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A LEEP Forward:  
Biodiversity Futures for New Zealand 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the  
Master of Resource and Environmental Planning 
at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Keith Wallace Calder 
 
2007  
 
ii 
 
 
 
 
We do not believe that resource management is inherently destructive, but so far the 
record of its effects on biodiversity is rather bleak.  
(Noss & Cooperrider 1994:131) 
 
 
 
Biodiversity decline is New Zealand’s most pervasive environmental issue 
(Conclusion 2. The State of New Zealand’s Environment report 1997:10.6) 
 
 
 
In the cloistered tradition of scientific specialization, most ecologists think of the 
world narrowly, as a system of natural environments beleaguered by human activity. 
They live, as Aldo Leopold put it, in a world of wounds. They have reason to think 
this way. Today, less than 10% of the earth’s surface remains in a mostly unchanged 
state, and only 4% has been set aside in natural reserves. In their own speciality, 
planners and landscape designers tend to stay in their larger and wholly different 
world. For them, the bulk of the land has been given over to humanity; and now, they 
say, people must redesign it to their liking. 
 
Neither view, taken to the exclusion of the other, is viable any longer... A few…have 
come to focus on the intellectually rich domain of overlap between the two fields. The 
result of their deliberate intermediacy is the new discipline of landscape ecology. 
(Edward O. Wilson Foreword to Land Mosaics (Forman 1995). 
iii 
ABSTRACT 
 
 
Loss of indigenous biodiversity continues in New Zealand. Despite admirable goals in the 
NZBS 2000 to the contrary, efforts at improved biodiversity conservation have been 
insufficient to halt loss of significant amounts of indigenous forest and wildlife habitat. 
Increasing numbers of native species are moving towards critically endangered and extinction. 
Whatever we are doing in New Zealand, it is not effective enough. 
 
The aim of this study is to firstly identify factors contributing to the failure, “to halt the 
decline of indigenous biodiversity” in New Zealand and to then consider opportunities to 
overcome these barriers.   
 
In considering opportunities, this study then reviews the emerging discipline of landscape 
ecology as an answer to, at least, some of those factors and the recurring calls from New 
Zealand ecologists for a more integrated and holistic approach to biodiversity conservation. 
Recent advances in the planning framework and particularly provisions for biodiversity 
conservation in England are explored as a model of practical application of landscape 
ecological principles to land-use planning. 
 
From this review, the study proposes a new ‘LEEP’ model for strategic biodiversity 
conservation that produces a regional-scale spatial conservation map and accompanying 
policy and implementation guide. Together they provide an integrated and holistic approach 
to restoring or creating functional landscapes that also recognises and provides for human 
activities and development. Application of the LEEP model is demonstrated through a case 
study of the Wellington region. Benefits and potential uses of the map and policy outputs are 
canvassed. 
 
Interviews with leading New Zealand and international ecologists provide an assessment of 
the current status of landscape ecology and interviewees also act as an expert ‘test panel’ 
against which the Wellington maps and guides produced from the ‘LEEP’ model are assessed. 
 
Finally, suggestions are provided for development of the new model and future research needs 
towards fuller and more effective implementation of this approach to biodiversity 
conservation in the New Zealand context. 
iv 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
 
Thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Jo Rosier, who not only guided my study but provided the 
enthusiasm and encouragement towards completion on the several occasions when my own 
resolve was ebbing. I am also grateful to her, Dr Mark Bellingham and Dr Reed Noss who 
together provided the inspiration and example for this particular topic. 
 
Thanks are due also to the many colleagues and acquaintances in the conservation and 
planning community who have willingly provided inspiration, encouragement and comments 
on my work as it developed. Particular mention to those who agreed to be informally 
interviewed as part of the input to my research and accepted me into their work place and 
sometimes their homes. Their enthusiasm for my work remains contagious. 
 
Thanks go to John Gibson, GIS Coordinator at Greater Wellington Regional Council (now 
DOC Hokitika), who enthusiastically developed and produced the land cover base maps. Also, 
Roger Smith of Geographx NZ Ltd, Wellington who produced the series of maps of past and 
present indigenous vegetation cover for New Zealand and the Wellington region for me, free 
of cost. 
 
I am also very grateful to the staff at Karori Wildlife Sanctuary who have not only supported 
my work, but also permitted time for study and supervision and accommodated the many 
occasions when I have either been absent from work or been less available than I might 
otherwise. They are the true conservation heroes that are forging part of the future securing 
New Zealand’s unique indigenous biodiversity and inspiring generations of active and 
armchair conservationists. I hope my work makes a difference and eventually complements 
theirs. 
 
Finally to my family – Janet, Ian, Grant and Megan – apologies for the inconvenience and 
thanks for the tolerance as I chase my dreams. For the almost daily occasions when I was 
locked away in the study, researching and writing, when I might have spent more time with 
you, I will always be grateful.  
 
 
v 
LIST OF FIGURES 
 
1. Historic Loss of New Zealand Indigenous Forest Cover   
2. Original Principles for the Design of Nature Reserves  
3. Standard Conceptual Layout of an Ideal Biosphere Reserve  
4. A Multiple-Use Model (MUM)  
5. A Model Regional Ecological Network  
6. North America – An Example of A Proposed Continental-Scale Network  
7. A Proposed Regional Reserve Network for Florida  
8. East of England Regional biodiversity Map  
9. Yorkshire and Humber Region Habitat Density Map  
10. Yorkshire and Humber Region Biodiversity Conservation Map  
11. The Artificial Symmetry of the Boundary of Egmont National Park  
Wellington Regional Maps 
12. Indigenous Vegetation Loss in the Wellington Region  
13. Base Land Cover Map of the Wellington Region  
14. Regional Ecological Network for the Wellington Region  
15. Strategic Biodiversity Conservation Map for the Wellington Region  
16. South Wairarapa Area – Potential Ecolink  
17. South Wairarapa Area – Potential Development of an Ecolink  
 
 
 
vi 
LISTOF DIAGRAMS 
 
1. Structure of Thesis  
2. Structure of Chapter Two  
3. Structure of International Literature Review of Landscape Ecology  
4. Defragmentation Tools  
5. Structure of Section on English Biodiversity Planning  
6. Planning Framework for Biodiversity Conservation in England  
7. Development of Regional Spatial Strategy (RSS)  
8. Structure of New Zealand Literature Review  
9. The LEEP Model for Strategic Biodiversity Conservation Planning in New Zealand  
10. Flow Chart of Inputs and Outputs of the LEEP Model  
11. Application of the LEEP Model to a New Zealand Context  
12. Inputs to a Strategic Biodiversity Conservation map for the Wellington Region  
   
 
 
vii 
LIST OF TABLES 
 
1. Reasons for Lack of Biodiversity Policy Implementation in New Zealand  
2. Common Types of Ecological Linkages  
3. Types of Connectivity Function  
4. Environmental Services and Six Area of Public Policy Influenced by Natural Corridors  
5. Five Main Types of Edge Effect  
6. Four Essential Elements of a Regional Ecological Network  
7. International Distribution of Known Ecological Networks  
8. Categories of International Ecological Network Initiatives   
9. Protection, Management and Restoration Guidelines for Three Categories of Land  
10. Options for Countering Habitat Fragmentation  
11. Policy Principles Guiding Biodiversity Conservation in England  
12. Information and Evidence – Good Practice Summary from England  
13. Good Practice Principles for Opportunity Mapping  
14. Policy Framework for Terrestrial and Coastal/Estuary O bjectives  
15. Policy Framework for Riverine Objectives  
16. Comparison of Landscape Ecology and English Biodiversity Conservation Models  
17. Values Underpinning the Significance of Landscape Ecology for Conservation  
18. Four Basic Ecological Landscape Elements  
19. Design Rules for Functional Ecological Landscapes  
20. Good Practice Principles for Strategic Biodiversity Conservation Maps  
21. Potential Uses of the Strategic Biodiversity Conservati on Map  
22. Land Use Classes for the Base Map  
23. Biodiversity ‘Zone’ Characteristics, Function and Management  
24. Policy Guide – Conservation Zone Policy Development and Implementation  
25. Sample Policy and Implementation Guide for South Wairarapa Ecolinkage 
Development 
 
26. Agencies and Responsibilities for Implementation of the LEEP Model  
27. Checklist – Good Practice Principles for Strategic Biodiversity Conservation Maps  
28. Funding Sources for Community and Private Conservation and Ecore storation  
 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
  Page 
ABSTRACT iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv 
LIST OF FIGURES  v 
LIST OF DIAGRAMS vi 
LIST OF TABLES vii 
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 1 
 1.1 Introduction 1 
 1.2 Statement of the Problem 1 
 1.3 Significance of this Research 8 
 1.4 Aim of Study 9 
 1.5 Methodology 10 
 1.6 Limits of Study 12 
 1.7 Structure of Thesis 14 
CHAPTER TWO – INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE REVIEW  16 
 2.1 Introduction 16 
 2.2 Landscape Ecology 16 
 2.2.1 Introduction 16 
 2.2.2 Landscape Ecology and Reserve Design 18 
 2.2.3 Ecological Networks 25 
 2.2.4 Ecological Networks – A Global Perspective 28 
 2.2.5 Network Management Considerations 33 
 
2.2.6 Landscape Ecology and Land-Use Planning 34 
 
2.2.7 The Current Status of Landscape Ecology - Interviews 36 
 
2.2.8  Conclusions – Moving Beyond Reserves 39 
 2.3 English Planning Model of Biodiversity Conserv ation 41 
 2.3.1 Introduction 41 
 2.3.2 Planning Framework 41 
 2.3.3 Key Characteristics 42 
 2.3.4 Opportunity Mapping 51 
 2.3.5 Examples – Case Studies 53 
 2.4 Conclusions 58 
CHAPTER THREE – NEW ZEALAND CONTEXT 60 
 3.1 Introduction 60 
 3.2 Historical Beginnings 61 
 3.3 Recent New Zealand Literature 63 
 3.4 Department of Conservation 66 
 3.5 New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy 2000 68 
 3.6 National Policy Statement on Biodiversity 71 
 3.7 NZBS – Five Year Review 72 
 3.8 Resource Management Act 1991 73 
 3.9 Ongoing Disquiet - Further New Zealand Work 73 
 3.10 New Zealand Biodiversity and Climate Change 76 
 3.11 Conclusions 78 
CHAPTER FOUR - THE NEW ‘LEEP’ MODEL 79 
 4.1 Introduction 79 
 4.2 The ‘LEEP’ Model 79 
 4.3 Comparisons - Fundamental Elements & ‘Philosophies’ 80 
 4.4 Landscape Ecology –  Spatial Components 82 
 4.5 Landscape Design Rules 84 
 4.6 English Planning Model – Maps and Good Practice Principles 87 
 4.7 Model Flow Chart 88 
 4.8 Uses of Maps and Implementation Guide 89 
 4.9 Summary 92 
CHAPTER FIVE - CASE STUDY – WELLINGTON REGION 93 
 5.1 Introduction 93 
 5.2 Wellington Regional Context 93 
 5.3 Application of the ‘LEEP’ Model – Seven Steps 95 
 5.4 Example – Application of LEEP Model to Priority Location 107 
 5.5 Implication for Agency Responsibilities 110 
 5.6 Wellington Application Checklist 111 
 5.7 Funding Sources 113 
 5.8 Conclusions 115 
CHAPTER SIX - CONCLUSIONS 117 
 6.1 The Importance of the ‘LEEP’ Model 117 
 6.2 Evolution into the Future 119 
 6.3 The Contribution of this Thesis 121 
 6.4 Future Research and Application of the LEEP Model 122 
 6.5 Conclusion 124 
REFERENCES 127 
ACRONYMS 140 
APPENDICES 142 
 Appendix A Wellington Planning Document Review A1 
 Appendix B Interview Summary A15 
 Appendix C Landscape Ecology Supplementary Literature Review A32 
 Appendix D International Ecological Network Projec ts A54 
 Appendix E English Biodiversity Planning Documents A55 
 Appendix F English Information Sources A59 
 Appendix G English Opportunity Mapping Locations A65 
 Appendix H English Opportunity Mapping Supplementary Details A66 
 Appendix I LEEP Model ‘Test Panel’ A73 
 Appendix J Base Land Cover Map Of Wellington Region A74 
 Appendix K Regional Ecological Network For Wellington Region A75 
 Appendix L Strategic Biodiversity Conservation Map For Wellington Region A76 
 Appendix M Strategic Spatial Policy And Objectives  For Biodiversity Map A77