Paesia scaberu/a 0 2 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 2 0 2 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 22 54 35 80 66 Cyperaceae 3 83 7 87 124 Drosera 0 0 0 2 0 G/eichenia 52 37 1 8 1 7 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 2 8 1 0 0 Leptosperrnum type 5 84 6 2 4 Myriophyllum 5 0 0 6 Restionaceae 2 5 1 1 28 Typha 3 20 6 8 4 Unknowns 7 7 2 1 0 Charcoal 49 203 82 23 1 34 Depth (m) 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1 .15 1 .25 Lycopodium spike 202 218 132 300 154 Spike Concentration 1391 1 1 1300 1391 1 1 1300 1 391 1 Agathis australis 1 1 0 9 7 1 1 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 0 2 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 5 25 39 61 35 Dysoxy/um spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 E/aeocarpus 0 0 0 2 Fuscospora 2 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 1 0 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 Libocedrus 1 0 1 1 0 7 Manoao co/ensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 0 9 4 3 Nestegis 0 0 5 0 3 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Phylloc/adus 4 3 1 8 14 22 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 4 7 5 1 3 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 3 0 4 4 265 Depth (m) 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1 .1 5 1 .25 Prumnopitys taxifolia 5 7 0 2 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 2 0 3 2 7 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 3 1 1 9 34 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 2 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 1 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Griselinia 0 2 0 0 7 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 0 2 2 3 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 1 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 1 5 2 5 2 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 3 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 1 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 2 9 0 5 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 7 22 7 1 5 7 Cyathea smithii type 0 3 0 0 0 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 3 0 6 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hyrnenophyllaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Hypolepis 0 3 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 2 4 0 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 0 0 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 1 1 9 46 41 8 1 Cyperaceae 152 49 1 14 5 89 Drosera 2 1 Gleichenia 9 0 14 28 4 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Haloragis 2 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 21 8 35 14 52 266 Depth (m) 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1 . 15 1 .25 Myriophyllum 0 2 0 0 0 Restionaceae 21 44 23 30 42 Typha 3 3 0 0 2 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 Charcoal 226 50 94 5.4 21 Depth (m) 1 .35 1 .45 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 Lycopodium spike 1 62 77 333 85 127 Spike Concentration 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1 391 1 1 1 300 Agathis australis 10 3 5 5 8 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Oacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 0 2 1 0 Oacrydium cupressinum 47 26 55 35 46 Oysoxylum spectabile 0 0 3 0 0 E/aeocarpus 0 3 0 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 2 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 3 1 0 2 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 2 4 0 2 0 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 9 2 1 5 6 4 Nestegis 0 5 0 2 0 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 20 37 1 6 15 6 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 13 1 0 7 7 1 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 1 0 5 Prumnopitys taxifolia 4 2 3 2 0 Syzygium maire 4 1 4 1 4 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 1 3 4 9 8 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 47 18 1 9 1 0 1 1 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Oodonaea viscosa 0 0 2 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 3 0 0 0 Griselinia 12 7 8 1 6 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 1 0 3 0 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 2 1 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 2 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 1 1 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 267 Depth (m) 1 .35 1 .45 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 Aste/ia 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Hydrocoty/e novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 lIeosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 4 0 7 0 3 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 10 4 9 6 21 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 0 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Hypo/epis 0 0 0 0 1 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 2 1 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 0 0 2 0 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 0 2 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 8 58 1 1 88 37 Drosera 1 0 0 0 0 G/eichenia 0 0 0 5 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 21 76 1 3 1 36 27 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 2 Restionaceae 57 27 34 38 52 Typha 1 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 2 0 0 Charcoal 2 4 0 Depth (m) 1 .85 1 .95 2.05 2.15 2.25 Lycopodium spike 25 156 543 219 228 Spike Concentration 1391 1 1 1 300 1 391 1 1 1300 1391 1 Agathis austra/is 3 13 18 29 18 A/ectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 1 0 2 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 27 66 61 91 41 Dysoxy/um spectabi/e 0 0 0 3 0 E/aeocarpus 9 0 2 0 1 Fuscospora 0 0 0 2 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 1 0 1 0 Knightia exce/sa 1 0 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 1 5 5 3 16 Manoao co/ensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 9 17 5 2 4 268 Depth (m) 1 .85 1 .95 2.05 2.15 2.25 Nestegis 4 0 0 3 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 1 1 1 1 5 1 0 1 0 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 8 17 8 7 1 1 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 3 2 1 Prumnopitys taxifoJia 2 6 1 1 6 3 Syzygium maire 2 5 0 1 3 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 2 0 Ascarina lucida 4 2 3 1 Asteraceae 0 0 1 0 Coprosma 14 4 8 4 10 CordyJine 0 1 1 0 2 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 3 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 2 4 0 0 0 Griselinia 8 8 2 7 6 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 1 0 1 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 5 0 5 0 1 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 0 2 Pittosporum 1 0 0 0 2 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 1 0 0 0 0 ScheffJera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 2 0 0 Astelia 0 2 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Hydrocoty/e novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 lleostylus micranthus 2 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 1 0 Poaceae 0 0 1 1 1 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 16 31 12 23 14 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 0 0 2 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllaceae 0 0 0 2 0 Hypolepis 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 2 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 1 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 4 5 3 2 1 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 1 0 0 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 0 0 2 0 0 269 Depth (m) 1 .85 1 .95 2.05 2.15 2.25 Cyperaceae 0 13 131 40 214 Orosera 0 1 0 0 0 G/eichenia 8 0 2 0 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 0 2 0 0 Leptospermum type 1 1 1 22 29 4 48 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 65 78 44 58 26 Typha 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal 3 0 0 0.5 0 Depth (m) 2.35 2.45 2.55 2.65 2.75 Lycopodium spike 422 486 187 144 56 Spike Concentration 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1300 1 391 1 1 1 300 Agathis australis 15 21 8 7 5 Aiectryon excelsus 0 1 0 5 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Oacrycarpus dacrydioides 0 3 2 2 Oacrydium cupressinum 52 71 53 46 36 Oysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 Fuscospora 0 1 0 1 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 2 3 2 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 4 3 0 6 0 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 7 3 13 6 50 Nestegis 0 3 0 1 1 0 Nothofagus menziesi 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 9 9 5 7 5 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 12 2 16 3 6 Prumnopitys ferruginea 3 4 0 2 2 Prumnopitys taxifolia 2 10 0 4 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 3 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 1 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 2 2 2 7 Asteraceae 0 0 1 0 0 Coprosma 5 4 9 6 8 Cordyline 0 1 0 1 1 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 5 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 7 0 6 4 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 1 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 3 0 0 0 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 4 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 0 270 Depth (m) 2.35 2.45 2.55 2.65 2.75 Pomadenis 0 0 1 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 1 Pseudowintera 2 0 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 0 0 1 1 3 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 2 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 £pi/obium 0 0 0 0 0 Hydrocoty/e novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 I/eosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 3 0 21 1 1 1 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 8 20 4 44 15 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 0 0 2 Histiopteris 0 0 1 0 0 Hyrnenophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Hypo/epis 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 1 0 2 0 0 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 0 3 8 3 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 4 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 1 1 0 Pteridaceae 0 1 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 0 1 0 0 1 Cyperaceae 29 1 1 6 48 35 4 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 G/eichenia 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragis 0 2 0 Leptospermum type 17 39 18 37 20 Myriophyl/um 9 5 391 8 1 0 Restionaceae 14 12 14 0 0 Typha 0 1 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 Charcoal 0.5 0 0.5 0 0 Depth (m) 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.15 3.25 Lycopodium spike 91 75 57 86 20 Spike Concentration 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 Agathis australis 6 3 12 12 4 A/ectryon excelsus 0 0 1 0 4 Cupressus 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 0 1 1 Oacrydium cupressinum 59 44 65 69 38 Oysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 £/aeocarpus 0 0 2 0 Fuscospora 0 0 0 271 Depth (m) 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.15 3.25 Hedycarya arborea 0 2 0 1 0 Knightia excelsa 2 12 3 0 2 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 1 Ubocedrus 3 0 2 0 12 Manoao colensoi 1 0 0 0 1 Metrosideros undiff. 5 25 6 3 8 Nestegis 0 5 0 5 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 4 3 2 3 1 0 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 2 4 3 16 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 3 1 0 1 Prumnopitys taxifolia 5 0 3 2 5 Sytygium maire 0 0 0 6 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 4 9 1 0 5 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 23 12 1 1 1 8 9 Cordyline 0 2 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 2 0 2 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Fabaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Griselinia 0 3 4 1 1 3 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 2 0 Myrsine 0 0 2 1 7 Neomyrtus type 0 0 3 0 4 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 2 2 1 1 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 3 2 0 Schefflera digitata 1 0 0 0 1 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 1 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 3 0 0 0 5 lIeostylus micranthus 1 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 1 0 Poaceae 0 9 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 55 41 60 27 23 Cyathea smithii type 5 7 5 0 2 Oennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 2 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Hypolepis 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium 0 0 0 0 272 Depth (m) 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.1 5 3.25 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 1 0 0 Monolete fern spores 8 3 4 4 8 Paesia scaberula 3 2 0 2 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 1 0 0 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Pteridium esculentum 0 2 0 0 Cyperaceae 6 9 16 1 3 27 Orosera 0 0 0 0 0 Gleichenia 0 0 0 0 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 25 5 32 1 1 53 Myriophyllum 0 1 1 9 77 69 Restionaceae 0 0 2 14 9 Typha 0 0 2 0 2 Unknowns 0 1 0 0 0 Charcoal 0 0 0 0 Depth (m) 3.35 3.45 3.5 Lycopodium spike 56 37 51 Spike Concentration 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 Agathis australis 2 3 Alectryon excelsus 0 1 0 Cupressus 0 0 0 Oacrycarpus dacrydioides 1 2 0 Oacrydium cupressinum 71 30 78 Oysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 2 0 Fuscospora 0 0 1 Hedycarya arborea 1 0 0 Knightia excelsa 2 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 1 3 4 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 0 4 0 Nestegis 0 4 0 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 3 3 0 Pinus 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 15 6 8 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 3 1 2 Syzygium maire 4 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 1 3 6 6 Asteraceae 0 0 1 Coprosma 3 5 2 Cordyline 1 3 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 Oodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 2 273 Depth (m) 3.35 3.45 3.5 Griselinia 0 4 Leucopogon fascicu/atus 0 0 0 Malvaceae 1 0 0 Myrsine 0 2 1 Neomyrtus type 0 3 0 Pittosporum 0 1 0 Pomaderris 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 Pseudowintera 1 1 7 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 3 2 4 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 Astelia 5 0 0 Garyophyllaceae 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 Hydrocoty/e novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 I/eosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 1 0 Phonnium 4 3 Poaceae 4 0 3 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 63 35 41 Cyathea smithii type 0 3 5 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 Dicksonia 0 0 0 Histiopteris 0 0 Hyrnenophyllaceae 0 0 0 Hypo/epis 0 0 0 Lycopodium 1 0 0 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 2 2 Paesia scaberu/a 1 2 5 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 1 0 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 10 16 1 Drosera 0 0 1 G/eichenia 0 0 0 Haloragaceae 0 0 0 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 Leptospennum type 7 19 8 Myriophyllum 79 38 20 Restionaceae 17 6 7 Typha 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 Charcoal 0 0 6 274 APPENDIX 5 Kaitaia Bog borehole 3 pollen counts: Depth (m) 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 Lycopodium spike 205 417 300 316 4 17 Spike concentration 1 391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 3 1 2 1 Agathis australis 4 16 5 4 7 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 2 0 3 4 Dacrydium cupressinum 38 92 75 82 90 Halocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 1 3 0 4 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 3 7 19 30 1 8 Podocarpus type 6 1 1 9 9 1 6 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 0 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 4 25 16 20 1 9 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 1 0 1 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 0 0 6 4 Nestegis 0 0 4 3 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 1 0 1 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 0 2 2 5 3 Asteraceae 0 1 1 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 2 4 4 2 3 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 4 2 4 0 Fabaceae 0 1 1 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 1 3 0 1 1 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 0 0 Neomyrtus type 10 0 2 2 4 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia tofU 0 0 0 0 0 275 Depth (m) 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 Amaranthaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Garyophyllaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 3 0 0 0 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 19 1 1 0 0 Taraxacum type 1 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 6 4 4 5 7 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyl/um 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 1 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 1 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fem spores 1 5 3 1 4 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 1 0 2 Pleridium esculentum 55 0 0 0 0 Pleris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 38 5 4 0 6 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 6 18 24 14 12 G/eichenia 59 160 98 66 217 Haloragis 1 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 37 1 3 5 6 Myriophyl/um 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 97 1 58 122 240 73 Typha 2 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 2 1 0 1 Charcoal concentration 32 3 5 2 5 Depth (m) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Lycopodium spike 265 564 264 390 271 Spike concentration 1 391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 5 3 3 1 Agathis australis 5 12 10 13 3 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 4 3 6 4 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 1 00 84 94 77 47 Halocarpus 0 3 0 1 0 Ubocedrus 2 4 1 8 2 Manoao colensoi 0 6 0 4 0 Phyl/ocladus 1 0 19 1 5 1 5 5 276 Depth (m) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Podocarpus type 1 1 7 7 15 4 Prumnopitys ferruginea 2 7 6 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 13 8 26 1 1 1 5 Alectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 1 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 2 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 4 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros type 10 6 6 19 0 Nestegis 0 2 0 6 2 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 1 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 A/seuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 2 2 3 4 6 Asteraceae 0 0 2 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 2 4 7 0 Cordyline 1 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 2 2 2 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 0 4 2 1 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 0 1 1 Neomyrtus type 5 0 2 0 Pittosporum 1 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 1 0 0 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 0 1 0 2 0 Scheff/era digitata 0 1 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus tay/orii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 0 1 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 2 0 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 4 0 0 1 0 Taraxacum type 3 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 277 Depth (m) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Adiantum type 0 1 0 1 0 Cyathea dealbata type 3 4 9 5 4 Cyathea smithii type 0 4 0 0 0 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 2 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 1 2 4 2 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 6 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 4 1 0 3 1 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 20 16 14 18 10 Gleichenia 1 31 1 06 238 71 86 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 0 2 0 17 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 95 96 78 146 58 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 2 0 0 1 0 Charcoal concentration 9 9 0 2 5 Depth (m) 1 .05 1 .15 1 .25 1 .35 1 .45 Lycopodium spike 694 487 553 570 386 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 3 2 2 4 3 Agathis austra/is 1 1 1 6 7 1 1 6 Casuarina 0 1 0 1 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 8 4 3 4 1 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 94 76 62 77 86 Halocarpus 2 6 7 3 3 Ubocedrus 6 6 9 8 1 0 Manoao colensoi 3 8 3 5 2 Phyllocladus 34 32 1 5 24 25 Podocarpus type 8 13 5 9 1 3 Prumnopitys ferruginea 7 4 3 6 4 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 1 5 19 12 13 12 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 1 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 1 Elaeocarpus 1 0 1 1 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros type 8 5 4 10 4 Nestegis 1 3 5 4 2 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 278 Depth (m) 1 .05 1 .1 5 1 .25 1 .35 1 .45 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 1 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 5 2 4 3 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 3 4 3 12 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 1 2 0 2 3 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 4 4 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 0 1 Neomyrtus type 1 2 1 6 0 Pittosporom 0 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 1 2 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 1 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toro 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 3 1 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 0 0 0 1 1 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 1 0 0 1 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 0 0 1 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 9 6 9 3 7 Cyathea smithii type 3 3 1 3 0 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 2 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 1 2 4 0 3 Paesia scaberola 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosoros diversifolius 0 2 3 279 Depth (m) 1 .05 1 .1 5 1 .25 1 .35 1 .45 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 2 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 0 3 7 2 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 38 20 17 10 1 5 G/eichenia 205 250 1 14 172 263 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospennum type 7 5 21 8 1 9 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 190 178 1 68 182 238 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 9 2 6 10 10 Depth (m) 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 Lycopodium spike 473 1 1 0 142 145 250 Spike concentration 1 391 1 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 391 1 1391 1 Fuscospora 2 3 2 4 Agathis australis 7 5 9 5 1 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 6 7 4 1 0 1 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 87 72 63 80 59 Halocarpus 3 4 1 6 1 Ubocedrus 7 5 4 6 8 Manoao colensoi 6 3 3 6 4 Phyllocladus 20 36 37 28 18 Podocarpus type 8 1 5 7 5 14 Prumnopitys ferruginea 7 3 3 3 2 Prumnopitys taxifolia 13 14 9 8 4 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 2 2 0 3 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 1 Knightia excelsa . 0 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 3 8 1 8 7 1 5 Nestegis 4 5 2 1 5 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 1 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 6 4 5 6 3 Asteraceae 0 0 1 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 0 5 5 1 4 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 2 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 3 3 280 Depth (m) 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 GriseJinia 2 3 3 4 6 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 0 0 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 0 Neomyrtus type 2 5 18 3 7 Pittosporum 0 1 1 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 1 1 0 0 2 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopa/ostyJis sapida 0 1 0 0 1 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Arnaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 3 2 3 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Dacty/anthus tay/orii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 1 1 0 0 lIeosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 1 1 2 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 2 2 2 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 6 0 2 1 Cyathea dea/bata type 1 3 1 0 8 1 2 3 Cyathea smithii type 3 2 2 0 1 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 1 1 Hymenophyllum 0 1 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium latera/e 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 2 4 1 4 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifoJius 1 1 0 1 1 Pteridium escu/entum 0 0 0 0 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 2 8 3 1 0 20 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 18 36 50 27 22 G/eichenia 269 350 237 355 174 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospennum type 10 9 42 14 38 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 2 0 0 0 Restionaceae 215 209 222 279 221 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 1 0 0 0 3 Charcoal concentration 1 0 40 30 16 20 281 Depth (m) 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 Lycopodium spike 235 342 205 412 256 Spike concentration 13911 1 391 1 13911 1 391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 2 4 2 1 4 Agathis australis 14 4 9 1 5 16 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 6 7 4 3 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 62 71 82 75 68 Halocarpus 4 4 3 2 Ubocedrus 8 5 1 1 3 7 Manoao colensoi 1 1 2 2 1 Phyllocladus 28 29 23 1 0 23 Podocarpus type 1 3 26 19 14 18 Prumnopitys ferruginea 4 2 7 2 Prumnopitys taxifolia 6 5 12 12 8 Alectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 1 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 3 0 1 0 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 1 0 3 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 1 3 14 18 19 23 Nestegis 8. 1 1 5 4 7 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 A/seuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 6 5 5 1 0 7 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 2 2 1 6 4 Cordyline 2 2 1 1 1 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 4 1 2 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 4 5 4 2 6 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 1 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 0 3 1 Neomyrtus type 4 3 4 2 5 Pittosporom 0 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 2 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 1 1 0 1 Scheff/era digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toro 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 3 0 3 282 Depth (m) 2.05 2.1 5 2.25 2.35 2.45 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 1 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 5 3 0 2 2 lleostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 5 3 0 4 2 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 2 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 1 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 (j 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 13 9 14 5 1 1 Cyathea smithii type 1 3 0 5 0 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 2 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 1 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 1 7 2 2 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 2 1 0 0 0 Pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 1 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 5 2 3 7 1 1 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 18 16 9 18 14 G/eichenia 214 301 202 127 61 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 34 29 26 33 52 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 0 2 0 Restionaceae 263 482 405 371 341 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 17 5 93 1 1 1 3 Depth (m) 2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 Lycopodium spike 222 171 207 1 1 7 1 1 5 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1 1300 1 1 300 Fuscospora 6 1 2 5 4 Agathis austra/is 7 6 7 7 3 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 2 2 0 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 75 87 79 77 69 Halocarpus 1 2 3 3 0 Libocedrus 5 7 4 6 3 Manoao colensoi 1 4 2 2 3 Phyllocladus 20 1 7 20 15 19 Podocarpus type 26 17 16 12 12 Prumnopitys ferruginea 5 2 0 3 3 283 Depth (m) 2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 Prumnopitys taxifoJia 7 9 9 1 1 4 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 1 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 2 2 3 0 Hedycarya artJorea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 1 4 1 LaureJia novae-zelandiae 0 0 3 2 Metrosideros undiff. 15 22 1 5 22 21 Nestegis 7 7 3 1 0 4 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 1 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 1 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 2 1 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 AristoteJia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 5 2 5 6 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 3 3 2 4 2 CordyJine 1 0 0 1 Coriaria 0 0 0 1 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 3 2 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 1 Griselinia 4 5 3 2 3 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 1 2 1 1 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 1 6 5 2 3 Neomyrtus type 3 5 2 9 9 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 1 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 1 Rhopalostylis sapida 1 0 0 0 2 Scheff/era digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 2 2 2 1 5 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 2 3 3 2 0 Ifeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 2 2 4 Plantago 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 2 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 2 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 13 16 8 5 14 284 Depth (m) 2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 Cyathea smithii type 3 2 2 1 0 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 1 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 3 1 0 0 Lycopodium ramu/osum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 7 3 4 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 1 1 0 3 pteridium escu/entum 0 1 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 1 8 7 1 1 22 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 6 7 10 16 1 3 G/eichenia 137 36 57 29 63 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 10 60 25 14 28 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 2 0 0 2 3 Restionaceae 407 263 316 244 395 Typha 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 1 0 43 24 18 70 Depth (m) 3.05 3.15 ' 3.25 3.35 3.45 Lycopodium spike 108 169 164 163 202 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 13911 1 391 1 1 1 300 Fuscospora 3 12 9 19 17 Agathis australis 7 7 7 8 4 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 5 7 2 1 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 50 93 63 68 65 Ha/ocarpus 0 2 4 0 1 Ubocedrus 12 5 5 4 6 Manoao eo/ensoi 2 3 2 0 4 Phylloc/adus 10 11 12 17 9 Podoearpus type 13 12 8 19 1 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 3 2 2 2 Prumnopitys taxifolia 2 4 5 4 7 A/eetryon exee/sus 0 0 0 0 1 8ei/sehmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxy/um spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 E/aeocarpus 1 0 2 0 0 Hedyearya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff, 23 24 20 24 1 8 Nestegis 5 7 9 2 1 0 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 2 0 285 Depth (m) 3.05 3.15 3.25 3.35 3.45 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 1 0 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 1 1 1 5 1 2 1 6 Asteraceae 2 0 2 2 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 2 2 1 0 6 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 5 1 3 2 0 Fabaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 0 2 5 0 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 1 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 1 0 Myrsine 4 4 5 7 8 Neomyrtus type 5 9 2 1 1 7 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 1 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 1 1 2 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 2 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 1 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 4 0 2 4 1 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 1 0 1 1 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 0 4 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 4 2 3 3 Plantago 0 0 1 1 0 Poaceae 1 0 5 5 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 1 0 Cyathea dealbata type 1 1 1 1 12 23 22 Cyathea smithii type 2 0 0 2 2 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 7 17 4 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 1 7 5 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 2 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 5 3 2 0 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 0 2 pteridium esculentum 1 0 0 1 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 286 Depth (m) 3.05 3.15 3.25 3.35 3.45 Cyperaceae 0 8 1 1 3 1 1 Drosera 0 0 0 1 Epacridaceae 28 18 1 1 1 0 12 G/eichenia 56 44 4 5 3 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 16 27 29 25 24 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 3 2 2 Restionaceae 375 670 522 491 505 Typha 0 1 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 19 65 38 36 20 Depth (m) 3.55 3.65 3.75 3.85 3.95 Lycopodium spike 66 103 128 196 1 56 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 28 7 36 36 25 Agathis australis 1 3 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 3 5 4 0 Dacrydium cupressinum 40 29 32 31 37 Halocarpus 0 2 0 Ubocedrus 6 5 10 6 6 Manoao colensoi 4 2 3 7 4 Phylloc/adus 1 1 2 12 12 6 Podocarpus type 1 2 6 13 10 13 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 0 0 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 7 8 5 6 6 Alectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 0 8ei/schmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 E/aeocarpus 2 0 5 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 1 4 1 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 47 23 16 17 31 Nestegis 7 2 3 5 10 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 1 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 A/seuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 26 3 9 9 10 Asteraceae 1 0 0 1 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 0 3 2 1 Cordyline 1 1 2 1 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 5 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 287 Depth (m) 3.55 3.65 3.75 3.85 3.95 GriseJinia 0 1 3 1 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 5 6 0 7 6 Neomyrtus type 7 6 5 7 9 Pittosporom 1 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 1 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 RhopalostyJis sapida 0 2 1 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 Toronia toro 0 1 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 AsteJia 2 2 3 2 2 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 1 0 3 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 2 4 1 3 I/eostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 3 0 1 0 2 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 3 4 3 2 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 7 8 1 1 1 0 1 2 Cyathea smithii type 1 0 0 1 3 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 4 5 3 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 4 0 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 2 5 10 4 3 Paesia scaberola 0 0 0 0 Phymatosoros diversifolius 0 3 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 21 1 0 81 39 40 Drosera 1 1 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 2 6 4 1 0 7 Gleichenia 4 1 0 0 5 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 29 12 27 42 59 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 2 0 1 3 2 Restionaceae 319 1 54 247 269 289 Typha 1 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 8 1 1 0 Charcoal concentration 56 32 33 25 22 288 Depth (m) 4.05 4.15 4.25 4.35 4.45 Lycopodium 1 53 220 95 132 121 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 Fuscospora 25 38 40 45 44 Agathis australis 4 6 6 6 2 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 4 0 2 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 36 33 49 61 51 Ha/ocarpus 0 3 1 1 Ubocedrus 1 1 10 3 3 Manoao co/ensoi 5 5 9 5 1 Phyflocladus 8 8 4 5 6 Podocarpus type 1 5 13 4 19 14 Prumnopitys ferruginea 2 2 3 3 3 Prumnopitys taxifolia 1 0 5 7 12 10 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 1 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 2 1 1 4 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 2 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 1 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 29 23 21 18 19 Nestegis 4 8 9 4 3 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 1 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 9 9 10 5 4 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 1 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 2 0 3 Cordyline 0 3 1 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 1 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 2 2 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 3 3 1 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 5 3 5 2 Neomyrtus type 18 7 8 8 17 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 1 1 2 1 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 4 3 5 0 3 289 Depth (rn) 4.05 4.15 4.25 4.35 4.45 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Dactylanthus tay/orii 1 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 0 3 2 14 5 I/eostylus micranthus 1 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 4 3 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 1 0 3 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 2 2 3 1 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 1 1 4 4 6 6 Cyathea smithii type 0 1 3 1 4 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 3 0 0 1 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 1 0 0 0 Hymenophyl/um 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 1 3 2 1 1 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 5 3 1 1 5 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 1 3 0 0 0 Pleris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 20 27 8 23 29 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 1 5 9 26 12 9 G/eichenia 1 0 34 1 5 8 10 Ha/oragis 0 4 0 5 7 Leptospermum type 40 32 51 49 42 Myriophy//um 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 1 Restionaceae 296 305 389 437 325 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 2 6 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 20 23 18 26 1 5 Depth (rn) 4.55 4.6 4.65 4.7 4.75 Lycopodium spike 164 173 227 218 250 Spike concentration 1 391 1 1 1300 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 Fuscospora 65 46 47 45 38 Agathis australis 3 4 5 2 4 Casuarina 0 0 0 1 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 3 0 3 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 68 53 43 82 51 Halocarpus 1 10 0 4 1 Libocedrus 1 6 1 6 2 Manoao co/ensoi 2 4 2 7 5 Phyl/ocladus 6 6 3 3 8 Podocarpus type 26 1 5 20 14 25 Prumnopitys ferruginea 2 2 2 1 1 4 290 Depth (rn) 4.55 4.6 4.65 4.7 4.75 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 9 18 9 25 7 Alectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 1 2 1 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 24 6 20 6 18 Nestegis 6 10 9 5 2 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 2 0 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 A/seuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 7 7 9 6 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 4 3 1 Cordyline 2 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 2 2 1 2 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 3 2 4 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 2 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 7 0 5 4 Neomyrtus type 21 6 14 4 6 Pittosporum 0 2 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 6 3 0 2 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 2 0 5 0 6 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 4 0 3 4 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 2 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 6 6 4 1 0 5 29 1 Depth (m) 4.55 4.6 4.65 4.7 4.75 Cyathea smithii type 0 1 2 2 0 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 Hymenophy/lum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 7 3 0 8 2 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 0 4 3 2 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 1 0 0 6 1 Pleridium esculentum 2 0 0 0 2 Pleris 0 0 0 0 2 Cyperaceae 47 23 33 18 31 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 18 19 31 92 26 G/eichenia 5 22 30 177 30 Haloragis 0 0 14 Leptospermum type 85 73 57 14 40 Myriophy/lum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 0 0 2 0 Restionaceae 481 594 557 528 389 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 1 0 Charcoal concentration 32 124 9 62 12 Depth (m) 4.8 4.85 4.9 4.95 5.05 Lycopodium spike 79 128 142 191 145 Spike concentration 1 1 300 13911 1 1 300 1391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 59 64 62 49 61 Agathis australis 2 2 0 3 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 5 5 3 1 Dacrydium cupressinum 56 74 60 28 30 Halocarpus 6 6 3 0 2 Libocedrus 5 3 7 3 2 Manoao colensoi 1 0 6 12 3 6 Phy/locladus 12 7 3 3 1 1 Podocarpus type 23 36 26 34 33 Prumnopitys ferruginea 10 3 3 5 3 Prumnopitys taxifolia 12 10 17 1 3 7 Alectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 5 4 1 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 3 16 5 12 9 Nestegis 4 1 1 3 8 5 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 1 0 1 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 292 Depth (m) 4.8 4.85 4.9 4.95 5.05 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 2 4 3 2 Asteraceae 1 2 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 4 3 0 2 Cordyline 1 2 1 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 4 3 1 0 2 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 4 3 5 7 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 2 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Myrsine 1 5 5 2 2 Neomyrtus type 8 8 2 12 8 Pittosporurn 0 0 3 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 1 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Arnaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 1 1 0 3 3 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 1 5 0 2 0 Ifeostylus micranthus 1 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 2 2 2 0 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 2 1 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 3 2 8 2 Cyathea dealbata type 6 1 0 6 6 7 Cyathea smithii type 0 5 0 0 2 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 1 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 1 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 8 5 2 5 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 1 0 5 2 1 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 1 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 2 0 2 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 293 Depth (m) 4.8 4.85 4.9 4.95 5.05 Cyperaceae 35 76 45 121 69 Drosera 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 14 19 27 28 27 Gleichenia 1 3 23 24 40 43 Haloragis 0 7 2 0 0 Leptospermum type 26 81 23 46 48 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 455 515 507 472 430 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 78 204 74 69 96 Depth (m) 5.1 5.1 5 5.2 5.25 5.3 Lycopodium spike 21 123 6 33 30 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 Fuscospora 78 1 06 80 57 81 Agathis australis 1 6 1 2 1 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 3 2 2 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 66 81 74 45 44 Halocarpus 1 1 2 7 0 8 Ubocedrus 7 9 3 1 6 Manoao co/ensoi 5 5 4 1 1 1 0 Phyllocladus 4 3 5 2 0 Podocarpus type 17 28 26 21 21 Prumnopitys ferruginea 4 7 4 1 8 Prumnopitys taxifolia 21 17 20 16 27 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 2 2 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 1 0 13 6 12 0 Nestegis 4 2 5 6 3 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 2 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 1 0 0 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 6 4 3 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 3 2 3 2 3 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 1 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 294 Depth (m) 5.1 5.15 5.2 5.25 5.3 Griselinia 5 4 5 3 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 1 0 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 2 4 2 4 1 Neomyrlus type 4 6 4 3 Pittosporum 0 1 1 Plagianthus type 0 0 1 0 0 Pseudopanax 1 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 1 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 3 2 4 0 1 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 1 0 Chenopodiaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 2 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 2 0 1 0 2 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 0 2 2 3 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 1 Adiantum type 0 5 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 1 3 6 9 7 4 Cyathea smithii type 1 3 0 1 4 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 1 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 1 4 4 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 2 5 4 2 3 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 1 1 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 24 55 25 1 1 7 61 Drosera 1 0 0 0 2 Epacridaceae 18 1 1 6 2 2 Gleichenia 12 8 3 0 7 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 46 71 26 46 3 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 1 0 0 0 Restionaceae 332 433 212 75 43 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 3 0 Charcoal concentration 41 37 867 81 171 295 Depth (m) 5.35 5.4 5.45 5.55 5.65 Lycopodium spike 59 290 38 24 1 3 Spike concentration 1 391 1 1 1300 1391 1 13911 1391 1 Fuscospora 61 54 55 49 28 Agathis australis 1 4 9 6 3 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Oacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 5 13 7 6 Oacrydium cupressinum 32 59 91 170 97 Halocarpus 2 7 4 3 3 Ubocedrus 8 13 12 20 9 Manoao colensoi 6 5 2 3 2 Phyllocladus 5 1 7 9 6 Podocarpus type 17 21 29 34 22 Prumnopitys ferruginea 5 9 7 9 6 Prumnopitys taxifolia 1 3 21 16 13 9 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Bei/schmiedia 0 1 0 0 0 Oysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 4 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 1 0 Metrosideros undiff. 18 2 6 6 9 Nestegis 1 1 3 6 4 1 Nothofagus menziesii 1 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 2 0 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Alseuosmia 0 0 0 0 0 Aristote/ia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 2 3 4 Asteraceae 2 0 1 0 1 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 4 2 Coprosma 4 3 0 6 2 Cordyline 1 3 4 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 2 4 0 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 0 0 3 3 Macropiper 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 1 0 0 Myrsine 8 1 3 3 3 Neomyrtus type 1 0 0 1 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 1 0 Pseudowintera 0 1 0 3 2 Rhopalosty/is sapida 0 0 0 1 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 7 5 3 296 Depth (m) 5.35 5.4 5.45 5.55 5.65 caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 4 0 0 0 0 Dacty/anthus tay/orii 0 0 0 0 0 Epilobium 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia 0 2 0 0 2 lIeosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 5 3 0 1 Plantago 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 3 5 2 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 7 8 22 1 3 1 0 Cyathea smithii type 2 3 1 1 1 0 4 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 2 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 1 0 0 3 1 Lycopodium ramu/osum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 2 8 23 1 0 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 2 0 1 2 1 pteridium escu/entum 1 0 0 2 4 pteris 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 108 176 1 1 1 9 7 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 1 1 1 1 0 23 8 G/eichenia 12 26 25 82 32 Ha/oragis 1 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 60 3 1 1 5 9 Myriophyllum 0 3 1 0 Potamageton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 55 91 1 13 172 122 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 1 1 0 0 Charcoal concentration 58 3 14 54 1 02 Depth (m) 5.75 5.85 5.95 Lycopodium spike 32 16 32 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 Fuscospora 47 48 32 Agathis austra/is 2 3 Casuarina 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 5 8 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 124 1 06 101 Ha/ocarpus 4 3 2 Ubocedrus 9 13 7 Manoao co/ensoi 2 2 0 Phylloc/adus 12 7 6 Podocarpus type 24 1 1 26 Prumnopitys ferruginea 9 1 1 1 0 297 Depth (m) 5.75 5.85 5.95 Promnopitys taxifolia 10 1 1 14 AJectryon excelsus 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 3 2 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 1 Metrosideros undiff. 3 1 1 5 Nestegis 6 3 5 Nothofagus menziesi 1 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 1 1 1 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 1 A.lseuosmia 0 0 0 Aristotelia 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 1 4 0 Asteraceae 0 1 Carpodetus serratus 0 0 0 Coprosma 2 6 10 CorrJyline 0 0 1 Coriaria 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 0 3 Leucopogon fasciculatus 2 3 1 Macropiper 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 4 Myrsine 7 4 3 Neomyrtus type 3 3 5 Pittosporom 2 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 2 3 Pseudowintera 3 1 1 Rhopalostylis sapida 1 0 0 Scheff/era digitata 0 0 0 Toronia toro 0 0 0 Amaranthaceae 0 0 0 Astelia 0 2 CaryophyUaceae 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 Epilobium 1 1 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 lJeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 4 Plantago 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 4 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 Adiantum type 3 0 Cyathea dealbata type 16 1 1 9 298 Depth (m) 5.75 5.85 5.95 Cyathea smithii type 7 3 4 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 1 0 1 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 1 0 0 Lycopodium ramulosum 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 7 7 6 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 3 Pteridium esculentum 2 1 0 Pteris 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 1 1 13 13 Drosera 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 15 25 10 Gleichenia 37 38 47 Haloragis 0 0 1 Leptospermum type 18 13 7 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 Potamageton 0 0 Restionaceae 169 206 139 Typha 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 1 Charcoal concentration 66 294 61 299 APPENDIX 6 Kaitaia Bog borehole 6 pollen counts: Depth (m) 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 Lycopodium spike 98 570 301 355 479 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 0 0 2 1 5 Agathis australis 18 7 3 5 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 1 4 3 0 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 26 67 43 63 69 Halocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 0 0 0 1 0 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 9 10 1 3 9 17 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 3 1 1 9 19 24 Prumnopitys ferruginea 4 2 5 2 3 Prumnopitys taxifolia 2 16 16 13 12 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 1 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 19 6 6 10 Nestegis 1 1 1 1 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 5 0 1 0 2 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 1 4 2 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 4 2 Cordyline 0 1 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 1 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 4 2 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 1 1 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 5 0 2 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 2 1 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 8 7 Neomyrtus type 3 0 0 0 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 0 0 0 1 0 Streblus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micra nth us 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 2 5 2 0 2 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 300 Depth (m) 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 Taraxacum type 0 1 2 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 2 4 4 4 1 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 2 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 2 0 1 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 1 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 2 0 4 0 0 Lycopodium volubile 0 1 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 4 3 Paesia scaberula 1 1 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 3 1 Pteridium esculentum 3 0 3 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 30 16 15 16 14 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 2 14 7 6 20 Gleichenia 34 169 96 216 1 53 Haloragis 0 2 0 0 Leptospermum type 83 24 5 8 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 74 143 1 16 184 270 Typha 0 1 0 0 2 Unknowns 0 0 0 Charcoal concentration 163 48 48 53 57 Depth (rn) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Lycopodium spike 303 239 251 315 395 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 Fuscospora 0 3 2 2 3 Agathis australis 6 1 4 14 2 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 4 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 93 52 61 70 49 Halocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Libocedrus 0 3 2 3 3 Manoao co/ensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 1 1 19 25 31 37 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 13 1 1 13 14 22 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 2 2 7 0 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 16 6 4 4 1 1 Alectryon excelsus . 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 1 16 9 2 1 1 Nestegis 0 3 7 3 5 301 Depth (m) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 2 3 2 0 3 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 0 3 1 0 Asteraceae 0 1 0 1 1 Coprosma 5 2 0 3 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 1 0 Dodonaea viscosa 3 1 3 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 4 3 3 3 1 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 3 0 2 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 2 Pittosporum 1 0 3 0 1 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 1 0 0 0 Streblus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 1 1 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 1 0 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 4 2 4 8 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 1 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 2 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium latera/e 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium volubile 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 0 5 1 1 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 3 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 1 0 1 1 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 9 16 14 61 21 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 33 9 7 6 14 G/eichenia 291 95 137 354 286 Haloragis 0 0 0 9 0 Leptospennum type 6 55 41 25 28 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 258 151 281 104 227 302 Depth (m) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 1 7 0 Charcoal concentration 66 21 49 352 8 Depth (m) 1 .05 1 .15 1 .25 1 .34 1 .45 Lycopodium spike 374 324 448 367 578 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 1391 1 1 391 1 Fuscospora 4 4 6 1 6 Agathis australis 1 21 4 7 4 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 1 2 0 1 2 Dacrydium cupressinum 66 83 65 56 57 Halocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Ubocedrus 2 6 1 1 3 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllocladus 16 22 21 27 24 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 12 12 9 12 12 Prumnopitys fenuginea 1 0 0 0 3 Prumnopitys taxifolia 5 12 8 1 0 7 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 2 1 1 0 3 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 1 3 4 9 13 18 Nestegis 1 2 8 1 5 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 1 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 5 7 2 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 2 1 1 0 3 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 5 0 3 2 9 Fabaceae 2 0 1 0 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 8 1 3 2 3 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 1 1 Malvaceae 0 0 1 0 0 Myrsine 6 3 3 4 4 Neomyrtus type 0 0 0 1 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 Streblus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 303 Depth (m) 1 .05 1 .1 5 1 .25 1 .34 1 .45 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 0 0 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 3 10 2 2 4 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 1 0 Lycopodium cemuum 2 10 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium volubile 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 2 2 0 0 4 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 7 1 1 1 9 2 Drosera 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 8 1 3 21 19 1 5 Gleichenia 167 65 30 234 47 Haloragis 1 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 35 0 27 37 20 Myriophyflum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 230 142 189 167 1 86 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 1 0 1 0 0 Charcoal concentration 35 134 36 90 54 Depth (m) 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 Lycopodium spike 127 746 757 1 106 1 1 14 Spike concentration 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 1391 1 Fuscospora 2 2 1 0 Agathis austra/is 12 7 6 3 8 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 3 5 4 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 79 66 89 53 59 Halocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 Libocedrus 1 2 2 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 2 0 Phyllocladus 23 31 27 18 1 1 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 20 1 1 18 7 7 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 0 0 0 Prumnopitys taxifolia 12 17 26 14 25 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 0 304 Depth (m) 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 Knightia excelsa 0 0 1 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 7 4 7 2 3 Nestegis 3 2 5 0 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 2 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 3 0 0 2 Asteraceae 0 0 0 1 0 Coprosma 3 3 2 2 3 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 2 2 3 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 4 2 2 4 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 0 0 2 1 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 3 1 0 Neomyrtus type 0 2 0 0 0 Pittosporum 1 0 0 0 6 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 Streblus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Uliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 5 7 5 6 10 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium volubile 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 3 0 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 1 0 Pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 2 2 7 5 6 Drosera 0 0 0 0 1 Epacridaceae 13 1 1 21 7 28 G/eichenia 251 339 463 1 32 197 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 305 Depth (m) 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 Leptospermum type 8 2 0 1 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 146 210 332 1 75 206 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 1 70 Charcoal concentration 21 5 22 8 13 10 Depth (m) 2.05 2.1 5 2.25 2.35 2.45 Lycopodium spike 304 423 252 397 252 Spike concentration 1391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 1 391 1 1 1300 Fuscospora 1 4 3 0 Agathis australis 3 2 5 1 4 Gasuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Oacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 3 0 4 Oacrydium cupressinum 56 62 33 52 55 Halocarpus 0 0 0 0 4 Ubocedrus 12 1 5 4 10 Manoao colensoi 0 0 0 3 Phyllocladus 25 37 38 32 37 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 1 1 7 3 9 9 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 1 2 2 5 Prumnopitys taxifolia 16 28 9 20 13 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 Oysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 0 2 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 5 5 1 3 8 19 Nestegis 5 3 4 3 8 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 7 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 2 Ascarina lucida 2 3 3 1 1 Asteraceae 2 0 1 1 Coprosma 2 2 3 2 3 Cordyline 0 0 1 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 2 2 0 3 1 Fabaceae 1 1 0 0 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 1 Griselinia 2 4 1 2 7 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 0 0 1 6 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 0 2 2 4 Neomyrlus type 0 0 4 0 6 Pittosporum 1 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 306 Depth (m) 2.05 2.1 5 2.25 2.35 2.45 Streblus 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 0 1 Chenopodiaceae 1 0 0 0 2 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 1 Liliaoeae 0 0 2 0 0 Poaoeae 0 0 0 0 Stel/aria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 5 9 2 1 0 8 Cyathea smithi type 0 0 0 0 1 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium volubile 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 4 1 0 2 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaoeae 19 6 12 6 7 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 8 22 15 18 9 G/eichenia 143 423 105 243 164 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 37 1 1 27 22 56 Myriophyl/um 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 1 Restionaoeae 186 1 38 188 305 497 Typha 0 0 2 0 0 Unknowns 2 1 1 0 0 Charcoal concentration 1 03 10 1 1 .4 7 4.2 Depth (m) 2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 Lycopodium spike 397 391 700 234 31 1 Spike concentration 13911 1 1300 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 Fuscospora 2 2 0 2 1 Agathis australis 3 6 0 2 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 7 4 0 2 5 Dacrydium cupressinum 62 65 85 59 58 Halocarpus 0 2 0 1 0 Libocedrus 0 1 1 0 15 5 Manoao co/ensoi 0 2 0 4 0 Phylloc/adus 19 23 14 28 31 Pinus 0 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 9 23 0 14 4 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 4 0 8 307 Depth (m) 2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 Prumnopitys taxifolia 47 9 31 12 16 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 1 0 1 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 1 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 0 21 0 17 8 Nestegis 2 7 0 5 7 Nothofagus menziesi 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 0 0 0 Syzygium maire 0 1 0 0 1 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 5 4 0 6 4 Asteraceae 1 0 0 0 2 Coprosma 0 6 0 5 2 Cordyline 0 0 0 1 0 Coriaria 0 1 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 1 3 0 2 3 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 1 6 0 4 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 3 0 2 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 2 0 4 4 Neomyrtus type 0 6 0 1 1 0 Pittosporum 0 2 0 0 1 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 1 0 Streblus 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 1 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 3 0 1 0 Poaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Stellaria 0 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 3 0 1 0 Cyathea dealbata type 9 3 14 3 12 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 2 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium volubile 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 2 1 5 2 1 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifolius 2 1 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 2 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 7 5 2 55 1 0 308 Depth (m) 2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 21 13 19 15 10 G/eichenia 465 158 251 1 33 1 97 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 5 57 0 48 18 Myriophyllum 0 1 0 0 2 Potamogeton 0 1 0 0 0 Restionaceae 521 410 454 403 447 Typha 0 0 0 0 2 Unknowns 0 0 1 Charcoal concentration 147 22.4 206 84.5 147.2 Depth (m) 3.05 3.15 3.25 3.35 Lycopodium spike 174 707 82 155 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1391 1 1 1 300 1391 1 Fuscospora 0 4 6 1 1 Agathis austra/is 6 6 8 4 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 0 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 4 2 4 Dacrydium cupressinum 67 65 76 67 Halocarpus 5 0 0 Ubocedrus 8 4 5 1 Manoao colensoi 4 0 2 0 Phyllocladus 40 20 26 13 Pinus 0 0 0 0 Podocarpus type 16 9 1 8 6 Prumnopitys ferruginea 6 0 5 0 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 8 8 9 8 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 1 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 17 3 13 1 Nestegis 2 0 4 4 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 0 3 0 Syzygium maire 0 1 1 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 3 2 4 3 Asteraceae 0 0 1 Coprosma 3 5 2 Cordyline 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Geniostoma 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 1 4 4 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 0 1 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 1 2 5 4 Neomyrtus type 2 2 3 309 Depth (m) 3.05 3.1 5 3.25 3.35 Pittosporum 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 Rhopa/osty/is sapida 0 2 0 Streb/us 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 I/eosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 2 0 5 0 Poaceae 4 1 1 0 Ste/laria 0 0 0 0 Taraxacum type 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 2 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 5 9 1 8 22 Cyathea smithii type 0 0 2 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 Hymenophy/lum 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 1 1 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 1 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 2 3 3 Lycopodium volubile 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 0 3 10 3 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 2 0 3 pteridium esculentum 2 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 55 51 1 57 104 Drosera 0 1 0 0 Epacridaceae 1 1 29 7 7 G/eichenia 50 1 1 2 34 42 Haloragis 0 1 0 0 Leptospennum type 43 15 68 28 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 2 0 Restionaceae 455 554 120 141 Typha 0 2 0 0 Unknowns 0 4 2 Charcoal concentration 85.7 16.4 152.1 205.6 310 APPENDIX ?" Lake Ohia pollen counts: Depth (m) 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 Lycopodium spike 66 84 1 15 69 1 71 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 Total pollen concentration 337 269 183 324 123 Charcoal concentration 2988 2312 2780 4940 1261 Agathis australis 19 16 8 9 1 5 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 6 2 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 76 59 61 66 61 Halocarpus 5 12 3 4 3 Ubocedros 9 6 9 14 1 4 Manoao colensoi 7 2 5 3 Phyllocladus 19 23 20 18 1 6 Podocarpus type 13 9 18 20 1 1 Promnopitys ferruginea 3 0 6 5 Promnopitys taxifolia 15 21 23 10 1 1 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Corynocarpus laevigatus 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 3 4 3 Fuscospora 5 6 2 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 7 1 3 13 1 1 8 Nestegis 4 4 7 5 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 2 0 2 2 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 2 7 Ascarina lucida 1 0 0 0 2 Asteraceae 0 0 1 1 Coprosma 1 3 2 1 5 Cordyline 2 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 2 0 Fabaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 5 5 2 4 3 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 1 0 0 0 Utsea calicaris 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 4 7 8 4 5 Neomyrtus type 9 6 10 7 7 Pittosporom 0 0 1 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax undiff. 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 1 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 2 0 Schrophulariaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toro 0 0 0 0 0 Verbenaceae 0 0 0 0 Astelia 2 3 0 1 Calystegia 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 1 1 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 1 Depth (m) 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 I/eosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 7 0 1 6 Parsonsia 0 0 1 0 0 Poaceae 1 2 1 4 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 1 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 1 Cyathea dea/bata type 2 4 4 3 Cyathea smithii type 0 2 2 3 1 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 2 3 2 3 Phymatosorus diversifo/ius 0 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 1 0 6 0 pteris 0 0 1 0 0 Schizaea 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 4 1 8 1 7 19 4 1 Epacridaceae 78 83 49 84 1 07 G/eichenia 72 79 162 1 10 54 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 27 26 74 74 43 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 578 576 406 489 474 Typha 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 Depth (m) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Lycopodium spike 141 55 34 87 86 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 1 1 300 1 1300 Total pollen concentration 1 30 344 636 1 97 190 Charcoal concentration 1 141 2685 8235 1 1 80 500 Agathis austra/is 19 20 12 12 22 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 2 1 Dacrydium cupressinum 43 40 62 52 45 Ha/ocarpus 2 7 5 1 0 Ubocedrus 12 6 2 5 7 Manoao co/ensoi 5 1 1 14 3 3 Phyl/oc/adus 16 14 8 18 12 Podocarpus type 6 15 16 10 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 8 15 8 2 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 16 29 26 7 6 Bei/schmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Corynocarpus /aevigatus 0 0 0 0 Dysoxy/um spectabi/e 0 0 0 0 0 E/aeocarpus 10 10 9 6 5 Fuscospora 4 0 4 1 1 /xertJa brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 1 Metrosideros undiff. 22 7 15 19 28 Nestegis 5 2 9 4 3 12 Depth (m) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 Nothofagus menziesii 1 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 3 0 4 1 1 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 1 7 22 13 17 6 Ascarina lucida 3 1 2 0 4 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 3 2 3 6 Cordyline 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Grise/inia 0 1 4 3 Leucopogon fascicu/atus 0 0 2 0 Litsea ca/icaris 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 1 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 1 4 0 5 2 Neomyrtus type 1 1 7 2 29 28 Pittosporom 2 0 0 0 0 P/agianthus type 0 1 0 0 Pseudopanax undiff. 0 0 0 1 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 1 Schrophulariaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toro 0 0 0 0 0 Verbenaceae 0 0 0 0 2 Astelia 0 0 0 4 Ca/ystegia 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 1 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 1 0 0 0 I/eosty/us micranthus 0 0 1 0 0 Uliaceae 0 0 0 3 5 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 2 0 1 3 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 1 5 Cyathea dea/bata type 3 5 4 5 4 Cyathea smithi type 0 4 2 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 1 3 4 4 Phymatosoros diversifolius 3 0 1 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 1 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Schizaea 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 23 2 21 18 50 Epacridaceae 94 1 1 6 133 54 57 G/eichenia 74 214 258 43 27 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 67 42 35 204 1 78 Potamogeton 0 0 0 Restionaceae 332 231 285 21 1 190 Typha 0 0 0 0 1 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 313 Depth (m) 1 .05 1 .1 5 1 .25 1 .35 1 .45 Lycopodium spike 2 14 19 39 17 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 Total pollen concentration 3221 1285 614 366 484 Charcoal concentration 606 23 25 43 120 Agathis austra/is 10 23 36 52 32 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 122 555 287 401 218 Ha/ocarpus 0 5 2 3 2 Ubocedrus 4 2 3 1 Manoao co/ensoi 7 6 4 5 2 Phylloc/adus 34 36 18 32 3 Podocarpus type 3 1 7 3 6 1 Prumnopitys ferruginea 5 6 5 5 4 Prumnopitys taxifolia 7 17 1 0 6 5 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Corynocarpus laevigatus 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxy/um spectabile 1 0 2 0 0 Elaeocarpus 2 8 6 3 0 Fuscospora 3 0 0 Ixerba brexioides 1 0 2 1 1 Knightia exce/sa 0 1 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 0 3 6 4 4 Nestegis 3 3 1 0 1 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 5 7 67 17 52 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 5 20 1 1 1 9 2 Ascarina lucida 0 1 0 0 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 2 2 1 2 Cordy/ine 0 2 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 2 0 0 Fabaceae 1 0 2 0 0 Griselinia 2 5 5 5 2 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 3 4 2 0 Utsea calicaris 1 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 2 4 0 3 0 Neomyrtus type 1 0 1 1 0 Pittosporum 3 4 0 0 0 P/agianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax undiff. 0 Pseudowintera 1 0 1 0 2 Rhopalosty/is sapida 0 2 0 0 0 Schrophulariaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 0 Verbenaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Aste/ia 2 1 2 1 0 Calystegia 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 lIeosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 2 0 0 314 Depth (m) 1 .05 1 .1 5 1 .25 1 .35 1 .45 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 4 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dea/bata type 4 5 5 2 Cyathea smithii type 0 2 1 2 Dicksonia squanusa 0 1 0 2 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fem spores 8 0 5 1 Phymatosorus diversifolius 1 0 1 0 0 Pteridium escu/entum 0 0 0 1 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Schizaea 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 2 0 1 0 Epacridaceae 12 22 6 13 3 G/eichenia 9 3 1 1 12 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospennum type 2 6 12 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 35 10 1 8 3 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 Depth (m) 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 Lycopodium spike 50 87 28 21 53 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 1 1 300 Total pollen concentration 233 182 634 466 187 Charcoal concentration 409 1 144 2439 1 79 136 Agathis australis 19 13 6 13 18 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 2 0 2 2 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 130 86 48 1 15 128 Ha/ocarpus 3 0 1 3 4 Ubocedrus 4 10 2 8 2 Manoao co/ensoi 5 3 1 1 7 3 Phylloc/adus 20 16 10 70 38 Podocarpus type 5 5 10 4 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 0 3 20 6 8 Prumnopitys taxifolia 1 1 9 28 1 1 9 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 1 0 Corynocarpus /aevigatus 0 0 0 0 Dysoxy/um spectabile 0 2 0 0 0 E/aeocarpus 8 0 4 2 3 Fuscospora 1 1 2 2 0 /xerfJa brexioides 0 0 0 4 9 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 0 0 2 Laurelia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 2 Metrosideros undiff. 4 12 10 15 19 Nestegis 0 5 1 1 3 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 33 3 2 16 24 315 Depth (m) 1 .55 1 .65 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 Weinmannia 8 4 28 1 1 9 Ascarina lucida 0 2 0 6 4 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 5 0 3 2 Cordyline 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 2 0 5 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 6 5 Litsea calicaris 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 2 1 3 2 Neomyrtus type 6 1 1 8 0 2 Pittosporum 0 1 0 1 4 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax undiff. 1 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 4 0 0 1 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 2 0 0 3 Schrophulariaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toru 0 0 0 0 2 Vert>enaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 2 2 1 5 2 Calystegia 0 0 0 0 2 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 2 1 1 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 1 1 1 0 2 Cyathea dealbata type 3 2 5 4 3 Cyathea smithii type 0 8 5 Dicksonia squarrosa 2 1 0 4 Hymenophyllum 1 0 0 1 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 1 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 14 1 1 8 3 Phymatosorus diversifolius 0 0 0 1 3 Pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Schizaea 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 28 17 5 2 0 Epacridaceae 19 77 82 24 33 G/eichenia 51 87 236 47 43 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospennum type 9 87 29 4 5 Potamogeton 0 0 2 0 0 Restionaceae 1 1 1 224 223 10 12 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 2 3 16 Depth (m) 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55 Lycopodium spike 16 43 67 14 49 189 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 1 1 300 Total pollen concentration 370 1 59 99 416 122 35 Charcoal concentration 147 79 8 206 5 0 Agathis australis 6 30 35 24 52 35 Oacrycarpus dacrydioides 1 3 1 2 2 Oacrydium cupressinum 66 69 45 54 47 62 Halocarpus 9 5 3 3 2 7 Ubocedros 6 3 5 3 4 1 Manoao colensoi 3 6 3 4 3 6 Phyllocladus 18 2 1 44 35 36 43 Podocarpus type 7 4 4 3 2 4 Promnopitys ferruginea 3 0 6 3 3 Promnopitys taxifolia 4 7 5 7 8 9 Beilschmiedia 1 0 0 1 1 2 Corynocarpus laevigatus 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oysoxylum spectabile 1 0 1 0 0 Elaeocarpus 5 5 1 2 1 5 Fuscospora 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ixerba brexioides 3 1 1 2 0 3 Knightia excelsa 1 0 0 0 0 1 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 2 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 1 1 25 28 20 26 12 Nestegis 4 2 5 5 2 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 13 26 22 10 20 8 Syzygium maire 2 2 2 0 0 0 Weinmannia 8 1 0 4 7 1 1 Ascarina lucida 2 8 13 2 6 6 Asteraceae 0 1 0 0 0 Coprosma 6 4 2 6 4 Cordyline 0 0 1 2 Dodonaea viscosa 1 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 1 3 2 0 0 1 Griselinia 2 2 2 4 3 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 1 3 Litsea calicaris 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 3 9 1 1 4 5 7 Neomyrtus type 6 7 8 3 6 7 Pittosporom 2 1 1 3 0 Plagianthus type 0 2 0 0 0 1 Pseudopanax undiff. 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 1 1 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 1 Schrophulariaceae 0 0 0 0 0 0 Toronia toro 1 0 0 0 0 0 Verbenaceae 0 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 4 5 7 3 1 2 Calystegia 0 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 3 1 4 0 1 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 2 2 0 317 Depth (m) 2.05 2.1 5 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 3 5 2 0 1 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 2 5 3 Adiantum type 1 1 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 5 2 2 2 4 Cyathea smithii type 5 0 1 0 1 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 1 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 1 0 0 0 0 2 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 2 0 0 0 Monolete fem spores 1 1 1 3 0 3 Phymatosoros diversifo/ius 1 0 0 0 0 0 pteridium esculentum 0 0 0 0 0 0 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 0 Schizaea 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cyperaceae 1 1 4 3 2 4 Epacridaceae 1 1 10 2 7 1 7 G/eichenia 18 8 2 9 2 9 Haloragis 0 0 0 1 0 0 Leptospermum type 6 5 1 1 9 6 5 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 7 1 0 1 1 0 5 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 0 318 APPENDIX 8 Lake Tangonge pollen counts: Depth (m) 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 Lycopodium spike 32 73 46 38 52 Spike concentration 1 1300 1 1 300 1 1300 1 1 300 1 1300 Total pollen concentration 55 24 29 31 23 Charcoal concentration 86 38 6 3 4 Fuscospora 2 4 Agathis australis 3 7 4 1 1 7 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 17 20 27 31 23 Dacrydium cupressinum 1 02 81 87 1 02 75 Halocarpus 3 2 4 2 2 Libocedrus 2 5 2 4 Manoao colensoi 5 3 3 2 3 Phyllocladus 15 13 13 1 3 1 1 Podocarpus type 6 7 4 7 6 Prumnopitys ferruginea 5 4 5 4 4 Prumnopitys taxifolia 1 1 8 13 9 3 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 1 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 3 3 2 2 2 Hedycarya aroorea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 1 3 2 1 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 2 0 3 Metrosideros undiff. 25 27 25 28 20 Nestegis 2 6 5 4 1 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 3 0 2 2 Syzygium maire 5 4 1 5 V"ttex lucens 0 0 0 Weinmannia 2 0 2 1 5 Ascarina lucida 9 3 3 8 13 Asteraceae 1 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordyline 2 3 2 5 Coriaria 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 2 0 0 1 1 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 10 13 5 12 6 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 4 0 2 0 1 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 2 6 3 0 0 Neomyrtus type 5 18 12 4 1 1 Pittosporum 4 4 2 4 1 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 2 2 0 2 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 3 Schefflera digitata 2 2 1 1 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 2 2 5 319 Depth (m) 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 1 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 I/eostylus micranthus 1 1 0 0 1 Liliaceae 1 2 2 2 4 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 Poaceae 1 2 pteridium esculentum 4 1 1 4 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 3 1 0 2 Cyathea dealbata type 4 3 6 13 9 Cyathea smithii type 1 4 2 4 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 1 0 Hymenophyllum 1 0 1 0 2 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 2 16 15 26 36 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phylloglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 6 9 15 6 20 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 92 1 1 1 163 101 1 1 5 Cyperaceae 19 48 34 18 15 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 2 3 1 3 4 Gleichenia 174 70 14 10 12 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 193 270 70 63 43 Myriophyllum 1 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 1 1 Restionaceae 20 10 14 9 18 Typha 0 0 2 0 2 Unknowns 2 0 0 0 0 Depth (m) 0.75 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1 .1 Lycopodium spike 57 43 1 03 187 1 07 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 Total pollen concentration 20 29 12 6 13 Charcoal concentration 5 6 36 3 40 Fuscospora 9 4 6 4 1 0 Agathis australis 8 7 5 6 5 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 26 17 1 3 29 1 5 Dacrydium cupressinum 91 78 85 38 31 Halocarpus 2 4 0 0 Ubocedrus 4 6 5 3 12 320 Depth (m) 0.75 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1.1 Manoao co/ensoi 1 0 4 0 Phy//oc/adus 8 8 1 0 3 5 Podocarpus type 5 4 5 3 5 Prumnopitys ferruginea 1 1 2 1 2 Prumnopitys taxifolia 6 4 2 3 6 AJectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 0 Bei/schmiedia 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 Dysoxy/um spectabile 0 0 1 0 Elaeocarpus 2 1 1 2 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 2 1 2 Laurelia novae-ze/andiae 2 Meti'osideros undiff. 46 40 30 32 44 Nestegis 2 3 2 1 2 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 3 3 3 3 3 Syzygium maire 1 4 1 3 0 Vitex !ucens 0 1 1 0 0 Weinmannia 1 0 0 0 0 Ascarina lucida 12 13 10 38 19 Asteraceae 2 0 2 1 5 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordyline 3 4 0 Coriaria 1 0 1 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 1 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 6 7 4 1 2 /xerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fascicu/atus 0 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 0 0 2 Neomyrtus type 5 10 7 4 12 Pittosporum 3 3 0 0 P/agianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 2 0 1 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 2 3 3 3 Scheff/era digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 2 0 2 0 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Dacty/anthus tay/orii 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 1 1 1 1 Hydrocoty/e novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 /leostylus micranthus 0 1 0 0 Liliaceae 3 2 1 3 3 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 3 Poaceae 3 4 6 4 0 pteridium esculentum 6 2 6 6 6 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 32 1 Depth (m) 0.75 0.85 0.95 1 .05 1 .1 Adiantum type 0 0 1 3 2 Cyathea dealbata type 12 16 23 1 8 1 7 Cyathea smithii type 6 6 1 1 2 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 1 2 2 Dicksonia squarrosa 2 2 8 4 6 Hymenophyllum 0 1 0 3 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 2 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 33 55 78 1 09 155 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phylloglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 12 17 28 62 34 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 83 1 1 1 1 7 7 Cyperaceae 15 18 34 7 69 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 7 4 1 5 8 G/eichenia 20 24 33 17 19 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 28 37 9 4 0 Myriophyllum 0 2 0 0 0 Potamogeton 4 4 8 6 7 Restionaceae 25 26 55 15 80 Typha 1 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 Depth (m) 1 .15 1 .2 1 .25 1 .3 1 .35 Lycopodium spike 168 1 17 1 1 8 127 694 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 Total pollen concentration 1 1 20 16 20 2 Charcoal concentration 62 579 250 146 30 Fuscospora 13 28 35 61 30 Agathis austra/is 5 4 2 2 7 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 12 4 3 1 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 35 57 43 45 31 Ha/ocarpus 1 0 0 2 1 Ubocedrus 7 4 1 1 4 7 Manoao co/ensoi 3 3 2 5 3 Phylloc/adus 3 7 5 6 Podocarpus type 6 1 1 15 1 1 1 3 Prumnopitys ferruginea 4 2 6 5 5 Prumnopitys taxifolia 7 15 8 20 9 A/ectryon exce/sus . 0 0 0 0 0 Bei/schmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 1 0 Dysoxy/um spectabile 0 0 1 0 0 E/aeocarpus 0 0 0 2 322 Depth (m) 1 .1 5 1 .2 1 .25 1 .3 1 .35 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 0 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-ze/andiae 2 0 2 0 Metrosideros undiff. 28 27 14 1 1 25 Nestegis 4 7 9 7 5 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 3 3 3 Syzygium maire 0 1 0 V"ttex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 2 1 0 Ascarina lucida 9 7 3 8 5 Asteraceae 3 10 12 13 5 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordyline 5 4 7 4 1 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 2 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Grise/inia 3 1 5 1 3 /xerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 1 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 0 2 0 0 Neomyrtus type 4 10 12 1 0 17 Pittosporum 2 1 2 0 3 P/agianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 1 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 4 0 0 0 1 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 4 0 5 4 2 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Dacty/anthus tay/orii 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 1 3 0 0 1 Hydrocoty/e novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 lIeosty/us micranthus 0 0 1 0 0 Liliaceae 6 4 6 1 Parsonsia 0 0 0 1 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 13 6 2 2 Pteridium escu/entum 0 2 0 4 Tupeia antarctica 1 1 2 0 0 Adiantum type 3 2 2 6 2 Cyathea dea/bata type 26 9 4 6 6 Cyathea smithii type 2 1 4 3 1 Dicksonia fibrosa 3 0 1 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 14 0 2 0 3 Hymenophyllum 0 0 1 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 0 0 0 0 323 Depth (m) 1 .15 1 .2 1 .25 1 .3 1 .35 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium ariicu/atum 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 1 14 13 24 9 1 3 Paesia scaberu/a 1 0 0 0 0 Phyllog/ossum drummondi 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 26 1 8 1 Pieris 3 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 7 1 2 32 1 5 2 Cyperaceae 1 34 260 224 278 146 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 5 1 1 15 9 7 G/eiehenia 75 106 31 172 36 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospennum type 32 145 1 1 8 170 59 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 1 6 0 4 0 Restionaceae 156 255 142 189 93 Typha 1 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 3 5 Depth (m) 1 .4 1 .45 1 .5 1 .55 1 .65 Lycopodium spike 866 347 64 142 125 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 Total pollen concentration 2 4 21 1 0 9 Charcoal concentration 18 27 32 38 93 Fuseospora 36 49 70 46 51 Agathis austra/is 0 3 2 2 0 Daerycarpus dacrydioides 8 5 2 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 52 49 55 59 59 Ha/ocarpus 0 2 3 1 3 Libocedrus 7 4 13 5 0 Manoao eo/ensoi 0 2 8 30 3 Phylloc/adus 5 2 6 0 Podocarpus type 22 19 26 30 31 Prumnopitys ferruginea 17 7 7 6 4 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 38 29 35 28 34 A/eetryon exee/sus 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxy/um speetabile 0 0 0 0 0 E/aeocarpus 0 0 2 2 Hedyearya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exee/sa 0 1 0 1 0 Laure/ia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 6 9 6 5 8 Nestegis 0 2 5 5 4 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 1 1 1 0 Syzygium maire 0 0 0 0 0 Vitex /ueens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 324 Depth (m) 1 .4 1 .45 1 .5 1 .55 1 .65 Ascarina lucida 1 3 4 2 5 Asteraceae 3 0 0 0 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordyline 1 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 2 1 1 3 3 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 2 0 0 1 Malvaceae 0 1 0 0 0 Myrsine 2 2 3 4 Neomyrtus type 1 2 8 4 0 Pittosporum 0 0 0 0 Plagianthus type 0 0 1 1 0 Pseudopanax 1 1 0 1 0 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 1 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 1 1 1 1 1 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 3 0 1 0 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 2 2 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 3 5 0 pteridium esculentum 1 1 0 2 Tupeia antarctica 0 1 0 0 Adiantum type 3 2 Cyathea dealbata type 8 7 5 6 4 Cyathea smithii type 1 4 1 4 2 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 1 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fem spores 24 7 5 5 1 Paesia scaberula 0 0 0 0 0 Phylfoglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 7 2 1 1 1 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 6 4 4 2 5 Cyperaceae 221 147 252 175 179 Drosera 0 0 0 0 325 Depth (m) 1 .4 1 .45 1 .5 1 .55 1 .65 Epacridaceae 2 2 0 2 0 G/eichenia 61 25 19 22 19 Haloragis 0 0 1 0 0 Leptospermum type 6 47 15 121 30 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 2 0 0 Restionaceae 145 106 28 19 1 8 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 2 2 0 0 0 Depth (m) 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 2.05 2.1 5 Lycopodium spike 156 62 327 661 323 Spike concentration 1 1300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 1 1 300 Total pollen concentration 6 20 5 3 6 Charcoal concentration 33 36 2 3 16 Fuscospora 54 41 4 4 Agathis austra/is 7 13 22 1 9 20 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 1 6 2 4 3 Dacrydium cupressinum 72 72 71 69 63 Halocarpus 3 5 0 0 2 Ubocedrus 9 1 1 13 21 14 Manoao colensoi 4 4 4 6 1 Phyllocladus 5 1 19 13 9 Podocarpus type 33 16 1 0 1 4 2 Prumnopitys ferruginea 10 3 1 0 3 4 Prumnopitys taxifo/ia 19 15 15 8 1 0 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 2 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 1 2 1 5 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 0 Laure/ia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 4 8 17 22 29 Nestegis 3 6 3 3 1 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 0 2 2 Syzygium maire 0 0 2 4 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 8 1 3 Ascarina lucida 3 4 0 Asteraceae 1 0 2 Carpodetus 0 1 0 0 0 Cordy/ine 0 1 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 1 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 Grise/inia 2 0 2 5 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 1 1 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 326 Depth (m) 1 .75 1 .85 1 .95 2.05 2.15 Myrsine 3 1 2 1 2 Neomyrtus type 0 1 2 7 8 Pittosporum 2 3 0 3 2 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 1 0 0 1 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 1 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 Astelia 0 3 1 1 2 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 0 0 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 lIeostylus micranthus 0 1 0 0 0 Uliaceae 1 2 0 Parsonsia 0 0 1 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 4 2 Pteridium esculentum 2 3 2 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 2 0 2 3 Cyathea dealbata type 9 6 10 6 9 Cyathea smithii type 4 4 2 0 4 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 0 0 0 2 2 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 3 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 3 8 36 1 14 1 63 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phylloglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 0 2 3 23 31 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 7 5 16 29 Cyperaceae 75 181 252 335 293 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 3 5 1 Gleichenia 1 1 59 35 22 4 Haloragis 0 0 0 1 4 Leptospermum type 28 24 1 36 65 29 Myriophyl/um 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 1 0 Restionaceae 22 24 4 8 5 Typha 0 0 0 0 1 Unknowns 0 1 4 0 327 Depth (m) 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55 2.65 Lycopodium spike 1 18 1 55 74 1 8 53 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1300 1 1300 1 1 300 1 1 300 Total pollen concentration 17 14 15 49 15 Charcoal concentration 0 14 0 2 1 Fuscospora 4 12 1 1 2 Agathis australis 22 1 3 1 8 9 1 3 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 6 7 75 83 44 Dacrydium cupressinum 45 69 37 32 36 Ha/ocarpus 0 3 0 3 1 Ubocedrus 7 6 2 5 6 Manoao colensoi 0 0 1 Phyllocladus 7 4 3 5 3 Podocarpus type 10 14 5 Pruinnopitys ferruginea 5 9 5 0 3 Prumnopitys taxifolia 9 1 2 8 1 3 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 1 2 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 1 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 2 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 3 1 3 3 2 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 0 0 0 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 27 20 38 38 37 Nestegis 2 7 4 6 4 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 2 2 5 3 Syzygium maire 1 0 5 6 6 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 23 6 2 2 Ascarina lucida 1 2 0 3 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordyline 0 3 1 3 1 Coriaria 0 2 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 4 3 1 8 20 25 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 1 1 0 1 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 2 2 5 6 8 Neomyrtus type 29 91 73 22 32 Pittosporum 3 6 5 4 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 1 2 4 8 4 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 1 0 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 Scheff/era digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 4 0 2 2 5 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 328 Depth (m) 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55 2.65 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 0 2 10 8 1 0 Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 lleostylus micranthus 0 0 0 1 0 Uliaceae 1 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 0 0 0 0 Poaceae 0 0 2 0 0 Pteridium esculentum 1 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 1 0 0 Adiantum type 0 1 1 0 Cyathea dealbata type 6 7 7 6 Cyathea smithii type 2 3 0 1 1 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 1 2 1 Hymenophyllum 3 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 1 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 341 422 106 53 58 Paesia scaberula 1 0 0 0 0 Phylloglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 27 23 18 33 20 Pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 1 20 2 3 3 Cyperaceae 237 46 2 1 6 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 1 3 2 8 3 G/eichenia 0 23 0 0 0 Haloragis 28 57 1 0 0 Leptospermum type 1 1 37 4 1 4 Myriophyllum 0 1 0 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 1 1 1 0 2 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Depth (m) 2.75 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.15 Lycopodium spike 15 10 14 1 3 24 Spike concentration 1 1300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 Total pollen concentration 56 83 54 59 32 Charcoal concentration 3 5 1 0 Fuscospora 1 2 1 0 2 Agathis austra/is 7 4 7 5 5 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 34 31 39 45 54 Dacryditim cupressinum 60 54 53 44 47 Ha/ocarpus 0 1 0 0 0 Libocedrus 0 4 7 5 4 329 Depth (m) 2.75 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.1 5 Manoao colensoi 0 0 1 Phyllocladus 5 4 5 3 3 Podocarpus type 4 10 6 7 3 Prumnopitys ferruginea 4 5 2 1 1 Prumnopitys taxifolia 4 4 4 2 2 Alectryon excelsus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 2 2 2 1 3 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 2 0 1 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 64 42 44 36 39 Nestegis 1 3 4 1 1 7 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 7 9 9 2 7 Syzygium maire 5 4 1 2 3 Vitex lucens 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 2 1 1 0 Ascarina lucida 5 4 1 0 7 1 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordyline 0 0 2 0 Coriaria 0 0 2 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 1 0 0 0 0 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 13 24 10 15 19 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 0 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 6 6 4 7 1 0 Neomyrtus type 21 1 1 9 10 1 0 Pittosporum 2 4 7 8 8 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 8 14 7 7 6 Pseudowintera 0 0 0 0 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 2 4 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 1 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 3 0 1 2 2 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus tay/orii 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 2 5 6 16 15 Hydrocoty/e novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 lIeosty/us micranthus 0 0 1 3 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 1 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 1 0 0 0 Poaceae 4 0 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 0 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 330 Depth (m) 2.75 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.15 Adiantum type 0 0 0 0 0 Cyathea dealbata type 6 7 5 4 2 Cyathea smithit type 1 2 3 0 2 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 Hymenophyllum 3 1 0 3 2 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 1 0 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 0 0 0 Lygodium articulatum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 56 68 43 53 54 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phylloglossum drummondii 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 24 25 20 20 16 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 5 1 2 Cyperaceae 0 3 1 0 0 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 2 6 3 Gleichenia 2 1 3 0 1 Haloragis 0 0 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 2 0 0 2 1 Myriophyllum 2 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 2 0 0 Restionaceae 0 0 0 3 1 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 3 5 0 Depth (m) 3.25 3.35 3.45 3.55 3.65 Lycopodium spike 45 25 36 57 176 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 Total pollen concentration 21 32 23 17 5 Charcoal concentration 2 2 4 2 Fuscospora 0 1 1 3 Agathis australis 4 5 8 5 9 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 58 63 1 1 1 9 37 Dacrydium cupressinum 78 77 95 94 60 Halocarpus 4 1 2 2 Ubocedrus 4 8 , 6 3 Manoao colensoi 2 3 2 5 1 Phyllocladus 7 10 8 4 10 Podocarpus type 9 8 12 19 7 Prumnopitys ferruginea 3 3 7 10 4 Prumnopitys taxifolia 10 13 12 14 9 A/ectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxylum spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 Elaeocarpus 0 3 3 3 2 331 Depth (m) 3.25 3.35 3.45 3.55 3.65 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia excelsa 4 1 0 1 0 Laurelia novae-zelandiae 0 0 1 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 18 12 26 38 48 Nestegis 12 8 5 2 9 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 0 0 Quintinia 2 6 5 1 6 Syzygium maire 2 0 3 1 Vitex lucens 0 0 1 0 0 Weinmannia 0 0 0 0 4 Ascarina lucida 13 12 10 8 4 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordyline 0 2 1 2 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 1 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 9 10 1 3 5 4 Ixerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fasciculatus 0 0 1 1 0 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 1 4 4 6 7 Neomyrtus type 8 5 4 14 27 Pittosporum 2 3 0 3 3 Plagianthus type 0 0 0 0 0 Pseudopanax 5 4 2 Pseudowintera 0 0 1 Rhopalostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 SChefflera digitata 0 0 0 3 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 7 0 0 1 2 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Dactylanthus taylorii 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 4 4 2 5 5 HydrocotyJe novae-zeJandiae 0 0 0 l/eostyJus micranthus 0 0 1 1 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 Phormium 2 3 2 Poaceae 0 0 0 0 pteridium escuJentum 2 1 0 0 0 TUpeia antarctica 0 0 0 0 0 Adiantum type 0 0 1 1 1 Cyathea dea/bata type 5 9 4 5 Cyathea smithii type 3 3 0 2 Dicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Dicksonia squarrosa 0 0 0 0 1 Hymenophyl/um 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 1 0 0 1 0 Lycopodium laterale 0 0 0 0 0 332 Depth (m) 3.25 3.35 3.45 3.55 3.65 Lycopodium varium 4 1 2 1 2 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 74 46 42 41 35 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phyllog/ossum drummondii 1 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 57 25 19 18 20 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 1 3 2 7 1 1 Cyperaceae 0 0 5 23 29 Drosera 0 0 0 0 0 Epacridaceae 2 5 0 5 G/eichenia 7 4 26 40 9 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 1 0 Leptospermum type 0 1 3 10 22 Myriophyllum 0 0 0 0 0 Potamogeton 1 0 0 1 Restionaceae 0 1 3 4 5 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 4 Depth (m) 3.75 3.85 3.95 4.05 4.1 5 Lycopodium spike 31 23 39 14 24 Spike concentration 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1 300 1 1300 1 1 300 Total pollen concentration 31 29 25 59 38 Charcoal concentration 0 2 2 1 8 Fuscospora 2 0 0 0 0 Agathis austra/is 5 3 3 3 4 Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 28 37 45 19 17 Dacrydium cupressinum 91 1 1 7 202 1 72 210 Ha/ocarpus 0 3 5 2 2 Libocedrus 3 5 4 5 3 Manoao co/ensoi 5 2 4 2 3 Phylloc/adus 10 9 7 4 1 0 Podocarpus type 1 1 7 13 4 1 0 Prumnopitys ferruginea 13 10 10 13 8 Prumnopitys taxifolia 14 9 12 6 1 0 A/ectryon exce/sus 0 0 0 0 0 Beilschmiedia 0 0 0 0 0 Casuarina 0 0 0 0 0 Dysoxy/um spectabile 0 0 0 0 0 E/aeocarpus 0 0 0 1 0 Hedycarya arborea 0 0 0 0 0 Knightia exce/sa 2 2 3 3 4 Laurelia novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 Metrosideros undiff. 25 18 19 17 25 Nestegis 9 2 4 2 2 Nothofagus menziesii 0 0 0 1 0 Quintinia 1 0 0 0 2 Syzygium maire 0 2 0 0 0 Vitex /ucens 0 0 0 0 0 Weinmannia 3 4 3 2 333 Depth (m) 3.75 3.85 3.95 4.05 4.1 5 Ascarina lucida 0 0 0 0 Asteraceae 0 0 0 0 0 Carpodetus 0 0 0 0 0 Cordy/ine 1 0 0 0 0 Coriaria 0 0 0 0 0 Dodonaea viscosa 0 0 0 0 1 Fabaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Fuschia 0 0 0 0 0 Griselinia 3 0 0 2 0 /xerba brexioides 0 0 0 0 0 Leucopogon fascicu/atus 6 3 1 4 Malvaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Myrsine 2 2 1 0 0 Neomyrtus type 26 18 6 3 Pittosporum 5 0 3 5 1 P/agianthus type 0 0 2 0 0 Pseudopanax 0 0 0 Pseudowintera 2 3 8 16 1 1 Rhopa/ostylis sapida 0 0 0 0 0 Schefflera digitata 0 0 0 0 0 Apiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Astelia 3 2 3 4 2 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Oacty/anthus tay/orii 0 0 0 0 0 Freycinetia baueriana 1 0 1 1 0 Hydrocoty/e novae-ze/andiae 0 0 0 0 0 I/eosty/us micranthus 0 0 0 0 0 Liliaceae 0 0 0 0 0 Parsonsia 0 0 0 0 0 Phormium 0 1 1 0 Poaceae 0 0 0 pteridium escu/entum 0 0 0 0 Tupeia antarctica 0 1 2 5 3 Adiantum type 2 0 1 Cyathea dea/bata type 1 6 8 8 Cyathea smithii type 2 0 1 0 3 Oicksonia fibrosa 0 0 0 0 0 Oicksonia squarrosa 0 1 4 2 Hymenophyllum 1 0 1 Lycopodium cemuum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium deuterodensum 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium fastigiatum 0 0 2 0 1 Lycopodium /atera/e 0 0 0 0 0 Lycopodium varium 1 0 0 0 2 Lygodium articu/atum 0 0 0 0 0 Monolete fern spores 7 14 24 38 27 Paesia scaberu/a 0 0 0 0 0 Phyl/og/ossum drummondi 0 0 0 0 0 Phymatosorus 2 1 7 5 5 pteris 0 0 0 0 0 Coprosma 34 1 1 21 17 10 Cyperaceae 7 3 0 0 Orosera 0 0 0 0 0 334 Depth (m) 3.75 3.85 3.95 4.05 4.15 Epacridaceae 1 0 0 0 0 G/eichenia 48 0 0 0 0 Ha/oragis 0 0 0 Leptospermum type 39 6 3 2 0 Myriophyllum 0 0 2 0 0 Potamogeton 0 0 0 0 Restionaceae 1 0 1 0 0 Typha 0 0 0 0 0 Unknowns 0 0 0 0 0 Depth (m) 4.25 4.35 4.45 Lycopodium spike 29 18 34 Spil