Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for 
a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and 
private study only.  The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without 
the permission of the Author. 
 



 

 

 

 

Finding Meaning in Mindfulness: An Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis 

 

 

A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of  

 

 

 

 

Master of Science  

in 

Psychology 

 

 

 

 

At Massey University, Albany, New Zealand 

 

 

 

 

 

Josephine Longmore 

 

2019  



 
 

i 

Abstract 

With deep origins in Eastern Buddhist philosophy, mindfulness practice (MP) has 

risen in popularity in Western culture due to an increased secular delivery of the 

practice in both clinical and non-clinical settings. Research has focussed largely on 

measuring the quantitative physical and psychological effects of MP and 

determining the efficacy of MP for treatments of various physical and psychological 

conditions. Through research, increased meaning in life has been correlated with 

positive well-being, and examinations into the link between meaning and MP has 

generated several theories. Negative experiences of MP have also been the subject 

of more recent research, with issues arising such as non-identification, 

depersonalisation, and depressive experiences. The current study attempted to 

answer the call for qualitative research into the experiential aspects of MP, to 

understand how MP may influence paths to meaning in secular individuals. This 

study aimed to complement existing quantitative data surrounding MP through 

qualitative Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA).  

Six participants took part in a semi-structured interview subjected to IPA by 

a single researcher. Three overarching themes as paths to meaning were apparent 

– ‘Awareness’, ‘Non-judgment’, and ‘Enhanced Connection’. The overarching theme 

‘Enhanced Connection’ comprised of four themes – ‘Connection with Others’, 

‘Authenticity – A new way of connecting to the self’, ‘Positive Perceptual Shift – A 

new way of connecting’, and ‘ Connection and Spirituality’. ‘Connection with 

Others’ consisted of four subthemes – ‘Belonging’, Co-creation of Meaning’, ‘Cycle 

of Positive Contribution’, and ‘Authenticity’. Negative experiences presented by 

participants consisted of issues of non-identification, performance expectation, the 

need for supervision/guidance, and a lack of holistic understanding within the 

Western secular framework of MP delivery. Despite the interpretive and subjective 

nature of analysis, and the small sample size, results of the current study were 

compelling, highlighting humanity’s inherent social nature, while touching on issues 

of decontextualisation of MP from the Buddhist framework.  

 



 
 

ii 

Acknowledgements 

This study did not involve the participation of minors, individuals with 

intellectual or mental health disorders, nor did it involve any form of intervention, 

therefore it was classified as low risk. Notification of the low risk nature of the study 

was made to the Massey University Human Ethics Committee prior to 

commencement of the study. The author would foremost like to thank and 

acknowledge all the participants for their time, and open discussions – without your 

honesty and openness this research would not have been possible. I have learned 

so much from each of you and aspire to cultivate the open and accepting nature 

you have all developed through mindfulness practice. I would like to thank my 

supervisor Heather Kempton for her guidance, positive instruction and 

communication.  Your trust in me through this process has taught me to trust and 

believe in myself more. Lastly, I would like to thank my family for their support and 

understanding, please know I have done this for you as much as for myself. 

  



 
 

iii 

Table of Contents 

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..i 

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. ii 

Table of Contents ................................................................................................... iii 

Tables and Figures ...................................................................................................v 

Chapter 1: Introduction and Literature Review ....................................................... 1 

1.1. The Origins of Secular Mindfulness .......................................................................... 1 

1.2. The Focus of Previous Research into the Effects of Mindfulness .............................. 2 

1.3. The Significance of Meaning .................................................................................... 6 

1.4. Theories Addressing Mindfulness and Meaning ....................................................... 8 
1.4.1. Reappraisal. .................................................................................................................... 8 
1.4.2. Acceptance. .................................................................................................................... 9 
1.4.3. Relationships/Connection ............................................................................................. 10 
1.4.4. Awareness and congruency........................................................................................... 12 
1.4.5. Spirituality. ................................................................................................................... 13 

1.5. Comparison of research exploring mindfulness and meaning ................................ 18 

1.6. Review of literature supporting qualitative research into mindfulness ................. 20 

1.7. Summary of findings .............................................................................................. 21 

Chapter 2: Method ................................................................................................ 25 

2.1. Participants ............................................................................................................ 25 
2.1.1. Summary of participant mindfulness practice................................................................ 26 

2.2. Clarifying the Constructs ........................................................................................ 27 
2.2.1. Mindfulness defined ..................................................................................................... 28 
2.2.2. Meaning defined. ......................................................................................................... 28 
2.2.3. Secular defined. ............................................................................................................ 29 

2.3. Interview process ................................................................................................... 30 

2.4. Analysis .................................................................................................................. 32 

2.5. Reliability and validity ............................................................................................ 34 

Chapter 3: Results ................................................................................................. 37 

3.1. Prior Participant Attitudes Towards Mindfulness .................................................. 37 

3.2. Motivation to Learn Mindfulness ........................................................................... 38 

3.3. Presenting Themes ................................................................................................. 40 
3.3.1. Overarching theme – The path of the non-judgmental attitude to enhanced meaning. .. 41 
3.3.2. Overarching theme – Increased meaning through awareness and presence. ................. 51 
3.3.3. Overarching theme – Connectedness enhances meaning. ............................................. 59 

3.4. A Note on Finalisation of Themes ........................................................................... 80 



 
 

iv 

3.5 A Brief Exploration into Negative Effects of Mindfulness Practice .......................... 81 

Chapter 4: Discussion ............................................................................................ 85 

4.1. Indications for Future Research ............................................................................. 97 

4.2. Strengths and Limitations of the Current Study ..................................................... 98 

Chapter 5: Conclusion ......................................................................................... 103 

References ........................................................................................................... 106 

Appendix A: Participant Screening Questionnaire .............................................. 117 

Appendix B: Participant Advertisements............................................................. 118 

Appendix C: Mindfulness Thesis Information Sheet ............................................ 120 

Appendix D: Participant Consent Form ............................................................... 122 

Appendix E: Interview Schedule .......................................................................... 123 

Appendix F: Transcript Release Authority ........................................................... 126 

Appendix G: Codewords ...................................................................................... 127 

Appendix H: Coding Notes................................................................................... 130 
 

 

  



 
 

v 

Tables and Figures 

Table 2.1: Participant motivation, training, and length of mindfulness practice .............. 27 

Figure 3.1: Pathways to meaning through mindfulness practice. ..................................... 41 

 

 

 

  



 
 

1 

Chapter 1: Introduction and Literature Review  

1.1. The Origins of Secular Mindfulness 

Recent research around the construct of mindfulness has experienced rapid 

growth since it was introduced into mainstream psychology in 1979 at the Stress 

Reduction Clinic situated in the University of Massachusetts Medical Centre by Jon 

Kabat-Zinn (Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2013).  Despite the popularity of secular 

mindfulness in western culture, it has deep roots in Buddhism (Liselotte, 2014).  The 

term mindfulness has origins in the Pali term Sati - lucid awareness, originally 

'memory' but adopted/adapted by Buddha to mean an awareness. The meaning is 

similar to observation, watchfulness, and an ability to observe without judgment or 

emotion. It is a foundation of Buddhist practice "the Buddha treats each of the four 

establishments of mindfulness as a springboard to the seven factors of 

enlightenment" (Bodhi, 2013). Mindfulness is therefore an act of establishing 

presence, it is more than just 'bare attention'.  'Bare attention' can be a helpful 

descriptor for assisting newcomers in cultivating their practice, it does not however 

encompass the essential non-judgmental nature that is required of mindfulness 

practice.  

The practice of mindfulness has become secularised and simplified in 

western culture, where the importance now in western society is on experience 

rather than beliefs and organizations (Liselotte, 2014).  Maxwell and Duff (2016) 

state whether Buddhist or secular, mindfulness practice can have positive effects 

on both psychological and physical health. Pagnini and Langer (2015) distinguish 

between mindfulness and meditation,  with mindfulness viewed as the quality in 

which an individual attends to the present moment which can be enhanced by 

numerous practices including but not limited to meditation. This concept is 

supported by Maxwell and Duff (2016), that meditation is not the only way to be 

mindful. In truth there are many opportunities to practice mindfulness, including 

yoga, focused attention meditation, and whole-body scan (Kabat-Zinn, 2014). 

Typically, secular mindfulness practice (MP) involves focussed attention - often 

focussing on the breath - gently pulling attention back to the focus when the mind 



 
 

2 

wanders, while employing a non-judgmental attitude toward both thoughts and 

practice. 

 

1.2. The Focus of Previous Research into the Effects of Mindfulness 

Mindfulness has become a well-established psychological tool, appearing as 

a core component of mindfulness based interventions such as Mindfulness Based 

Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), and 

Mindfulness Based Relapse Prevention (MBRP), as well as being integrated into 

treatments such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), and Dialectical 

Behaviour Therapy (DBT) (Lisolette, 2014; Stratton, 2015; Schmidtman, 2017). The 

rise in acceptance of mindfulness within Western culture is demonstrated in its 

success both inside and outside the domain of psychology. There are many ways 

individuals can come into contact with secular forms of mindfulness without being 

involved in psychological therapy, for example, mindfulness has branched into 

education, medicine, and business (Stratton, 2015; Thomas & Atkinson 2017). 

Fortune magazine noted that the mindfulness industry generated more than one 

billion dollars revenue in 2015 (Wieczner, 2016).  

The success of mindfulness in a clinical setting has undoubtedly paved the 

way for acceptance and normalisation of these practices across a wide number of 

environments. The physiological and quantifiable effects of MP on physical states 

and mental ailments has been researched across numerous populations. For 

example, the stress reduction effects of MP have received significant focus across 

clinical (Goldberg et al., 2018), student (Maynard, Solis, Miller, Brendel & Campbell 

Collaboration, 2017), teaching (Klingbeil & Renshaw, 2018), and medical 

professional populations (White, 2014). This focus could largely be attributed to the 

origins of modern MP in Western culture stemming from the introduction of MBSR.  

Research outside of these four major areas is limited, as is research of a qualitative 

nature, where the idiographic perceptual changes individuals experience has 

received much less attention. This is partly due to the more time consuming and 

challenging manner of accessing an individual's experience. The nature of 

qualitative research attempts to go further than simply who or how many, seeking 



 
 

3 

to uncover the meaning of an experience. As such it frequently involves some form 

of in-depth analysis of case studies or narratives such as interviews, or diary entries. 

The process can be lengthy, but the depth of data gained cannot be matched by 

quantitative methods. 

The majority of research into secular mindfulness has been quantitative, 

measuring both the physiological and psychological effects of engaging in 

mindfulness practice, often by way of rating scales and self-report measures.  A 

significant amount of literature into the effects of clinical mindfulness-based 

interventions have found that MP can improve symptoms of both physical and 

psychological disorders including depression, chronic pain, insomnia, substance 

abuse, blood pressure, fibromyalgia and irritable bowel syndrome (Gillespie, Davey 

& Flemke, 2015; Jain, 2017; Maxwell & Duff, 2016; Schmidtman, 2017). There are 

numerous accounts of the efficacy of the practice in reducing 'negative symptoms' 

of psychological disorders, such as depression and anxiety by interrupting 

rumination and catastrophizing patterns (Leyland, 2018; Maxwell & Duff, 2016).  

Psychological benefits of MP include increased emotional regulation, empathy, 

attention, memory, intra and interpersonal relations, improved body awareness 

and increases in positive affect (Lacaille et al., 2018; Maxwell & Duff, 2016; Van 

Vliet et al., 2017). Research has also shown that mindfulness interventions create 

changes in brain function, such as significant changes in alpha and theta activity, 

prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex activations (Maxwell & Duff, 2016; 

Schmidtman, 2017), they can also lower cortisol and norepinephrine levels, and 

blood pressure (Gillespie, Davey, & Flemke, 2015). These effects are similar to what 

Benson (1975) termed the relaxation response (RR), essentially the opposite of the 

fight-or-flight response. It was concluded from Benson's studies that engaging in 

activities which elicited the RR could also affect spiritual perspectives, with 25% of 

individuals engaging in activities producing the RR feeling more spiritual as a result 

of practice. Greeson et al. (2011) also reported that MP resulted in increases in 

daily spiritual experiences, determining that increases in these experiences 

contributed to the enhanced well-being and mental health MP can provide. 



 
 

4 

While the popularity and evidence of the efficacy of MP has been growing, 

research has offered little in the way of understanding how mindfulness achieves 

such gains, or what the experience is like for the individuals who practice 

mindfulness.  Also, while the benefits of MP generally appear to be positive for an 

individual’s well-being, not all experiences of MP are positive. The negative effects 

and experiences of MP is a growing field and research indicates that while there are 

numerous benefits, MP may not be suitable for all individuals.  Cebolla et al.’s 

(2017) quantitative investigation into unwanted effects (UE) of meditative practice - 

including focused attention (25.4%), open monitoring (19.3%), body awareness 

(24.3%), compassion (9.4%), imagination (7.9%), and informal practices (11.1%) - 

found that 25.4% of participants surveyed experienced some form of UE. The online 

self-report survey delivered in Spanish, Portuguese, and English languages accessed 

a majority female (68.4%) sample from over 12 countries predominantly across the 

Americas and European continent. Reported UE included anxiety, 

depersonalisation, derealisation, emotional lability, and dizziness or loss of 

consciousness. Only 10.3% of these participants reported the UE were continuous, 

the majority (50.5%) did not comment, and 39% reported that these effects were 

transitory. The UE resulted in 1.1% of respondents discontinuing meditation. 

Unwanted effects were found to be more common in individual rather than group 

practice and were more likely to occur with focussed attention practices in this 

particular study. These results supported the hypothesis that any UE would be mild 

and transitory in nature and would not result in cessation of practice. They also 

highlight the fact that meditative and mindful practices may not be suitable for all 

individuals and that the experience varies greatly across individuals; it is this 

individual experience that qualitative research such as IPA attempts to capture.  

Lindahl et al. (2017) conducted semi-structured interviews with follow up 

questionnaires over 60 western Buddhist meditation practitioners to gain 

information regarding meditation related experiences. Attention was given to 

uncovering unexpected, challenging, and/or difficult experiences during meditative 

practice. Varied meditative practices were represented including focussed 

attention, insight, body scan, loving kindness, visualisation, and mantra, with a fairly 



 
 

5 

even representation of both Male (57%) and Female (43%) participants. A wide 

range of experiences were reported over seven phenomenological domains 

including cognitive, perceptual, affective, somatic, conative, sense of self, and 

social.  Experiences of positive affect were reported by 75% of participants, 

collectively the negative affective experiences of fear, anxiety, panic, or paranoia 

were reported by 82% of participants often occurring as the result of some other 

negative experience. Experiences which could be deemed negative included loss of 

sense of self (25%), boundaries (53%), and self-agency (25%), depressive (57%), re-

experiencing of trauma (43%), anger related (30%), emotional lability (28%), 

delusional beliefs (47%), hallucinations (42%) and social impairment (50%). 

Associated functional impairment from negative experiences ranged from minimal 

and transient to severe and long lasting. This demonstrates that negative 

experiences can be a common effect of meditative practice, and while many 

experiences are transitory in nature some can have long lasting impacts on 

individuals.  

 Lomas et al. (2015) investigated the challenges of MP among adult male 

meditators including mindfulness meditation (35.4%), loving kindness meditation 

(35.4%), six element (7.3%), and other (17%). Qualitative semi-structured 

interviews with 30 participants uncovered the following five broad categories of 

experience during MP: difficulties learning meditation, such as ‘self-doubt’ and 

‘feeling trapped’; troubling experiences of self, such as facing the ‘negative qualities 

of their thoughts’; exacerbation of psychological problems, such as the difficulty in 

maintaining a non-judgmental attitude toward their thoughts resulting in ‘poor self-

esteem' and ‘anxiety’; reality being challenged, such as ‘dissolution of identity’. 

Overall however participants felt MP was positive with increases in compensatory 

positive experiences, such as feelings of ‘happiness’ and ‘contentment’.  

These findings are similar to those of Cebolla et al. (2017) highlighting UE 

such as anxiety and identity struggles, while also acknowledging that generally MP 

has positive impacts. The qualitative nature of this study provided more detail 

though, pointing toward the possible mechanisms behind these experiences such as 

anxiety resulting from the difficulties maintaining non-judgment.  As both meaning 



 
 

6 

and mindfulness appeared to be significant contributors to wellbeing across the 

literature, it was felt that the interplay between the two among the growing 

western secular population deserved further attention. As such the current study 

sought to gain deeper understanding of the experience of MP, in order to uncover 

the mechanisms of meaning making processes of individuals. 

 

1.3. The Significance of Meaning 

Studies focusing on meaning found that low meaning in life, or search for 

meaning, resulted in poor outcomes for health and wellbeing, whereas high 

presence of meaning was associated with high positive outcomes on well-being 

(Bloch et al., 2017; Pedersen et al., 2018).  Numerous studies support a correlation 

between religiosity and meaning, however these findings are irrelevant for a 

significant portion of the world's population. Online global 2010 census data 

released by Pew Research Centre 

(https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/) 

indicated there were at least 1.1 billion secular individuals worldwide, with high and 

growing concentrations in westernised countries across Europe and Northern 

America. It must be acknowledged that identifying as secular does not necessarily 

mean the individual does not hold some form of spiritual belief, rather they do not 

adhere to the doctrines and structure of organised religious belief systems. It is 

possible that spiritual belief in and of itself, could provide positive benefits for an 

individual's well-being in a similar manner to religious practice. 

Pedersen et al. (2018) found differences in the sources of meaning amongst 

the various secular groups. The study was conducted with a Danish population of 

554 adults, with a slight female majority (66%).  Participants responded to an online 

delivery of self-report rating scales consisting of measures from the Danish version 

of the ‘Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire’, ‘Hospital Anxiety 

and Depression Scale’, and the ‘Satisfaction with Life Scale’. The study found that 

agnostic individuals - who believe that the existence of a higher power is 

unknowable - frequently found meaning through acts of social commitment. 

Atheist individuals - who lack belief in a higher power - more commonly found 



 
 

7 

meaning through individual and achievement-oriented acts. The research also 

found that both marital status and children brought meaning to individuals, 

demonstrating the importance of relationships on an individual's overall well-being, 

and how individual perspectives were important in defining an individual’s 

meaning. 

Aligning with the findings of Pedersen et al. (2018), Kucinskas, Wright, and 

Riepl (2018) found activities involving engagement with others, community, and 

activities with purpose were significant contributors to meaning. Theorising that 

‘meaning has state like qualities’ the study attempted to investigate how meaning 

varied over differing contexts and situations in everyday life; specifically, by hour of 

the day, activity, and who the participant was with at the time. Participants were 

required to possess smartphones to access two delivered short surveys each day, 

for two weeks. The sample comprised American adult participants, with a high 

representation of Protestants (72%) and a slight female majority (61%). As with 

Pedersen et al. (2018) this study found higher levels of meaning when time was 

spent with spouses, supporting intimate connection as a source of meaning.  

Meditative practices, along with prayer and worship were significantly linked to 

meaningful experiences, indicating their power to foster meaning in individuals’ 

lives. Individuals who reported high engagement in conversation with others also 

experienced significantly more meaning. Work and music were also found to be 

significant contributors to meaning, whereas leisurely activities involving little 

cognitive engagement were linked to much lower levels of meaning.  

A major drawback of this study was the requirement to possess a 

smartphone, as this was not representative of the general population, potentially 

excluding older less technologically savvy, or low socio-economic participants. 

Another drawback could be the time commitment required to answer the two daily 

surveys for two weeks; there is potential that individuals may not have given each 

survey equal time, thought and attention over the duration of the data gathering 

period. However, the data still provides evidence supporting the varying sources of 

meaning for individuals and how levels of meaningfulness can be affected by 

various activities across everyday life.  



 
 

8 

 

1.4. Theories Addressing Mindfulness and Meaning 

Research into the mechanisms of MP has provided some interesting observations, 

which have in turn generated several theories, many linking enhanced meaning 

gained through mindfulness to the positive effects observed (Bloch et al., 2017; 

Ward & King, 2017). Effects of MP including reappraisal, acceptance, relationships, 

awareness, congruency and enhanced spirituality appeared as prominent themes in 

the literature. 

1.4.1. Reappraisal. The Mindfulness to Meaning Theory (MMT) - (Garland, 

Farb, Goldin & Fredrickson, 2015) was born from a drive to provide a causal model 

of how mindfulness promoted wellbeing. MMT posits that MP promotes 

reappraisal and savouring which are central to the development of meaning.  

Specifically, MP teaches individuals to decentre from stress and rigid thoughts, 

cultivating broadened awareness and attention to stimuli which support reappraisal 

of situations. Broadened awareness allows for acknowledgement of new data, 

resulting in cognitive flexibility, the creation of new cognitive schema and the 

reorganisation of cognitive patterns. This gives rise to acceptance, which is posited 

as a gateway for attention and a pathway to positive emotion associated with 

experiences. Noticing and savouring positive stimuli in turn motivates value driven 

behaviour, contributing to eudemonic meaning. This posits a connection between 

reappraisal and congruency as a path to well-being. Garland et al. (2015) discussed 

the notion that mindfulness contributed to spirituality, as states of nondual 

awareness encountered by practitioners of mindfulness facilitate attentional 

enhancement and psychological flexibility. They posit that these ‘awakenings’ are in 

fact reappraisals which lead individuals down a path of self-transformation where 

individuals transcend the thought of a separate self, realising and embracing 

nonduality, understanding that they are not separate from the larger universe. They 

also make an important point acknowledging that meaning is not inherent in stimuli 

or situations, rather it is personally constructed by each individual and their unique 

appraisal. Therefore, the act of MP and its effect on attentional capacity and 



 
 

9 

appraisal directly influences the meaning that individuals create in their everyday 

being.  

Pagnini and Langer (2015) also highlighted the mechanism of reappraisal as 

a contributor to positive emotions and meaning. They did not view mindfulness as a 

technique to be practised, stating it was both state and trait and the mindful person 

was deeply aware of the constant change around them and how they appraised and 

interacted with change. Awareness of constant change and differing points of view 

demanded constant reappraisal, as such reappraisal was viewed as a subtype of 

mindfulness. They also noted the relevance of reappraisal as an important 

mechanism for change in psychotherapy, essential for contributing to realistic 

thinking, reducing rumination and catastrophising. Although reappraisal was 

posited as a contributor to meaning by both of these studies Pagnini and Langer 

(2015) viewed it as a subtype of mindfulness, where Garland et al. (2015) saw it as a 

mechanism resulting from mindfulness. The mechanisms for change in both studies 

point to cognitive flexibility and fluidity as a result of MP influencing perspectives 

and experiences. 

1.4.2. Acceptance. The research of Burzler, Voracek, Hos, & Tran (2018) into 

the mechanisms of MP in the general population concluded that acceptance of 

emotions was central to the positive benefits MP had on mental health.  The study 

identified 268 regular practitioners of mindfulness across a European adult (18-86) 

population with a roughly equal representation of male and female participants 

(54% female). Varied styles of meditative practice were represented including yoga, 

zen, vipassana and MBSR. The study used various rating scales to measure 

mindfulness, depression, anxiety, somatisation, attention regulation, body 

awareness, emotional regulation, and nonattachment. Acceptance of emotions as 

measured by the ‘Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire’ was indicated as a central 

tenet of mindfulness’ influence on positive mental health. Nonattachment as 

measured by the German translation of the ‘Nonattachment Scale’ was also 

considered a major contributor due to its links to cognitive diffusion. Trait 

mindfulness as cultivated through meditative practices was found to have positive 

benefits on mental health for both seasoned and naïve practitioners, however 



 
 

10 

seasoned practitioners reported consistently higher levels of trait mindfulness. 

Burzler et al. acknowledged that MP did not provide individuals with new 

mechanisms, rather regular MP appeared to strengthen the effects existing 

mechanisms such as self-regulated attention had on positive mental health 

outcomes. This suggests that benefits of MP are available to all who practice but 

are likely more readily accessible to individuals who engage in formal mindfulness 

activities regularly. 

1.4.3. Relationships/Connection. Research suggested that strong feelings of 

connection fostered by MP contributed to the development and enhancement of 

meaning. Theories generated included that increased meaning was developed via 

increased relational capabilities (Siegel, 2009). Positing that MP enhanced 

intrapersonal relations via a process of integration, becoming attuned to oneself 

while realising the connection to a greater whole.  They discussed the process of 

turning ingrained external focus inward during MP, allowing individuals to explore 

and expand their sense of self. This intrapersonal attunement teaches individuals 

that awareness is multi-layered, promoting flexibility with oneself. Flexibility 

resulted in an acceptance of multiple perspectives, cultivating understanding and 

transformation. Also noting that neural social circuitry is activated during MP, it is 

an act of learning how to ‘befriend’ the self, skills which were then transferred to 

relations with others.  This learning and realisation of alternative perspectives is 

similar to the concept of broadened awareness and cognitive flexibility resulting 

from reappraisal as discussed by Garland et al. (2015) and Pagnini and Langer 

(2015). These theories highlight the influence of mindfulness on cognitive 

mechanisms and the positive effects of the development of cognitive fluidity. 

A multi discipline study across four separate adult populations (Lambert et 

al., 2013) appeared in line with Siegel’s (2009) theory, stating that meaning was 

developed via a sense of belonging through relationships. Using essay analysis 

researchers found participants frequently cited relationships with family and friends 

in response to the questions “Why is life meaningful?”, and “What makes your life 

meaningful?” Their study using a bespoke belonging rating scale in conjunction with 

the ‘Meaning Presence Subscale’ of the ‘Meaning in Life Questionnaire’ found that 



 
 

11 

a sense of belonging was a strong predictor of meaningfulness. In the third study 

involving priming participants with either sense of belonging, feelings of social 

support, or high social value, the sense of belonging condition caused higher 

increases in perceptions of meaningfulness. The fourth study highlighted potential 

differences between cultures, as the sample moved from an individualistic western 

population to a collectivistic Indian population. Unlike results seen in the 

individualistic culture, the collectivistic culture found increased meaning through 

both belonging and social support. This finding does not detract from belonging 

being an important contributor to meaning, rather highlights the differences 

between social structures in differing cultures. 

Lambert et al. (2010) also found relationships – particularly with family 

members - to be a primary source of meaning in the lives of adolescents. One study 

in this research found the relational constructs of family and friends to place first 

and third respectively on a ranking task selecting various sources of meaning out of 

twelve possible sources of meaning, the second highest being happiness.  Other 

possible sources of meaning included religious faith, achievements, self-acceptance, 

personal growth, self-worth, justice, personal goals, intimacy, and helping others. A 

second study used an open-ended format query instructing individuals to pick the 

one thing that made life most meaningful for them. Again, relational constructs 

scored highly with family placing first and friends placing second.  The influence of 

meditative practices on an individual’s sense of belonging as studied by Chisman 

and Brooks (2018) found mutual interaction. This study employed interview studies 

with practising meditators using constructivistic grounded theory methods of 

interpretation and analysis, finding that being and belonging were experienced as 

interconnected. They posited that meditative practice provided space for 

individuals to discover how to be with others, while belonging provided 

opportunities and learning space of how to be. 

These studies highlight the perceived importance of relationships and 

belonging to individuals’ meaning across individualistic and collectivistic cultures, 

and adolescent and adult populations. The breadth of the samples lends credit to 



 
 

12 

the concepts of relationships and belonging being a core contributor to meaning 

among individuals, and that MP can positively influence these constructs. 

1.4.4. Awareness and congruency. Studies have also shown that the positive 

link between mindfulness and meaning is due in part to increased self-awareness 

resulting in greater consistency between an individual's values and actions (Allan, 

Bott & Suh, 2016). Using an online delivery of the ‘Mindful Attention Awareness 

Scale’, ‘Authenticity Inventory Version 3’, and the ‘Meaning in Life Questionnaire’, 

across 250 participants they found support for the following significant mediators 

for the mindfulness – meaning in life relationship: mindfulness and authenticity, 

and authenticity and meaning in life. They found that relational orientation and 

behaviours were not significant mediators, and that unbiased processing had a 

negative relation with meaning in life. Allan, Bott and Suh (2016) posit that this 

pathway to meaning in life via awareness cultivated by MP can be explained using 

Self Determination Theory perspectives, where individuals' behaviours can be 

explained by innate self-determined and self-motivated drives. Heightened 

awareness was seen to provide an individual with the clarity to realise their own 

values and subsequently choose behaviours more aligned with their core values. On 

the surface these results are somewhat in contrast with Siegel’s (2009) theory 

which highlighted the importance of relationships as a source of meaning. 

However, both are based on the broader premise of greater awareness of the self, 

contributing to increased meaning. 

Warren, Wray-Lake, and Syvertsen (2017) investigated the relationship 

between mindfulness, and the consistency between an individual's values and the 

behaviours the individuals engage in; termed value-behaviour-concordance (VBC). 

The sample of over 6000 adolescents spanning seven nations with diverse ethnic, 

cultural, religious and gender representation utilised self-report rating scales to 

measure the constructs of mindfulness, VBC, and meaning in life. The study showed 

that individuals higher in mindfulness experienced higher VBC, and that VBC 

partially mediated the link between mindfulness and meaning in adolescents.  They 

discussed a process where the awareness cultivated by MP may make values more 

salient and easily accessible as individuals have more consistent access to their 



 
 

13 

thoughts and emotions. They posited that this salience of values enabled 

individuals to engage in more value congruent behaviours. Heightened awareness 

also allowed for individuals to be readily aware of feelings of dissonance and 

incongruence, this feedback allowing for behaviour adjustment. The diversity of the 

sample appeared to support the generalisability of these claims to the general 

adolescent population. 

Research by Christie, Atkins and Donald (2017) supported findings by 

Warren et al. (2017) within an adult population, in that VBC was linked to well-

being via MP facilitating meaningful behavioural change. This study hypothesized 

that MP removed barriers to VBC allowing for greater recognition of opportunities 

to engage in meaningful behaviours. Their first study with over 600 predominantly 

female Caucasian participants, delivered an online survey focusing on three areas: 

values, mindful attention, and satisfaction with life as measured by the ‘Valuing 

Questionnaire’, ‘Mindful Attention Awareness Scale’, and the ‘Satisfaction with Life 

Scale’.  Results supported an indirect association between MP, positive affect and 

satisfaction with life, via values-progress and values-obstruction. The second study 

employed alternative mindfulness and well-being measures - the ‘Five Facet 

Mindfulness Questionnaire’, the ‘Flourishing Scale’ and the ‘Scale of Positive and 

Negative Experience’, in a replication of the initial study across a sample of 199 

participants. Support for the hypothesis was again confirmed with similar findings 

to study one. Positive effects on well-being were found to be due to values-

progress and values-obstruction, enhanced by the awareness and non-judgment 

cultivated by MP. These studies demonstrate the power of internal rather than 

external reward, with reference again to self-determination theory. The harmony of 

being in balance with their own values was what motivated individuals to behave in 

accordance with their values, these values appeared more easily accessible to 

individuals due to MP. The support for this concept across both adolescent and 

adult populations suggests a potential mechanism for change which may not be 

limited to age or developmental phase. 

1.4.5. Spirituality. Friedman, Myers and Benson (2001) utilised the term 

‘relaxation response’ (RR) to describe the physiological effects of engaging in 1) 



 
 

14 

sustained focused attention, while also 2) maintaining a ‘passive’ attitude toward 

thoughts. The physiological effects equated to a sense of calm, with reductions of 

respiratory rates, norepinephrine, and cortical arousal (Friedman et al., 2001; 

Greenwood & Benson, 1977). Although the terminology differs, passive equates to 

a non-reactive state, semantically similar to the use of non-judgmental in the 

current study, making this definition equitable to this study's definition of MP. 

When these two steps were followed elicitation of the RR was found to occur over 

numerous activities such as prayer, yoga, meditation, or progressive muscle 

relaxation. Regular practice led to the benefits of RR continuing past periods of set 

practice into participants’ daily lives. Stemming from research into the benefits and 

applications of the RR, it has been theorised that enhanced spirituality may be a 

function of RR/MP; resulting in positive impacts on health and wellbeing (Chang, 

Casey, Dusek, & Benson, 2010; Kass, Friedman, Leserman, & Zuttermeister, 1991). 

Spirituality has long been considered to contribute positively to meaning in life, 

recent studies have managed to produce scientific support for this concept. 

Research by George and Park (2017) across two samples of heart failure patients 

and cancer survivors found higher levels of spirituality positively influenced 

meaning over time. The finding across these two diverse samples lent weight to the 

support of a generalisable relationship between spirituality and meaning in 

individuals facing adverse situations. Bamonti, Lombardi, Duberstein, King, and Van 

Orden (2016) also found higher levels of spirituality were linked to higher feelings 

of meaning in life; their results showing that within individuals with elevated 

depressive symptomology, spirituality raised levels of meaning in life to comparable 

levels with non-depressed individuals. Studies such as these indicate the 

importance of spirituality as a pathway to increased meaning. 

Cloninger (2011) described spirituality in terms of self-awareness, with self-

awareness being the path to well-being, a development occurring over three 

stages. Stage one involved emerging self-awareness, characterised by an ability to 

embrace acceptance and let go of negative emotions, cultivating higher levels of 

understanding. Stage two involved moderate self-awareness, an illuminative stage 

where individuals observed self and others with non-judgment. Stage three 



 
 

15 

required maximum awareness, awareness of an individual's own outlook and 

perception. Stage three is seen as contemplative, encouraging the development of 

non-dualism, self-transcendence, and unity. In their discussion on spiritually 

oriented psychotherapy, Sperry (2018) acknowledged the alignment of MP with 

spiritual development; suggesting mindfulness comprised of three levels - 

mindfulness, wisdom and compassion. Although distinct from spirituality we can 

see how these levels could inform the development of spirituality as individuals 

move from an individual focus to a focus which transcends the self through the 

cultivation of awareness, non-judgment, and acceptance. 

Greeson et al. (2011) also discussed a mechanism where the increased 

awareness cultivated by MP created a spiritual shift, caused by attention and 

connection to the transcendent aspects of everyday life. Their research delivered an 

online survey, both pre and post an eight-week MBSR programme to 279 

predominantly Caucasian female (75%) participants. The sample comprised a 

majority of religiously affiliated participants including Christian (39.4% 

denominational, 8.2% non-denominational), Jewish (5%), Unitarian-Universalist 

(5%), Buddhist (1.1%), Muslim (0.7%), Other (2.9%). While a substantial number of 

the sample identified with no religious affiliation (36.9%), this portion was not 

unpacked further so it was not possible to determine what secular beliefs if any 

these individuals held. The self-report online survey consisted of items from the 

‘Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised’, the ‘Daily Spiritual Experiences 

Scale’, and the ‘Short Form Health Survey’. Results indicated an average physically 

healthy sample, however the mental-health score of the sample indicated 

emotional distress; being more than one standard deviation below the norm for 

average self-reported mental health within the adult population. A deeper sense of 

spirituality after engaging in the MBSR course was reported by 54% of respondents. 

The research demonstrated that increases in daily spiritual experiences were 

directly related to increases in mindfulness within this population. As participants 

within this sample were predominantly religiously affiliated, it must be considered 

that these individuals were primed to experience events as spiritual, also results 

could not necessarily be generalised to public who were not experiencing some 



 
 

16 

form of mental distress. While the results indicate an interesting concept, the 

generalisability of these findings are limited. 

Vieten et al. (2018) posited that phenomena associated with meditative 

practice - such as nonduality, awakening, self-transcendence, experiences of higher 

powers- may be important mediators or mechanisms of their positive benefits, such 

as authentic being. These experiences are typical of spiritual and religious 

traditions, the study reported 52% of participants had experienced a connection 

with a non-physical entity at least twice during meditative states. The study 

accessed an adult population with prior meditative experience, designed to 

measure ‘personal experiences’ of meditative practice. Over 1000 Participants from 

66 predominantly western/individualistic countries were represented in the 59% 

female/41% male sample. As in Greeson et al. (2011), many participants during 

childhood identified as Christian (73%), with only 3% identifying as spiritual but 

non-religious. This representation had changed significantly by adulthood, with only 

15% identifying as Christian, and 36% identifying as spiritual but non-religious, 

indicating a shift in perception. The research showed that a significant number of 

regular meditators experienced some form of mystical/transcendent experience 

during solo meditative practices. The ‘Revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire’ 

was incorporated into the online survey to probe for mystical and transcendent 

experiences (42%). Other areas of interest were probed via bespoke questions 

targeting facets such as social/relational experiences (35%), anomalous physical 

(46%)/perceptual (46%) experiences, extended perception (41%).  This study 

highlighted the commonality of these experiences across the sample, while also 

highlighting the spiritual change meditating individuals had experienced. Due to the 

sample being restricted to predominantly western individuals with previous 

meditation experience the generalisability of these results is somewhat limited. 

Although due to the sample size, gender balance, and breadth of the data, 

generalisability to a Western sample of meditators with a predominantly Christian 

upbringing appears reasonable. While studies such as this provide evidence for the 

presence of spiritual experience and development through mindful practices, they 



 
 

17 

do not acknowledge how these experiences are perceived by the individual, or how 

they may affect change on an individual’s meaning or well-being. 

Kristeller and Jordan (2018) discussed that the range of spiritual experiences 

could include development of inner meaning, unity, purpose, connection, 

compassion, altruism, engaging in 'right actions' actions that are congruent with 

prosocial actions, and self-transcendence. They also note how little research has 

focussed on the spiritual aspects of meditation, questioning how MP may affect 

spiritual engagement. In discussing MP, they acknowledge that awareness and a 

non-judgmental attitude are cornerstone to MP positing that the non-judgmental 

attitude when transferred to others could be the basis of acceptance, compassion 

and altruism. Also, that non-identification with thoughts allowed for less reactive 

behaviour allowing for realisation of 'actual self'. 

Facets of the above theories had been earlier presented by Shapiro et al. 

(2006) as part of the Intention – Attention – Attitude model, introduced to 

understand the mechanisms of MP and associated positive effects.  Intention 

focuses on the personal vision that an individual brings to MP, the reason they 

persist with their practice, which is often tied to a goal such as stress relief. 

Attention is the observational quality one brings to both internal and external 

stimuli in the present moment, free from interpretation and perceptual layers. 

Attitude refers to the open and non-judgmental way that individuals learn to attend 

to experiences, allowing individuals to observe events with curiosity, then let them 

pass without holding on to them. This model posited that reperceiving was central 

to positive change, cultivated through intentionally attending to moments, with an 

open and kind attitude. Reperceiving was proposed to result in greater self-

regulation, values clarification, cognitive and behavioural flexibility, and exposure. 

This theory also discussed how intentions toward MP change overtime, describing 

how self-regulation is developed initially, transforming into self-exploration, 

becoming self-liberation and finally developing into compassionate service. The 

studies above demonstrate how separate aspects of the model have since been 

well researched and supported, for example the importance of reperceiving as 

discussed in the above reappraisal section by Garland et al. (2015), and Pagnini and 



 
 

18 

Langer (2015).  Awareness, or attention as Shapiro et al. (2006) termed it, and the 

activation of value congruence was also presented by Allan, Bott, and Suh (2016), 

Christie, Atkins and Donald (2017), and Warren et al. (2017). Attitude is represented 

in Burzler et al.’s discussion of the importance of acceptance. The development of 

compassionate service through MP mentioned by Shapiro (2006) is in line with 

Sperry’s (2018) suggestion of development of compassion as the highest level of 

mindfulness, and Kristeller and Jordan’s (2018) suggestions of MP cultivating self-

transcendence to inform spirituality.  

 

1.5. Comparison of research exploring mindfulness and meaning 

Across the literature there was an overlay of many concepts, particularly 

with regard to awareness, which appeared to be an essential contributor to 

meaning across multiple pathways. Literature suggested that awareness was an 

integral component of acceptance, relationships, congruence, and spirituality. Both 

Garland et al. (2015) and Burzler et al. (2018) viewed the development of 

acceptance through MP as an influence on meaning making processes, with 

acceptance relying on the awareness of, and non-judgmental appraisal of 

alternative perspectives. This awareness and subsequent acceptance cultivated 

realistic thinking and cognitive fluidity which was applied to both the self and 

others. The research of Siegel (2009) posited that awareness and acceptance of 

both the self and others resulted in enhanced relationships, with relationships 

adding to meaning through a sense of connection and belonging. In contrast to 

Siegel (2009), Allan, Bott and Suh (2016) did not find that relational behaviours 

enhanced meaning.  As with Christie, Atkins and Donald (2017), and Warren et al. 

(2017) they found value behaviour congruency was a path to meaning. Congruency 

within the self, relied heavily on self-directed awareness, though meaning itself was 

enhanced by the congruency developed as a result of this awareness. Cloninger 

(2011), and Greeson et al. (2011) found meaning was enhanced through spirituality, 

directly equating spirituality with heightened awareness. The literature pointed to 

awareness resulting largely in cognitive flexibility which contributed directly to 

meaning through the realisation of new ways of relating to the self, others, and 



 
 

19 

situations. It suggested awareness was an initially required mechanism enhanced 

by MP, but it was not awareness itself that ultimately added to meaning rather 

awareness enhanced many mechanisms and pathways to meaning. 

Dahl and Davidson's (2019) discussion on future mindfulness research 

highlighted gaps in the understanding on how MP may influence well-being 

including whether MP facilitated aspects of other contemplative practice such as 

cultivation of kindness, compassion, and insight. In their discussions prosocial 

qualities (kindness/compassion), insight, and meaning were separated as three 

distinct types of contemplative practice, they queried the relationship between MP 

and these qualities, as all have been linked to psychological well-being.  Also, that 

research demonstrated that contemplative practice positively influenced the 

quality of interpersonal relationships, another indicator of positive psychological 

well-being. Lastly, they queried how another strong indicator of positive 

psychological well-being - purpose and meaning in life - increased with MP. MP is 

an attentional practice traditionally taught as a foundation skill for other 

constructive and deconstructive contemplative practices. In their meta-study of 

effects of meditation on pro-sociality, Kreplin, Farias, and Brazil (2018) noted the 

prevalence of investigator bias and experimenter effects, with over 40% of studies 

found to have the meditative technique taught by an author of the study. This 

directly influenced the effect the meditative practice had on compassion; the meta-

analysis found only limited support for MP increasing prosocial behaviours.  These 

findings indicate the potential issues of some intervention-based studies, while 

providing a critical view of the assumptions surrounding contemplative practices 

and their influence on prosocial behaviours. Whereas, the current study presented 

here attempted to uncover influences MP had on individuals as perceived directly 

by participants. 

Dahl and Davidson (2019) discussed how, due to the broad application of 

MP over numerous traditions, there was no 'right' way to engage in MP, however 

they did query whether benefits and experiences individuals attained from MP 

differed depending on their initial motivation to practice and their worldview. 

While research has shown that MP can enhance meaning in life, Bellin (2015) 



 
 

20 

specifically called for qualitative study into MP in order to ascertain the 

mechanisms underlying this influence. Bloch et al. (2017) suggested further 

research was required to uncover the mediators in the mindfulness – meaning in 

life relationship, including interpersonal relationships, health and well-being, 

existential or religious beliefs, or personal growth and actualisation. Kristeller and 

Jordan (2018) discussed the lack of research into the spiritual effects of meditative 

practices, in contrast with the growth of spiritual health as a therapeutic 

consideration. They highlighted the importance of investigating the processes of 

meditative practices - including MP - and their influence on spiritual change.  

 

1.6. Review of literature supporting qualitative research into mindfulness 

Quantitative research has provided numerous insights into the efficacy of 

MP and has an important role in providing evidential and generalisable data for the 

research community and practitioners alike. However, it is unable to capture and 

report on all facets of MP, the experiential facets of MP cannot be reached by 

quantitative methods. Qualitative research is a naturalistic form of inquiry, 

attempting to gain insight into how an experience is perceived by an individual and 

the meaning they make during the experience. Qualitative methods such as 

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) provide understanding from inside an 

individual's world, as opposed to forcing the premises of the external world on the 

experience of the individual. Unlike quantitative data which uses a large sample 

designed to be representative of a wider population, IPA focuses on the intimate 

sample of an individual’s perspective. Perspectives are subjective and coloured by 

all the prior idiographic experiences, beliefs and knowledge of the individual. No 

other individual will have had the exact same experiences; therefore, the 

perceptions of individuals are likely to vary. This idiographic perception also applies 

to the interpretations of the researcher during analysis. Every word or phrase read 

is subject to the personal understanding the researcher holds, as such researchers 

must attempt to contain their own understandings of experiences during 

interpretation to ensure that the participant’s meaning is being clearly heard. IPA 

involves the interpretation of narratives such as interviews or diary entries, 



 
 

21 

searching for the emergence of themes, firstly within and then across narratives. 

The in-depth exploration of individual perspectives can uncover both differences 

and similarities between accounts, providing insight into essential aspects of the 

experience. Despite limitations in generalisability due to the idiographic nature, the 

meaning garnered from a qualitative account is much richer than superficial 

quantitative data (Smith et al., 2009).  

  Participants in an IPA study on the experiential aspects of MP (Solhaug et al., 

2016) developed a shift in perspective resulting in increased curiosity, self-

acceptance, patience, improved relational capabilities and decreased reactivity. 

Main themes discovered by Bermudez et al. (2013) IPA research into MP for Post-

Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) sufferers included struggles to practice 

meditation, a vision of growing and helping, personal improvements, and 

interpersonal improvements. Other themes of note included serenity, self-

compassion, intra/interpersonal awareness, emotional regulation, interpersonal 

improvements, increased socialization, assertive communication, and quality of 

relationships. 

 

1.7. Summary of findings 

While research into mindfulness has increased over the years, the majority 

of this research has been of a quantitative nature. There have been numerous 

studies exploring the efficacy of mindfulness and the positive effects that 

mindfulness provides both physically and psychologically (Leyland, Rowse & 

Emerson, 2018).  Yet the subjective facet of mindfulness has been largely un-

researched (Griffiths, Camic & Hutton, 2009; Himelstein, Hastings, Shapiro & Heery, 

2012; Thomas & Atkinson, 2017). It was suggested a perspective-oriented approach 

could provide rich insight into how individuals experience changes resulting from 

mindfulness, meaning making, and how they make sense of these experiences 

(Bloch et al., 2017; Christopher & Maris, 2010; Hemanth & Fisher, 2015; Nakamura 

& Ho, 2015; Solhaug et al., 2016; Yi, 2017). Bellin (2015) specifically stated the need 

for more research into how individuals use mindfulness to cultivate meaning in life, 

and that qualitative research is a valid method to understand how something can 



 
 

22 

influence cognitive change (Higginson & Mansell, 2008; Van Vliet et al., 2017).  

Qualitative research can investigate the variations in subjective experiences that 

individuals experience in a way that quantitative research cannot.  

It was also noted that the literature had a large focus on clinical populations, 

many referring specifically to the MBSR program. Accessing non-clinical patients 

may provide alternative views, expectations and attitudes towards mindfulness, 

depending on where and why individuals practice it. This could provide insight into 

mechanisms of change and the depth of effect mindfulness may have on an 

individual. Solhaug et al., (2016) found that individuals who engaged with 

mindfulness on a deep level experienced richer and farther-reaching positive 

effects of mindfulness in their lives than individuals who perceived mindfulness 

merely as a tool.  This finding highlights the difference in perceptions of 

mindfulness which impacts on both the results of practice and the definition of the 

construct.  This also highlights intent; an individual's intent and perception of 

mindfulness can influence their level of engagement, gain and experiences.   

Benson (1996) acknowledged the enhancement of spirituality following 

engagement in what he termed the ‘relaxation response’ in non-religious 

individuals, so how are spirituality and meaning related? The English Oxford 

Dictionary (2018) defined Spiritual as: Relating to or affecting the human spirit or 

soul as opposed to material or physical things.  The human spirit or soul references 

an individuals' essence, who they feel they are, how they feel inside, and their 

perceived connections to others.  Spirituality can inform meaning through 

numerous paths which may not necessarily be related to religion, aiding individuals 

in making sense of their existence and purpose in life (Galanter, 2005). Both 

spirituality and meaning are highly personal constructs, with each individual likely 

to have their own perspective on what they mean, and how meaning and 

spirituality are influenced in their lives.  

Meaning in life is rooted in the experience of the individual (Bellin, 2015) 

therefore, to fully capture the essence of this construct research must be 

conducted using qualitative methods which can access the perceptions and 

experiences of individuals. The current research was deemed useful because it 



 
 

23 

could potentially provide insight into how individuals develop meaning and how 

mindfulness influences meaning. It could also provide insight into how adding 

meaning to an individual's life (or reducing the search for meaning) can have 

positive impacts on mental and physical health (Bloch et al., 2017).  Furthermore, it 

would add to the fields of both qualitative perspective-based research and 

mindfulness research. It would also inform clinicians providing valuable insight into 

an individual's perception of the benefits and effects of mindfulness, providing 

deeper understanding on the mechanisms of how change can occur in individuals 

practicing mindfulness. This study aimed to shed light on sources of meaning for 

individuals, adding to the knowledge of both mindfulness processes and meaning 

making processes in individuals (Bloch et al., 2017). Concern has been raised in the 

literature regarding the decontextualisation of mindfulness from the Buddhist 

framework (Lee, 2017; Lomas, 2017).  This qualitative exploration into mindfulness 

practice may also provide insight into the concerns regarding the loss of original 

meaning and intent of practicing mindfulness outside of the Buddhist framework.   

Secularism also appears to be on the rise worldwide (Woodhead, 2017), 

meaning practitioners can expect to encounter more individuals who may not have 

a religious framework upon which to base their meaning making processes. Raising 

the question: Outside of the confines of religious belief and dogma, how do modern 

secular individuals develop meaning in their lives? With both mindfulness and 

secularism on the rise, how do these constructs influence one another? Could 

mindfulness provide a path to enhanced meaning which in turn positively 

influences both psychological and physical well-being? Are the concerns regarding 

decontextualisation of mindfulness from the Buddhist framework valid or does the 

essence of personal growth and enlightenment naturally occur by engaging in 

mindfulness.  

This research aimed to investigate the relationship between mindfulness 

and meaning in life in secular individuals from individuals' unique perspectives 

through the question: How do secular individuals find meaning in mindfulness? IPA 

was employed to analyze semi-structured interviews conducted with regular 

practitioners of mindfulness. Recognizing that MP could be employed across 



 
 

24 

numerous platforms (Kabat-Zinn, 2014; Maxwell and Duff, 2016), the act of 

mindfulness was not confined to a set style of practice.  The interview schedule was 

developed to provide opportunities for individuals to describe their experiences of 

the relationship between MP and meaning in their own words. Each interview was 

transcribed then reviewed for the appearance of recurring themes; themes were 

extracted using interpretation of the participant voice, a journey of context, and 

lexical semantics. Analysed transcripts were then compared for co-occurrence of 

themes across transcripts, with presence of co-occurring themes suggesting 

evidence of similarity across experiences. Co-occurring themes were further 

scrutinized and analysed to uncover potential key meaning making mechanisms of 

MP. This quantitative method of research was employed in an effort to 

complement the existing quantitative data, and contribute to a comprehensive 

understanding of the mechanisms of MP. 

  



 
 

25 

Chapter 2: Method 

2.1. Participants  

To ensure the safety of participants the following criteria were developed to 

establish that individuals selected were able to demonstrate competence to 

participate.  Participants were required to be adult, over the age of 18, not be 

involved in any current psychological or psychiatric treatment program, or be 

regularly taking any form of psychotropic medication or illicit substances. These 

criteria were necessary to make certain any information gathered could be related 

to the construct of mindfulness rather than a treatment modality, medication, or 

substance. Participants were required to be regular users of mindfulness, regular 

defined as continuous rather than sporadic practice. No further definition of 

regularity was applied so as not to place constrictions on the type of practice 

individuals engaged in, this was to enable inclusion of individuals whose MP had 

evolved beyond formal practice into constant application of mindful techniques. An 

equal gender representation was sought as participation was open to both genders, 

however there were only two male respondents both of whom participated in 

interviews. All participants were screened via questionnaire upon registering their 

interest in participation to ensure they met the above criteria (See Appendix A).  

Participants were invited through advertisement in nationwide mindfulness 

organisation newsletters, websites and social media pages including Mindfulness 

for Change, Mindfulness Education Group, and Mindfulness Works. Invitations were 

also sent out through: yoga centres in Tauranga - Ashtanga Yoga Tauranga, via 

social media - Facebook, and via noticeboard advertisements across Tauranga (See 

Appendix B). This contact was designed to reach a broad sample of participants 

from wide demographic and geographic environments. Despite the small sample 

size and qualitative scope, it was hoped that sampling from a broad base could 

increase relevance of findings and avoid reducing findings to a narrow 

representative sample. Compensation for participation consisted of a $20 voucher 

from MTA funded by the Massey University Post Graduate Research Fund.    

Potential participants were informed via information sheet that the study 

would be investigating the link between MP and meaning making processes 



 
 

26 

through interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA), for a Massey University 

students Masters research project (see Appendix C). The information sheet 

informed individuals of the qualitative nature of IPA, the use of interview to access 

participant experiences, and provided an overview of the interview procedure. 

Participant exclusions were outlined and explained, as were the following rights - 

individuals could halt the recording at any point, decline to answer any question, 

withdraw from the study, and their confidentiality would be maintained.  

The above advertisements resulted in 16 replies of interest. Of the 16, two 

were discounted due to the importance of understanding and meaning of the 

English language in this IPA study, as they were foreign travellers to New Zealand 

and English was their second language. One individual did not return their 

screening questionnaire. Six questionnaires were returned by individuals who were 

deemed unsuitable, two for religious belief (as this was a study focused on secular 

practice) and four for current engagement with a form of psychological treatment 

modality. Seven suitable applicants returned questionnaires, all of who were 

interviewed, one interview could not be included in analysis as the transcript 

release authority was not returned, leaving six suitable interviews to analyse. 

2.1.1. Summary of participant mindfulness practice. The length of 

mindfulness practice for participants ranged from 1.5 - 25 years with a range of 

motivations and an even split of eastern and secular training (see Table 2.1). Three 

separate secular psychotherapeutic deliveries of mindfulness were represented but 

were sought out for education rather than personal therapy; Mindfulness Based 

Stress Reduction, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, Mindfulness Integrated Cognitive 

Behavioural Therapy. Eastern training was predominantly from a Buddhist 

perspective, although none of the participants engaged with Buddhism as a 

religion.   

   



 
 

27 

Table 2.1: Participant motivation, training, and length of mindfulness practice  

Participant motivation, training, and length of mindfulness practice 

  Motivation  Eastern v Secular Training  Current Practice  Length of 
Practice  

P1  Spiritual understanding 
of Yoga and desire for 
calm  

Eastern – India, Yoga 
Teacher Training  

Informal implementation 
across tasks and  
formal daily practice, seated 
breath focus and/or mindful 
yoga  
 

1.5 Years  

P2  Searching for tool in a 
time of stress  

Eastern – Buddhist 
community meditation 
course  
 

Daily formal seated practice 
30 minutes   

25+ Years  

P3  Viewed as a natural 
progression from Yoga 
practice  

Secular – Online 
Mindfulness Based Stress 
Reduction Class  
Followed by ongoing 
secular mentored 
instruction  
 

5-6 Days per week formal 
seated breath focus practice 
20-30 minutes  

3 Years  

P5  Initially learned for 
programme delivery in 
mental health sector. 
Desire for more 
awareness brought 
practice into private life  
  

Secular –   
Dialectical Behaviour 
Therapy facilitator training  
  

Informal practice across 
tasks  
Formal daily physical 
mindful yoga practice  

9-10 Years  

P6  Initially learned for 
clinical understanding. 
Brought practice into 
private life as a tool to 
utilise in a time of stress.  
  

Secular –   
Mindfulness Integrated 
Cognitive Behavioural 
Therapy  

Formal seated practice 20-
30 minutes 3-4 times per 
week  
Informal application of 
mindful principles across 
tasks  
 

3.5 Years  

P7  Introduction through 
meditation  

Eastern – Structured Thai 
Buddhist delivery  

Daily constant application of 
mindful principles across all 
tasks  
Formal breath focussed 
mindful ashtanga yoga   

24 Years  

  

2.2. Clarifying the Constructs 

Development of the interview schedule first required clarification of the 

concepts the researcher was trying to access, namely mindfulness, meaning, and 

secular. Mindfulness itself had broad applications and though gaining in popularity 

and use, it was still not a mainstream activity in western society. As such the 

definition had to be relevant to western use and open enough to ensure inclusion 



 
 

28 

of sufficient participants. The definition of meaning also needed to be open enough 

to accommodate the idiosyncrasies of meaning relevant to each participant, as each 

individual may source meaning through different aspects of their lives. It was 

essential to clearly define the term secular as this study specifically sought 

perceptions of individuals who were non-religious. Both the mindfulness and 

meaning definitions were presented to participants during the interview, the 

definition of secular was presented to individuals as part of the screening 

questionnaire. 

2.2.1. Mindfulness defined. The English Oxford Dictionary defines 

‘Mindfulness’ as: A mental state achieved by focusing one's awareness on the 

present moment, while calmly acknowledging and accepting one's feelings, 

thoughts, and bodily sensations, used as a therapeutic technique.  Jon Kabat-Zinn 

the founder of MBSR defined mindfulness as "paying attention in a particular way: 

on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally" (Kabat-Zinn, 2014). 

These definitions were very similar to Friedman, Myers, and Benson's (2001) two 

essential components eliciting the relaxation response "mental focusing and 

adopting a passive attitude toward distracting thoughts.”  

A combination of the above definitions was utilised:  

“Mental focusing in the present moment, with a non-judgmental attitude 

toward thoughts.” 

While there is further debate regarding the definition of mindfulness, the simplicity 

of this definition was favoured, as it allowed the inclusion of a number of 

idiosyncratic methods that participants could have engaged in. This definition also 

encompassed key aspects from other definitions such as: sustained attention 

(Bellin, 2015); and Garland, et.al., (2015) "non-evaluative engagement with 

experience.”   

2.2.2. Meaning defined. The English Oxford Dictionary (2018) defined 

'Meaning' as:   

1. Important or worthwhile quality; purpose.  



 
 

29 

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2018) defined 'Meaning' as:  

1. Significant quality.  

Steger (2009, p. 682) went further to define meaning as: 

“the extent to which people comprehend, make sense of, or see significance 

in their lives, accompanied by the degree to which they perceive themselves 

to have a purpose, mission, or overarching aim in life.”  

Steger's (2009) definition was used in this study, it was comprehensive, inclusive of 

the Oxford and Merriam-Webster definitions and flexible enough to accommodate 

the idiosyncratic definitions participants may have held.  

2.2.3. Secular defined. Defining the term secular was a task of unwrapping 

lexical semantics, the English Oxford Dictionary defined Secular as:  

1. Not connected with religious or spiritual matters 

with Religious defined as:   

1. Relating to or believing in a religion; (of a belief or practice) forming part of 

someone's faith in a divine being  

and Spiritual defined as:  

2. Relating to or affecting the human spirit or soul as opposed to material or 

physical things 

3. Relating to religion or religious belief 

 The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2018) defined secular as:  

1. Of or relating to the worldly or temporal 

2. Not overtly or specifically religious   

In contemporary English, "secular" is primarily used to distinguish something 

(such as an attitude, belief, or position) that is not specifically religious or 

sectarian in nature.  

 



 
 

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with religious defined as:  

1. Relating to or manifesting faithful devotion to an acknowledged ultimate 

reality or deity  

As individuals often feel spiritual even when undertaking a secular practice (Chang 

et al., 2010), for the purposes of this study secular was defined as:  

“Non-religious - not relating to or believing in an acknowledged 

religion, ultimate reality, divine being or deity.”   

 

2.3. Interview process  

Seven participants engaged in a semi structured interview administered, 

transcribed, and analysed by a single key researcher, using Interpretive 

Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Prior to interview commencement written 

informed consent was obtained from each participant (see Appendix D).  Interviews 

were conducted in person where possible (two participants) or via video call using 

Skype or Whatsapp (five participants). An open-ended semi structured interview 

schedule was used to adhere to the principles of IPA, gathering the individual's 

insight and perception without imposing outside influences on their experience 

(See Appendix E). Initial questions were designed to establish rapport and elicit 

information regarding where and when the participant came to practice 

mindfulness. These included questions regarding type of instruction, current 

practice, and length of practice. Questions related to motivation to learn, and initial 

attitude toward mindfulness were designed to access whether motivation and/or 

attitude was related to the level of meaning they derived from practicing 

mindfulness as suggested by Solhaug et al. (2016). Subsequent questions sought to 

elicit information regarding the relationship the participant had experienced 

between mindfulness and meaning. A number of questions were developed to 

directly elicit the individual's concept of mindfulness, their concept of meaning in 

their lives, how they perceived mindfulness to have influenced their meaning 

making processes, and how they perceived the meaning they had developed 

affected their daily lives.   



 
 

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While it was important to ensure the schedule was open and flexible and 

not imposing the frameworks of others onto the participants, it was also important 

to attempt to access the many facets of meaning. Research had presented 

numerous theories suggesting the basis of meaning making for individuals, 

therefore some questions were designed to probe for and potentially access these 

theories. Bloch et al. (2017) highlighted a number of areas for further research 

including whether relationship quality, personal growth and actualisation, and 

existential beliefs were possible mediators in the mindfulness - meaning in life 

relationship. The question 'How do you find practicing mindfulness affects your 

concept of meaning?' was designed to directly elicit a response regarding whether 

the participant perceived that MP had directly affected their concept of meaning. 

Expansion questions following this thread probed for the perceived effects 

mindfulness had on purpose in life (Bloch et al., 2017), connection to objects 

outside of the self (Maxwell & Duff, 2016; Siegel, 2009; Van Vliet et al., 2017) , self-

awareness, and views of values and actions (Allan, Bott & Suh, 2016, & Bloch, 

2017). Regarding the above theories, questions were developed to probe 

participants for their perception regarding the topic, while allowing room for 

participant’s own perceptions and experience to come through. 

To maintain the integrity and essence of IPA, subsequent questions were 

not designed to specifically probe for links to previous research. Rather the 

participants own perspective, beliefs, and explanations were sought in order to 

access the idiosyncratic mechanisms of the mindfulness - meaning in life 

relationship of each individual. The question 'Can you describe the sense of 

meaning that you have developed?' was an opportunity for the participants’ to 

vocalise specifically what meaning meant for them personally. Expansion questions 

sought to elicit what they perceived as important, significant, or what gave them 

purpose in their lives. This was an opportunity to see whether participants found 

meaning in similar or diverse pursuits. The following question 'How would you 

explain the link between your mindfulness practice and the development or 

enhancement of meaning in your life?' was an opportunity for participants to 

vocalise their understanding of the processes behind how MP affected their 



 
 

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meaning making processes. Subsequent expansion questions sought to clarify 'how' 

participants perceived MP to have influenced the development of their significance 

and purpose in life. 'How has this perception of meaning affected your daily life?' 

was designed to elicit information regarding how participants felt that the meaning 

they had created or discovered was presenting in their day to day living.  

Each interview was recorded using smart phone voice recording software 

then manually transcribed, dictation software was avoided due to reliability 

concerns. Once transcribed each interview was then listened to twice more whilst 

reading through the transcript to ensure accuracy and allow for amendments.  

Every participant was emailed a copy of their transcript and was asked to ensure 

that the transcript had captured their experience accurately. Participants were 

given the opportunity to amend transcripts if necessary and were required to 

return a signed transcript release authority (see Appendix F). No emendations were 

made to the transcripts by participants. At the conclusion of research each 

participant was provided with a summary of the research findings.  

 

2.4. Analysis 

This research aimed to gather participant perspectives on how mindfulness 

had influenced their meaning making processes.  Interpretive Phenomenological 

Analysis (IPA) was chosen to analyse the data, as IPA specifically seeks to uncover 

how individuals perceive and make sense of their experiences. Once all interviews 

were transcribed, checked by the participants, coded and stored securely the 

process of IPA commenced. Smith, Flowers, & Larkin (2009) suggested six analysis 

stages to complete IPA, which provided the basis of the analysis for this project.  

The first stage involved immersion in the raw data, reading and rereading each 

transcript, taking the time to read carefully and slowly, ensuring the participant’s 

perspective was the focus.  Initial notes were made where themes or patterns 

emerged. As a researcher immersing oneself in the data was important as it allowed 

the reader the opportunity to fully absorb the messages the participant had 

offered. This began the hermeneutic process, interpretation considered both 'the 



 
 

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part' and 'the whole', words were interpreted both at face value and within the 

context of the sentence, passage, and the complete text. This interpretation was 

both dynamic and circular in nature, discovering and interpreting meaning which in 

turn further influenced the original interpretation. IPA is double hermeneutic with 

the researcher interpreting the participant’s interpretation of the phenomena. For 

example, each individual perceives each experience differently due to their own 

past experiences and cognitive schemas, this included the researcher listening and 

reading through the participant’s dialogue. In order to minimise interpretation bias, 

the researcher engaged in monitoring of their own thoughts during interpretation, 

reading and re-reading participant transcripts continually questioning the origins of 

interpretations. Importance was placed on acknowledging that participants were 

the experts of their own experiences, as such preconceptions and expectations of 

the interpreter were set aside, to avoid own beliefs, feelings, and prior knowledge 

colouring interpretation and missing the true message.  

Stage two involved initial coding of data, which began during the first few 

readings as notes were developed. Each transcript was manually analysed line by 

line, key words and phrases used by the participant were noted, patterns and 

themes were assigned codewords such as 'connectedness' and 'awareness'. These 

codewords began to form the basis of themes and were used to highlight significant 

and/or recurring points of interest (see Appendix G). To capture the full 

multifaceted experience of the participant, comments were considered at 

'descriptive', 'linguistic', and 'conceptual' levels (Smith et al., 2009). Descriptive 

comments focused on describing content within the transcript, linguistic comments 

explored the use of language by the participant, such as repetition or highly 

emotive terms, and conceptual comments involved a higher level of interpretation.  

 Stage three involved discovering and recording emergent themes.  A move 

away from the transcript itself began, as the focus moved to analysing the 

comments and codewords created by the researcher. A table of coded themes and 

comments was created for each participant, linking the code, the participant and 

the supporting quote. Themes were initially recorded in the order in which they 

appeared in the transcript. The object was to further refine the participants’ 



 
 

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message into concise themes while retaining enough detail to maintain the essence 

of the communication.  

Stage four involved searching for connections across themes within the 

same transcript. Themes which were related identified overarching themes, where 

subsets were noted and coded.   Detailed notes about the different coding 

processes were made in order to create evidence to back up the analysis process 

(see Appendix H). As developing themes from the transcript was an interpretive 

process, and can involve questioning the participants meaning and abstraction, it 

was important to document this process to explain how interpretations evolved. 

Once data was sorted by theme/subtheme it was presented in table form for ease 

of comparison to other transcripts.  

Stage five involved reviewing subsequent transcripts, where steps 1-4 were 

repeated. During this phase previous themes and codes were kept on hand to aid in 

faster coding where relevant. However, it was important to remember the 

idiographic focus of IPA and avoid reviewing each transcript through the lens of 

past transcripts.  Bracketing of both researcher perspectives but also the themes 

which have emerged from the previous transcript(s) was essential, transcript data 

was not compared until all individual transcript analysis was completed.  

During step six a search for commonalities and repeated themes across 

transcripts took place. Evidence supporting each theme was grouped and presented 

in a table form for ease of viewing. Finally, psychological theory was linked to the 

data, where observed and appropriate (Finlay, 2010).   

 

2.5. Reliability and validity  

IPA as a qualitative study is subject to a number of criticisms particularly the 

interpretation required of the participant’s voice.  Interpretation is a key aspect of 

IPA and if the researcher does not bracket their own assumptions and prior beliefs 

adequately there is potential for this to bias the interpretation (Smith et al., 2009). 

It was important for the researcher to keep an open mind and immerse oneself in 

the data fully, appreciating each new transcript as a fresh perspective and not 



 
 

35 

allowing previous concepts to influence interpretation. During individual 

interpretations a list of code words/themes was not present, rather each 

interesting point was noted ensuring that the focus was on the current transcript, 

rather than being influenced by previous codewords. It was also essential that the 

researcher document all steps of interpretation so that a logical chain of evidence 

can be developed to back up interpretations. Extracts from multiple participant 

transcripts which supported interpretations would be included in this final report to 

demonstrate links.   

Another possible limitation was that the presence of the interviewer may 

have influenced the information the participant was willing to divulge (Anderson, 

2010). Participants may not have been willing to fully share all their information 

with a stranger, or they may have tried to present to the interviewer what they 

thought they wanted to hear.  Reactions from the interviewer may also influence 

the type or depth of information the participant is willing to share.  In order to 

counteract these issues, the interviewer sought to frequently remind participants 

that it was the participant perspective and insight which was of importance. Initial 

questions were designed to establish rapport between interviewer and participant 

to establish a relationship of respect, trust, and safety. The interviewer employed 

the skills of active listening, unconditional positive regard and validation to 

encourage honesty and openness in participants. Due to the small sample size and 

idiographic nature of IPA, generalizations from the data were tentative and 

cautious in nature (Smith et al., 2009).  

Assessing qualitative research against criteria for quantitative reliability and 

validity is difficult due to the idiographic and descriptive nature of the data being 

gathered. The aim of this study was to understand the individual perspectives that 

participants had developed regarding how MP affected their meaning making 

processes. Also, to understand whether they felt MP had enhanced the meaning 

and significance they felt in their everyday lives and how they felt this may have 

occurred. To enhance the reliability of the study the following considerations were 

made: Participants were encouraged to fully explain multiple facets of their 

meaning making processes, in an attempt to capture their full idiographic meaning 



 
 

36 

making process; Open ended questions were used to encourage full discourse, with 

terms such as 'how', 'could you explain', and 'can you describe', these terms were 

specifically chosen to access the participants understanding and experience without 

reference to how constructs were interpreted by others; Interference from the 

interviewer was minimised and kept to validation of participant voice and repeated 

reference to the participants’ perspective; All interpretations were considered as 

possibilities as the data was double hermeneutic - an interpretation of an 

interpretation. However, to support the validity of interpreted themes, quotes from 

multiple participants were gathered in support of each theme. Where themes did 

not receive support from the majority of participants they were not included. 

 

  



 
 

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Chapter 3: Results 

3.1. Prior Participant Attitudes Towards Mindfulness 

Despite some unfamiliarity with mindfulness the overall attitude of 

participants towards mindfulness was neutral, open and curious regarding what 

mindfulness entailed and what it could offer. Both P2 and P3 felt open toward the 

concept “I was open to meditation”, “I would say I had a really open attitude 

towards it [mindfulness], I just couldn't make it habitually stick....” Informed by 

research, P6 went in to practice with a positive attitude “I thought it was...a really 

great concept.” Both P5 and P7 had neutral perceptions of the practice “It was one 

of ignorance in regards to...actually what it is”, “You know, I really didn’t, I didn’t 

really have any fear, or like, it did-, I didn’t, I don’t think I had any sort of 

connotations really.” Two of the participants were somewhat informed by research 

or previous meditation experience prior to beginning MP, P6 first learned about MP 

through research: 

“I first came across mindfulness ah, I guess, through research, um, so I, when 

I was doing my undergrad, in psychology. Yeah, I was reading some books 

and I guess like the neuroscience of meditation.”  

P3 commented on the familiarities of MP with some aspects of Yoga:  

“But I had been practicing Yoga for….oh, um over a decade before that and 

so, so some of the, a lot of the things that I studied or that I was interested 

in, in terms of mindfulness really overlapped.”  

The other participants were unfamiliar with what mindfulness entailed 

when first beginning practice. Two of the participants initially felt that mindfulness 

was not an activity they would engage in, with P1 stating “I'd seen on 

movies...meditating and I'd thought Oh it's never me [joint laughter] you know? But 

it was kind of like, I was quite curious about it” and P5 expressing “Perhaps you 

know I'm not someone who would do meditation, it's a waste of time, I've got lots 

to do [laughter].” These quotes which were in contrast to the current regular 

practice these participants engaged in highlighted their initial unfamiliarity with the 

practice. All participants had an inherent interest in well-being and in particular 



 
 

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developing the well-being of others, with three participants working in the mental 

health sector and three working as Yoga/fitness instructors.  

 

3.2. Motivation to Learn Mindfulness 

A number of participant comments were indicative of an undercurrent of 

dissatisfaction with Western Culture (WC). Participants indicated that WC was 

unable to provide them with holistic understandings as indicated by P1 “I went to 

India because I wanted all the spiritual stuff with it, I thought if I tried to do it in 

Australia or NZ I wouldn't get what Yoga really was.” This statement indicated that 

the way in which P1 viewed western individuals’ engagement with Yoga, was not 

participation in all that Yoga has to offer, that there was an essential deeper side 

which is as important as the physical component; a side which our culture may not 

fully embrace. This lack of holistic understanding was echoed by P7 as they 

explained “there was sort of glimmers of something that they’d discovered 

something over there (Asia), um, through you know, through their philosophies and 

religions and stuff, that I couldn’t find in our, present day.” P7 went further to 

comment on how the ideals and experience of growing up in WC were not aligned 

with their own values “So um, I didn’t feel that...um, what’s the best way to term 

that...that our, the society that I was kind of growing up in...didn’t, I didn’t feel met 

at all.” Together these passages indicated a lack of satisfaction in the 

understandings that WC could offer. 

Participants provided numerous references to the stress of western life, 

with many instances of negative adjective use to describe themselves when 

explaining their initial motivations for engaging in mindfulness practice. Both P1 

and P5 spoke of the need to cope with the frenetic pace of their life: 

P1: “I just need to chill out, like I'm quite, not a high-strung person, but I 

just, I get frantic and I get, I need to be organised”,  

P5: “I'm an absolute rusher! [shared laughter] I'm squeezing in as much as I 

can into my day and thinking you know, yep, my mind is one that, that, that 

is constantly on the go but also myself I'm constantly on the go, and um I do 



 
 

39 

you know, I'm a terrible multitasker and, um, you know I'm aware that that's 

not fully, you know, experiencing what I'm doing...I kind of realised yeah I 

really need this myself because I'm a rusher, and I'm not fully experiencing 

the wonderful things I'm wanting to do.” 

 P2 spoke of their grasp for sanity: 

“I thought, I am gonna have to do something for myself to stay sane, and so 

I looked around and found a community course on meditation, and so I went 

along.” 

A number of these negative terms are feeling based and indicative of states of 

mental distress, participants provided no reference to the physical health benefits 

science has suggested mindfulness can provide. A definite theme of a need to feel 

calmer and more organised was present. With origins in Eastern culture the search 

for mindfulness as a tool to alleviate mental distress could be indicative of well-

being aspects lacking in WC. 

Participants were motivated to engage in mindfulness practice based on the 

perceived benefits of mindfulness as a tool to achieve a state of calm or to gain 

knowledge, understanding and awareness. P6 embarked on a mindfulness journey 

both from an academic and personal stance acknowledging the knowledge gained 

from MP would benefit not only their future clients, but also them self with their 

current stresses. 

“...Um, yeah a, a number of motivations I suppose, like that was one kind of, 

if I was going to be implementing this with clients you know, it's such an 

experiential thing...That you need to ah...know the territory 

experientially...um and then also, like...I guess, for me personally as well for 

my own benefit, I was going through a doctoral program it's, it's really 

intense, and um, kind of there's a lot of uncertainty and stress in that, so it's 

like well, this could be really great, 'cos I'm passionate about this area, and 

I'm doing my research in it, so I'll learn things that will help me through it.” 

 



 
 

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This search for knowledge was echoed by P3:  

“But I had been practicing Yoga for….oh, um over a decade before that and 

so, so some of the, a lot of the things that I studied or that I was interested 

in, in terms of mindfulness really overlapped...”  

Combined the above passages indicate a desire to obtain knowledge, and an 

acknowledgement that MP could provide alternative perceptions. 

  

3.3. Presenting Themes 

This research presented three overarching paths to meaning from mindfulness 

practice: Non-judgment, awareness, and enhanced connection. Non-judgment and 

awareness cultivated enhanced connection, which pervaded all aspects of the 

participants’ lives resulting in four subsequent paths to meaning: connection with 

others, authenticity, enhanced spirituality, and positive perceptual shift (See Figure 

3.1).  MP cultivated a non-judgmental attitude resulting in greater acceptance of 

others and the self. MP also developed awareness resulting in the realisation of 

values and of the connectivity between things. The acceptance of others and 

realisation of connectivity enhanced connections to all things outside of the self. 

The acceptance of the self and realisation of one’s own values resulted in greater 

authenticity, which in turn also added to enhanced connectivity. Enhanced 

connectivity and spirituality appeared to be closely related and influential on one