Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Lessons Learnt from United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: A Peacekeeping Model for creating and sustaining peace in war torn countries A Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Masters of Philosophy In Defence and Strategic Studies At Massey University, Palmerston North New Zealand Vanessa R. Houghton 2008 Copyright is owned by the author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. Permission is also given for the Massey University Library to hold copies of the thesis for research purposes . The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the author. Copyright by Vanessa R Houghton 2008 All Rights Reserved ii Abstract This thesis studies the lessons learnt from United Nations Peacekeeping Operations focusing on four specific case studies, those being Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia-Herzegovina and East Timar. What this study attempts to do is draw together the lessons learnt that are operation or geographically specific, and those that are common across each of the four case studies. This is done with a view to developing a Peacekeeping Model that can be utilised over a wide range of United Nations operations and interventions, regardless of the geographical location of the conflict. In order to ·explore whether or not a peacekeeping model for creating and sustaining peace in war torn countries can be developed, this thesis draws on the lessons learnt of not only the United Nations, but also the contributing service women and men and coalition partners involved. This thesis is divided into four parts. The Introduction, Chapter 1 and Chapter 2, are written to provide the reader with an overview of the creation of the United Nations, its Charter and mandate, and to introduce some of the key terminology used throughout the thesis. Chapters 3 - 6 focus on the four individual case studies chosen for this research and provide an overview of the history, a breakdown of the United Nations operations, and then flows through the key military considerations identified under each case study. The structure of each of the case studies is focused around the United Nations operational mandate, command and control, intelligence and communications, logistics, pre-deployment training and preparations I deployment I post-deployment. Chapter 7 provides an analytical overview of the lessons learnt that are specific to each of the case studies and discusses in detail the lessons learnt that can be applied across two or more case studies. Chapter 8 discusses the recommended United Nations blueprint or peacekeeping model. It argues that a successful peacekeeping model can be developed and clearly identifies what steps need to be taken for that model to succeed . Chapter 9 provides a conclusion to the study and comments on the way ahead for United Nations peacekeeping operations based on the recommended blueprint or model. Chapter 9 also discusses the future of the United Nations and whether or not the organisation has a viable role to play in the maintenance of international peace and security. iii Acknowledgements I would first like to thank and acknowledge the efforts of all of those involved with supporting me throughout the completion of this thesis. In particular, I am indebted to Laura Garrod who played a vital role in assisting with shaping this thesis, providing valuable feedback and keeping me true to the thesis topic. I would like to specifically thank Sheryl Ramsay, Frances Blake and Michael Houghton for the roles that they played in assisting with the editing process of this thesis. Finally, I would like to thank the men and women from the New Zealand Defence Force who contributed to this study. The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author, or respective quoted authors, and are in no way designed to be a reflection of the current views, attitude or policy of the New Zealand Defence Force nor any other military or government organisation. iv Table of Contents 1. Cover Page. 2. Abstract ii 3. Acknowledgements iii 4. Table of Contents. iv 5. List of Abbreviations. v-vi 6. List of Tables/Maps. vii 7. Introduction. 1-5 8. Chapter 1: Background. 6-14 9. Chapter 2: Role of the UN in International Security and 15-28 Humanitarian Intervention Operations. 10. Chapter 3: Case Study 1 - Somalia . 29-51 11. Chapter 4: Case Study 2 - Haiti. 52-74 12. Chapter 5: Case Study 3 - Bosnia Herzegovina. 75-99 13. Chapter 6: Case Study 4 - East Timar. 100-123 14. Chapter 7: Analysis of Case Studies. 124-137 15. Chapter 8: Can a successful UN Peacekeeping Model be developed? Peacekeeping Model Blueprint. 138-153 16. Chapter 9: Likely future of the UN and roles that it will have to play in international security in the future. 154-169 17. Appendices: 1. United Nations Charter. 170-186 2. Mandate Somalia. 187-188 3. Mandate Haiti. 189-190 4. Mandate Bosnia-Herzegovina. 191-192 5. Mandate East Timor. 193-194 6. Copy of thesis questionnaire. 195-199 18. Bibliography 200-205 ACC ASEAN AU BiH CICP CIS CIVPOL CTC cw DOA DHA DNGOs DPA DPKO ECPS EU G-7 G77 GB HRW ICC ICJ ICRC ICTY IGOs INTERFET LDCs MIPONUH NATO NG Os OAS ONUVEH OSCE P3 P5 PBSO PIWCs SC SFOR SG SRSG UN UNDG UNDP UNEF v List of Abbreviations United Nations Administrative Committee on Coordination Association of Southeast Asian Nations African Union (formerly OAU) Bosnia-Herzegovina United Nations Centre for International Crime Prevention Commonwealth of Independent States Civilian Policing United Nations Counter Terrorism Committee Chemical Weapons United Nations Department of Disarmament Affairs United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs Domestic Non-Governmental Organisations United Nations Department of Political Affairs Department of Peacekeeping Operations United Nations Executive Committee on Peace and Security European Union Group of Seven States: US, Canada, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan. Group of 77. Group of 8. Human Rights Watch International Criminal Court International Court of Justice International Committee of the Red Cross International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Inter-Governmental Organisations International Force in East Timar Least Developed Countries United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti North Atlantic Treaty Organisations Non-Governmental Organisations Organisation of American States United Nations Observer Group for the Verification of Elections in Haiti. Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe The Western permanent members of the Security Council Existing five permanent member of the Security Council Peace building Support Office Persons Indicted for War Crimes United Nations Security Council, see also UNSC Stabilisation Force in Bosnia (NATO led) United Nations Secretary General Special Representative of the Security General, see also SG United Nations United Nations Development Group United Nations Development Programme United Nations Emergency Force vi List of Abbreviations UNGA United Nations General Assembly, see also GA UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund UNAMET United Nations Mission in East Timor (Timor Leste) UNITAF Unified Task Force, Somalia UNMIH United Nations Mission in Haiti UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina UNMISET United Nations Mission in Support of East Timor UNOSOM United Nations Operations Somalia (UNOSOM I & II) UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force UNSMIH United Nations Support Mission for Haiti UNTAET United Nations Transition Authority in East Timor UNTMIH United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organisation WTO World Trade Organisation vii List of Tables/Maps Table 1.1 Comparison of Peacekeeping and Peace Enforcement 23 Characteristics. Fleitz Jr, F.H, Peacekeeping Fiascoes of the 1990s: Causes, Solutions and U.S. Interests, Praeger, Westport, 2002. Maps 2.1 Map Somalia. (enc a rta. msn. com/ encnet/featu res/mapcenter/map) 29 3.1 Map Haiti. (encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/mapcenter/map) 52 4.1 Map Bosnia-Herzegovina. ( encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/mapcenter/map) 75 5.1 Map East Timor. (enc a rta. msn. com/ encnet/featu res/ma pcenter/map) 100 1 Introduction This thesis studies the lessons learnt from United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, with a view to defining and recommending a Peacekeeping Model for creating and sustaining peace in war torn countries. The aim of this study is to identify a sustainable Peacekeeping Model and way ahead for United Nations operational peacekeeping deployments. It will achieve this through the detailed analysis and comparison of four case studies, those being Somalia , Haiti, Bosnia-Herzegovina and East Timor. Aim There are already considerable works on Somalia , Haiti, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and East Timor. Those concentrating on the pre-deployment and deployment of the United Nations into these destabilised states have been largely looked to in order to gain valuable information on the lessons learnt from each respective mission and geographical area. Information from studies written with a military perspective are also drawn on to assist in creating the frame work for this study. What this study attempts to do is draw together the lessons learnt and develop a Peacekeeping Model that could be utilised over a wide range of United Nations operations and interventions, regardless of the geographical location of the conflict. Structure of the Thesis In order to explore whether or not a peacekeeping model for creating and sustaining peace in war torn countries can be developed four case studies have been studied. This thesis draws heavily on the lessons learned of not only the United Nations, but also the contributing service women and men and coalition partners involved. The analysis of the case studies has been used to identify a Peacekeeping Model that implemented may provide a stable platform or start state for the United Nations when it deploys into war torn countries, whether they be in Africa, Europe or the Asia Pacific Regions. 2 The first two chapters of this study delve into some of the key decision making processes surrounding the creation of the United Nations which rose out of the ashes of the failed League of Nations on 26 April 1945. They provide an overview of the United Nations Charter and mandate and discusses the organisational breakdown of the United Nations in order to provide the reader with a basic overview of the United Nations and introduce some of the key terminology used throughout this study. All of which are key pieces of background historical information that if not understood correctly would mean that vital components to the United Nations and the way it is employed today would create confusion. D. A. Wells (2005), and J. S. Sutterlin (2003) provide a detailed breakdown of the establishment of the United Nations and their writings are also referred to in the conclusion of this study because of the emphasis that they place on options for the way forward of the United Nations. Chapters 3 - 6 focus on the four individual case studies chosen for this research and provide an overview of the history, a breakdown of the United Nations operations that have been or are currently deployed to the conflict or war, and then flows through several key military considerations which are discussed under each case study. The structure of the chapters is focused around the United Nations operational mandate, command and control, intelligence and communications, Logistics, pre-deployment training and preparation I deployment I post-deployment. Each case study outlines the key lessons learnt from United Nations involvement in peacekeeping or peace enforcement operations and highlights recommendations on what actions the United Nations can take to avoid the issues confronted on future operations. Each case study concludes with a summary of the current situation on the ground as it sits today, a conclusion on United Nations efforts in the specific theatre and recommendations on what actions the United Nations can take in the future to avoid making the same errors. Chapter 7 provides an analytical overview of the lessons learnt that are specific to each of the individual case studies, and discusses in detail the lessons learned that can be applied across two or more case studies. 3 Chapter 7 also aims to highlight the distinct differences or characteristics of each of the case studies through mission specific lessons learned . Chapter 8 discusses the recommended United Nations blueprint or peacekeeping model. Shows that a successful United Nations peacekeeping model can be developed, and identifies what steps need to be taken for that model to succeed, based on the lessons learned identified across the four case studies. Chapter 8 also outlines some of the key differences faced by United Nations peacekeeping forces when they operate in diverse environmental and geographical locations, such as the difference in operating from conditions in Somalia to Bosnia-Herzegovina, and the impact that those conditions will have on the selection of lead-nation, troop contributing nations and preparation prior to deployment. Chapter 9 discusses the future of the United Nations and whether or not the organisation has a viable role to play in the maintenance of international peace and security. It outlines some of the key personalities and members within the United Nations system and analyses the impact of regional organisations on the future role of the United Nations. Chapter 9 provides a conclusion to the study and comments on the way ahead for United Nations peacekeeping operations based on the recommended blueprint or model. Sources In completing this thesis a wide range of sources have been drawn from to provide as unbiased a view of the United Nations as possible. The authors personal experience working with the United Nations in Bosnia-Herzegovina and East Timor, as well as first hand accounts from New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) officers and soldiers across the Navy, Army and Air force have been used as a base to this study. The experiences of a wide range of military specialists from the Intelligence, Logistics, Infantry, Signals, Engineer, Military Police, Public Relations and Medical Corps have been drawn on to provide analysis of the United Nations employment of these areas during the preparation and conduct of a peacekeeping operation . 4 The development and distribution of a questionnaire and the conduct of interviews with New Zealand military personnel have been used as primary sources of information for this study. Whilst the feedback the author received on the questionnaire was largely successful not all participants chose to answer the questionnaire directly. As a result this limited the amount of feedback that was available for this study. However, there was a significant amount of military personnel who chose to contribute and answer questions in an informal setting and on an informal basis without wishing to commit their answers to paper. Whilst the experiences and opinions of military personnel have been used to draw some of the conclusions in this study, the opinions expressed throughout this paper are supported by the author and are not intended to reflect current or future NZDF thought or policy. Throughout this study the United Nations Resolutions, Security Council documents, Secretary General Reports and key documentation for each of the case studies has been drawn on for statistical information and facts and figures. The writings of Mingst and Karns (2007}, Connaughton (2001 ), Fleitz (2002), Hillen (2000), Knight (2005) and Sutterlin (2003) have been drawn on to provide background information on the United Nations and key events that have shaped the organisation as it stands today. The writings of Knight (2005), Clark and Herbst (1997), Bellamy, W illiams and Griffin (2004) and O'Neil and Rees (2005) were utilised for case study 1. Case study 2 focused around the works of Lahneman (2004), Zartman (2005), Malone (1998) and Murphy (1996). Case study 3 looked at the works of Donias (2005), Mockaitis (1999), Bose (2002) and Robbertson (2006). Case study 4 concentrated around the writings of Utley (2006), Caballero-Anthony and Acharya (2005), Martin (2001 ), FitzGerald, Stewart and Venugopal (2006) and Smillie and Minear (2004 ). The firsthand accounts of Cain, Postlewait and Thompson (2004), as well as Zartman (2005) and Fleitz (2002) provide a cutting and harsh reality of civilian employment and perceptions within the United Nations on arguably some of the most difficult peacekeeping missions in its recent history. However, this is not necessarily the reality of all peacekeeping operations as is clearly shown 5 in the writings of Thakur (1998), Diehl (1994), Robbertson (2006), Sutterlin (2003) and Knight (2005). There exists a significant amount of works on the United Nations. In particular its successes, and/or failures have been commented on in detail. However, it is difficult to find source material on the United Nations that does not provide a biased perspective either for or in most cases against the Organisation. What is also apparent is that there is very little written from a purely military perspective. Scholars such as Wells (2005), Thakur (1998), Azimi (1997), and Rittenberger (2001) - to name a few - have developed an art of writing on the United Nations, however, this thesis is not being written with necessarily the same perspective or vantage point. Due to military influences, training and experience on Operational Deployments as a Peacekeeper and Officer in the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) this study will be focused primarily on the United Nations from a military perspective, as opposed to a scholarly, humanitarian or political perspective. The writings of Bellamy, Williams and Griffin (2004), and Lahneman (2004), have a distinct military flavour and have provided key examples of lessons learnt in a variety of operational theatres. Summary The creation of a universal Peacekeeping Model that can be employed across a range of geographical theatres and United Nations coalition operations is the intended end state of this study. While it is identified that geographical climates and historical ethnic trends will impact significantly on the nationality of forces deployed into certain areas, this research aims to provide recommendations on the way ahead for the United Nations when it is preparing and training for peacekeeping operations, and for the physical deployment and sustainment of military peacekeeping forces on United Nations operations. 6 Chapter 1: Background to The United Nations In order to define and discuss the United Nations today, it is necessary to comprehend why and how it was formed , what the Charter established and why the organisation was structured the way that it was. To understand the United Nations we must look at the major political influences that have affected the Organisation since its founding , but first it is important to look briefly at its predecessor, the League of Nations. The lessons learnt from the failure of the League of Nations largely shaped the way ahead and establishment of the United Nations. The League of Nations was proposed as part of the Treaty of Paris at the end of World War I. The high casualties of both military and civilian personnel meant that the international community was forced to find some way of preventing such a large scale of death from occurring in the future .1 In order to achieve this, it was proposed that: A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. 2 The Covenant of a League of Nations was adopted at the Paris Conference 28 April 1919 and made part of the larger Treaty of Versailles. On 10 January 1920 the League went into force , less the participation of the United States.3 The League provided for a General Assembly (GA) where each nation had one vote , it also provided for a Security Council (SC) with five permanent seats (US, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan). The General Assembly met once a year between 1920 an 1940, although the Security Council met 106 times during the same period.4 In total, over 635 nations would join the League of Nations before its disestablishment. Sutterlin (2003) notes that: 1 Wells , D.A, The United Nations: States vs International Laws, Algora Publishing, New York, 2005, p. 8. 2 Ibid . p. 8. 3 Ibid . p. 8. 4 Ibid . p. 9. 5 Ibid. p. 8. 7 Not until the League of Nations was established at the end of the First World War was a structure formed in which the majority of the world were joined in a commonly accepted responsibility for the maintenance of world peace - not peace within a certain region ... but peace among all countries. 6 James Sutterlin (2003) writes that "central to the effectiveness of the League of Nations was the concept of collective security ... the principle that all countries will undertake a common action against any country that threatens the security of another state". 7 However, from the beginning the League of Nations was unlikely to succeed, and arguably the greatest reason for this was the ineffectiveness of the League to enforce action against covenant breaking states.8 This significant limitation, combined with the failure of important member states to comply with the provisions of the Covenant, and the failure of governments to place the perceived needs of the greater international community over their own national interests, effectively meant that the League of Nations was never going to be able to achieve a common concept of collective security. Establishment of the United Nations On 14 August 1941 ,9 United States President Roosevelt and United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill issued the 8-point Atlantic Charter in which they affirmed the urgent need for "a peace which will afford all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries and which will afford assurance that all men in all lands may live to their lives in freedom from fear and want". 10 On 1 January 1942, 11 26 nations signed a United Nations declaration agreeing to join forces to defeat the Axis force and end World War II. A series of meetings were held throughout 1943 and 1944 in Cairo, Tehran and at Dumbarton Oaks. The final session established the specific structure of the United Nations Organisation with a Secretary General, a 6 Sutterlin , J.S, The United Nations and the Maintenance of International Security: A Challenge to be Met, Praeger, London, 2003, p. 2. 7 Ibid. p.2 . 8 Ibid . p. 3. 9 Wells, D.A, p. 10. 10 Ibid. p. 10. 11 Ibid. p. 10. 8 General Assembly, a Security Council, and an International Court of Justice. Provision was also made for additional agencies to be created ,12 such as the World Bank (WB), Commissioner for Refugees (UNHR) and the Children's Fund (UNICEF). A founding meeting was held in San Francisco on 15 April 1945, and by 26 April 1945 the United Nations Charter in concept was confirmed by acclamation of the fifty nations in attendance, however, the Charter was not officially confirmed until 24 October 1945.13 Heinbecker (2005) notes that: The founders put into place an organisation that reflected both the main political concerns and the distribution of power of the 1940's, as well as the lessons derived from the failure of the League of Nations. "14 It is important to note that from the start the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, China and France declared that they would have veto power in the Security Council as the permanent five members of the Council.15 These nations also placed numerous major restrictions on the United Nations, which David Wells (2005) argues should be kept in mind in assessing both the perceived successes and failures of subsequent United Nations actions.16 The allowance of each of the five nations to have veto power has been suggested as one of the primary reasons for many of the difficulties and restrictions faced by the United Nations since its establishment in 1945. Due to the significance of this veto power it will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 2. Weiss, Forsythe and Coate (1997) state that "The UN system was born out plural and decentralised and was never intended to approximate a centralised unitary system".17 Put simply, The United Nations Organisation that was 12 Wells, D.A, p. 11 . 13 Ibid. p. 12. 14 Heinbecker, P & Goff, P, Irrelevant or Indispensable? The United Nations in the 21 51 Century, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Canada, 2005, p. 1. 15 Weiss, T.G, Forsythe, D.P, & Coate, R.A, The United Nations and Changing World Politics, Westview Press, United States of American, 1997, p. 29. 16 Heinbecker, P & Goff, P, p. 12. 17 Weiss, T.G, Forsythe, D.P, & Coate, R.A, p. 1. 9 created at the end of the Second World War of the twentieth century was established to put to bed any further desire or intention of nations to risk another great war. Unlike the League of Nations before it, the United Nations was not designed solely to ensure collective security, but also to establish a number of international institutions aimed at promoting and fostering the social and economic elements necessary to create and sustain collective security. Weiss, Forsythe and Coate (1997) are also quick to note that while the UN system created in 1945 was never intended for the current security environment or to be a centralised unitary system, that "at the same time, the UN system was born from pragmatism and realism and not utopian idealism."18 Weiss, Forsythe and Coate (1997) clearly articulate that: The UN is most fundamentally an intergovernmental organisation in which key decisions are made by governments representing states. The UN Charter may say initially 'We the peoples', but the legal members of the UN are states. The UN is a broad and complex system of policymaking and administration in which some decisions are made by individuals who are not instructed by the states ... moreover, to the extent that UN decisions involve force or economic resources, or considerable diplomatic pressure, these elements of UN action are, in effect borrowed from member states".19 Structure of the United Nations The United Nations is made up of six major bodies, as well as numerous governing institutions, organisations and agencies, each with their own powers, jurisdictions and responsibilities.2° For the purposes of this study, the function and duties of the Secretary General and the Secretariat, the General Assembly and the Security Council will be looked into in detail. This study will only touch briefly on the Economic and Social Council, The Trusteeship Council, and the International Court of Justice in the following paragraphs, as the two central bodies which safeguard the peace are the Security Council and the General Assembly. 18 Weiss, T.G, Forsythe, D.P, & Coate, R.A, p. 1. 19 Ibid. p. 11 . 20 Mingst, K.A, & Karns, M.P, The United Nations in the 21 st Century, Westview Press ... United States of America, 2007, p. 23. 10 Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter, Articles 97-101, established the role of the Secretary General (SG) and put in place the caveat of a five year renewable term. 21 The main role of the Secretary General is to chair the meetings of the General Assembly (GA), the Economic and Social Council , and notably the Secretary General may at any time bring before the Security Council (SC) issues which may threaten international peace and security. Article 100 specifies that the Secretary General "shall not seek instructions from any government or from any other authority external to the UN."22 The United Nations Secretariat is designed to represent the international community. Some of the primary tasks of the Secretariat members are to "implement the many economic and social programs that represent much of the UN's tangible contribution to fulfilling the Charter promises".23 It is also responsible for gathering statistical date, issuing studies and reports, servicing meetings, preparing documentation, and providing translations of speeches, debates, and documents in the UN's six official languages.24 As at 2006, 19225 nations were members of The United Nations and as such, members of the General Assembly, which entitles them to one vote regardless of nation size. In the General Assembly each state may have up to five representatives in order to have representation at each of the major committees. Among the General Assembly's duties is the responsibil ity of: 21 Making recommendations to member states on questions relating to the maintenance of peace and security brought by any state, whether a member of the UN or not, and it may call the attentions of the Security Council to situations which are likely to endanger international peace and security (Article 11) ... decisions on all procedural matters will be by a simple majority of those present and voting.26 Wells, D.A p. 17. 22 Ibid. p. 19. 23 Mingst & Karns, p. 36. 24 Ibid. p. 36. 25 United Nations Protocol's Blue Book, Permanent Missions to the United Nations. No. 295, April 2006. Last updated with ST/SG/SER.N295/Add.5 (3 October 2006) 26 D Wells, .A, p. 19. 11 The primary role of the Security Council is the maintenance of peace and security27 and for this reason the provision was made that members would undertake to make available for use armed force, assistance and facilities, to be used by the council to either maintain or restore international security. The provision of military forces, logistical assistance and facilities meant that the members of the United Nations were committed to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in maintaining international peace and security. Article 25 states that "The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out decisions of the Security Council."28 Wells (2005) notes that: From the outset the UN would not be a military body like NATO, it would have no standing army, and its peacekeepers are not typical combatant soldiers ... unlike typical soldiers, peacekeepers could not be deployed unless invited by both the litigants.29 Wells (2005) clearly highlights that the United Nations was never intended to be a military organisation. 30 Mingst and Karns (2007) also comment on the fact that the United Nations was not intended to be established with its own permanent military force and write that "peacekeeping operations have relied on ad hoc military (civilian and police) units, or subcontracting to a coalition of states". 31 Notably, the majority of peacekeeping mission contingents have come from countries outside of the permanent five members of the United Nations with the size of military forces varying widely. Article 23 of the United Nations Charter states that the Security Council (SC) shall consist of 15 member states. Five of these seats are "permanent" seats (China, France, Russia , the United Kingdom, and the United States); the other 10 are elected for two year terms by the General Assembly ... For purposes of geographical representation , the world is divided into the following groups: African States, Asian States, Latin States, Central and 27 Sutterlin , J.S, p. 3. 2s w ells, D.A, p. 22. 29 Ibid. p. 13. 30 Ibid . p. 13. 31 Mingst, K.A, & Karns, M.P, p. 94. 12 Eastern States, and West European and Other States. This latter group includes the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.32 Wells (2005) notes: No individual UN member state is given authority to make the decision to go to war unilaterally; and, furthermore, no collection of states, such as NATO, has authority to make war in the absence of US approval. 33 The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ESC) consists of 53 member states, as well as the Secretary General as Chair, to make the number 54, and is elected for three year renewable terms by the General Assembly. 34 The Trusteeship Council was originally established to oversee the administration of non-self-governing trust territories that carried over from the mandate system of the League of Nations.35 It suspended operations on 1 November 1994, with the independence of Palau, the last remaining United Nations trust territory, on 1 October 1994. By a resolution adopted on 25 May 1994, the Council amended its rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as occasion required ,36 by its decision or the decision of its President, or at the request of a majority of its members or the General Assembly or the Security Council. The International Court of Justice (the World Court, or ICJ) was established as a result of Charter XIV, Articles 92-96, and has two primary functions, to settle legal disputes submitted by member states, and to give advisory opinions on legal questions that are referred to it.37 The ICJ consists of 15 member states38 which always include the permanent Security Council member states. Of note is that the Court cannot deal with a case unless the State involved accepts the jurisdiction of the court. International organisations or private individuals are not entitled to initiate proceedings 32 Wells, D.A, p. 22. 33 Ibid . p. 23. 34 Ibid. p. 25. 35 Mingst, K.A, & Karns , M.P, p. 39. 36 Ibid. p. 39. 37 Wells, D.A, p. 26. 38 Ibid . p. 26. 13 before the Court. However, as Geoffrey Robertson (2006) writes "judicial appointment through a UN system of state nomination does not mean selection on merit or selection of the fittest."39 Since its founding the United Nations has conducted 49 peacekeeping operations, assisting in the process of avoiding war between nations. The Security Council has negotiated 172 peaceful settlements between nations. The General Assembly and the Security Council have worked to control weapons of mass destruction. Wells (2005) notes that in 1980, there were 5840 democratic nations worldwide , and that due largely to the actions of the United Nations there are now 11541 democratic nations. In his annual Report on the Work of the Organisation in 2003, former Secretary General Kofi Annan stated: The United Nations is not an end in itself. Rather, it is an instrument for achieving common ends. The strength and effectiveness of the Organisation depends on the active support of its Member States and their policies. Moreover, achievement of the organisation's purposes requires a shared consensus about its fundamental goals. That does not mean that Member States need to agree on all issues. However, it does mean that they should be ready to use the Organisation to achieve mutual objectives and to accommodate different national interests.42 What is clear is that there is an accepted need for the United Nations and the institutions that it represents. There is no other governing world body that operates with the same level of support and membership in the modern world , nor is there another organisation that is emerging as a likely replacement. However, there is obvious demand and need for reform within the United Nations, including the Charter and the membership within the Security Council. The ongoing requirement for the United Nations is clearly articulated by Mingst and Karns (2007) who note that: 39 Robbertson, J, Crime Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice, Penguin Group, Australia , 2006, p. xiv . 40 Wells, D.A, p. 30. 41 Ibid. p. 30. 42 Annan, K. A, Report on the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organisation. N58/1, United Nations, New York, 2003, p. 2. 14 There has been a dramatic increase in UN peacekeeping and peace­ building operations since 2003. This illustrates the continuing vitality of these innovative approaches to conflict management that evolved during and after the Cold War.43 What is immediately apparent from any study relating to the United Nations is that the Organisation as a whole has been forced to adapt with the political situation that it now faces. The International security environment that exists now differs significantly from that of the post-World War II and the post-Cold War eras. The influences of the permanent five and the power of veto, as well as the national agendas of all member states continues to mean that the United Nations must consider their interests and role within the Security Council and General Assembly when making decisions relating to its primary goal of maintaining peace and security. Mingst and Karns (2007) state that: As an intergovernmental organisation the UN is the creation of its member states; it is they who decide what it is they will allow this organisation to do and what resources - financial and otherwise - they will provide. In this regard , the UN is very much a political organisation, subject to the winds of world politics and the whims of member governments.44 43 Mingst, K.A, & Karns, M.P, p. 93. 44 Ibid. p. 1. 15 Chapter 2: Role of the United Nations in International Security, Humanitarian Intervention and Peacekeeping Operations The Role of the United Nations The United Nations has received more criticism than any other organisation in recent history. If trends since the end of the Cold War and more recently the terrorist threats since the latter end of the 20th Century are anything to go by, the United Nations is likely to receive even more criticism and attention in the years to come. Knight (2005) notes: After 11 September 2001 , many questioned whether the world body was up to the task of dealing with global security problems such as the new wave of terrorism, the threat of biological and chemical weapons, horizontal nuclear proliferation, the exponential spread in small arms, civil conflict, genocide, ethnic cleansing and transnational criminal activity. 45 As the United Nations emerged from the end of the Cold War "its involvement in global security issues increased exponentially".46 Statistics show that the number of resolutions passed by the Security Council has risen from an average of 15 a year from 1946 to 1989, to more than 60 a year during the 1990s.47 Notably, the number of resolutions authorising the use of force has also risen significantly. The strategies of prevention being looked at by the Secretariat and the Security Council in the early 21st Century were focused on addressing the root causes of conflict, not simply the violent flow on or symptoms, and conflict prevention became the primary concern of the United Nations.48 As was noted in the 1999 Secretary General's Report on the Work 45 Knight, W.A, Adapting the United Nations to a Postmodern Era: Lessons Learned, Second Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2005, p. 1. 46 Price, R.M, & Zacher, M.W, The United Nations and Global Security. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2004, p. 60. 47 Ibid . p. 60. 48 It was assessed that addressing or stopping the route causes of a conflict was the best method of preventing the violent flow on that would naturally follow if the issue was not addressed. The United Nations also aimed to resolve the route causes of a conflict at the negotiating table before the situation deteriorated and peace operations needed to be conducted. 16 of the Organisation "prevention is better, and cheaper, than reacting to crises after the fact".49 Price and Zacher (2004) note: Conflict prevention and sustainable and equitable development are mutually reinforcing activities. An investment in national and international efforts for conflict prevention must be seen as a simultaneous investment in sustainable development since the latter can best take place in an environment of sustainable peace.50 Knight (2005) provides analysis on a number of issues pertaining to the United Nation's struggle to balance reactive and proactive functions, as well as drawing some key lesson's learned from the United Nation's experience with "adapting its structures, functions and processes to changing global conditions".51 Knight achieves this through a selection of chapters written by international law and international relations scholars. Sutterlin (2003) notes that: As a universal organisation , the United Nations adopted specific institutional rules and norms for the preservation of international peace and security. The rules, found in Article 2(4) and Chapter VII of the Charter, embody norms adapted from the League of Nations institution by the Second World War's victors. 52 International Security Defined The definition of international security has broadened to "encompass not only peace between states but also the security of populations within states, economic and social progress are increasingly seen again as essential to international security and peace".53 It is widely accepted that since the end of the Cold War the definition of international security has expanded to include more issues and actors. International security consists of the measures taken by nations or states and international bodies, such as the United Nations, to ensure mutual survival and safety. These measures include military action , and diplomatic agreements such as treaties and conventions. International and national security are invariably linked. 49 Price, R.M, & Zacher, M.W, p. 65. 50 Ibid. p. 65. 51 Sutterlin, J.S, p.2. 52 Ibid. p. 4. 53 Ibid. p. 4. 17 The promotion and maintenance of human security lie at the heart of global governance and constitute the United Nations' primary raison detre ... human security; democratisation and sustainable development are inextricably linked.54 International security cannot be looked at in total isolation from human security. The Commission on Human Security (2003)55 report states that human security broadens the focus from the security of borders to the lives of people and communities inside and across those borders. It goes on to say that the changing international and national environments have caused a shift from interstate to internal conflicts as one of the major threats to international peace and security. 56 Human security should be looked at as a compliment to international or state security, as it protects the "vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and human fulfilment".57 Humanitarian Intervention Defined: Humanitarian intervention is the threat or use of force by a state, or group of states, or international organisation primarily for the purpose of protecting the nationals of the target state from widespread deprivations of internationally recognised human rights.58 Murphy ( 1996) clearly writes that based on the definition given above, if humanitarian intervention takes the form of a threat or use of force, that it "presents a direct conflict with a key norm of the UN Charter".59 It can be argued that this issue is one of the most pressing being faced by the United Nations in the current international security environment. The question of whether the United Nations has the legal or ethical right to intervene in the affairs of legal sovereign states is raising considerable debate globally. The armed intervention of states into other states has increased significantly since the end of the Cold War, and the United Nations Charter was created in a 54 Sutterlin, J.S, p. 18. 55 Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now. Communications Development Incorporated, Washington, 2003, p. 5. 56 Ibid. p. 6. 57 Ibid. p. 4. 58 Murphy, S.D, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations in an Evolving World Order, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1996, p. 11. 59 Ibid. p. 12. 18 period of time when this type of intervention was not seen as the common or accepted norm. Knight (2005) notes: One of the chief purposes of the United Nations has been the prevention of the use of force. As Article 1.1 of the Charter States, "the UN's main role is to maintain international peace and security, and to that end : to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threat to the peace".60 A commonly accepted definition of humanitarian intervention is that it is "uninvited, armed intervention into another state so as to prevent a humanitarian disaster caused by massive violations of fundamental human rights".61 So, when we compare this definition and that given by Murphy (2006) against the United Nations Charter, which states in Article 2 ( 4) that: All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.62 There are glaring contradictions. Article 2 (7) goes on to state that nothing contained in the Charter "shall authorise the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state".63 However, Article 42 clearly states in support of interventions that it "may take such action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security".64 Article 51 also clearly outlines that: Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security.65 60 Knight, W .A, p. 52. 61 Wilson-Roberts, G, Humanitarian Intervention: Definitions and Criteria. in CSS Strategic Briefing Papers, Vol. 3: Part 1, dated June 2000. 62 United Nations Charter, Chapter 1, Article 2, sub-para 4. 63 United Nations Charter, Chapter 1, Article 2, sub-para 7. 64 United Nations Charter, Chapter VII , Article 42. 65 United Nations Charter, Chapter VII , Article 51 . 19 So, why is it now accepted amongst the United Nations and the international community that the use of force is an acceptable answer to resolving humanitarian or human rights abuses? The answer may be as simple as modern technology and international focus. The pervasive effect of the media, especially television, has installed unrealistic but potent expectations about what the UN can achieve ... Near instantaneous coverage of atrocities, violence, and deprivation, has evoked demands for immediate and visible action - the 'do something' syndrome.66 The impact of the media in getting real time images of the conflicts in the Sudan, Somalia, Iraq, Afghanistan and East Timor into the living rooms of the average family 24 hours a day, every day, has been significant in raising the awareness of the humanitarian atrocities being committed within sovereign states. It is only logical that this will then place further pressure on international organisations such as the United Nations, and governments around the world to bring an end to the large scale of human suffering and the deliberate violations of fundamental human rights that is occurring. No longer can the abuses carry on unseen and un-talked about, they will not be tolerated . However, the greatest risk from this public pressure is that governments and the United Nations may be forced or pressured into making rash and poorly developed decisions on critical issues without following basic processes and procedures, which are there to ensure that all of the information received is validated and accurate prior to making important decisions. Peacekeeping Operations Defined To understand the case studies that will be discussed in detail in Chapters 3- 6, it is necessary to first comprehend the differences between peacekeeping, peace-building, and peacemaking and the different contexts in which each is used. From 2000 onwards United Nations peace operations formally involved 66 Hayward, A, Post-Cold War United Nations Peacekeeping and its Evolution Hostage or Soldier of Fortune?. Occasional Publication No7, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 1995, p. 27. 20 three principal activities: "conflict prevention and peacemaking; peace­ keeping; and peace-building".67 Peacekeeping is defined in the Peacekeepers Handbook as: The prevention, containment, moderation, and termination of hostilities between or within states, through the medium of a peaceful third party intervention organised and directed internally, using multinational forces of soldiers, police and civilians to restore and maintain peace.68 Peacekeeping has also been explained as an operation "involving military personnel, but without enforcement powers, undertaken by the United Nations to help maintain or restore international peace and security in areas of conflict".69 The notion of peacekeeping was not mentioned or envisaged when the United Nations Charter was created , and as such it has no clear legal standing as it notionally occupies the middle ground between Chapter VI and Chapter VII. The first United Nations peacekeeping missions in the mid 201 h Century were under the authority of the United Nations Security Council and General Assembly and deployed into the Middle East to monitor the Arab-Israeli ceasefire followed by the Suez Crises.70 To look at the full spectrum of peacekeeping it is necessary to acknowledge that it is no longer just a simple case of monitoring borders between nations in conflict, such as North and South Korea , or conducting negotiations between countries that are in conflict, such as the Israeli - Lebanon case in the late 1970's. United Nations peacekeeping was "an improvisation, born out of the need to respond to war between states". 71 Peace-building differs from peacekeeping in that it is a post-conflict action aimed at ensuring that violence does not reoccur and to identify and support structures that will strengthen the peace. 72 Similarly, peacemaking is aimed at bringing hostile 67 Hayward, A, p. 141 . 68 International Peace Academy, Peacekeepers Handbook, 1984. 69 United Nations, The Blue Helmets: A Review of United Nations Peace-Keeping, United Nations, New York, 1990, p. 4. 70 Price, R. M, & Zacher, M.W, p. 142. 71 Ibid . p. 142. 72 O'Neil , J. T , & Rees, N, United Nations Peacekeeping in the Post-Cold War Era. Routledge, Oxon, 2005., p. 6. 21 parties together through a peaceful means, as articulated in Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter. 73 Differences in ethnic backgrounds, political/state motivation, training , preparation and experience, equipment, and funding between peacekeeping force contributors are all challenges faced by peacekeeping forces today. Simple things such as language training and driver familiarisation training are not being conducted by all force contributing nations and this is ultimately creating a weakness within the deployed force as the United Nations struggles to maintain the required number of peacekeepers on the ground and conduct training to bring unprepared military forces up to the required trained state. As Hayward (1995) articulates: Complaints about poorly trained units and individuals deployed on peacekeeping operations, lacking required equipment, supplies and communications, and with other im~ediments limiting their employability are too numerous to recount. 4 The deliberate non-provision or inability of states to provide accurate and timely information and intelligence to the United Nations when it is faced with making key decisions is a major hindrance to the whole decision making process. "National governments often provide the United Nations with only the information they want it to see".75 Whilst intelligence gathering occurs on a large scale within most developed states, there is currently no capacity within the United Nations to pool these resources for its own use. As Price and Zacher (2004) identify, "objections have long prevented the Secretariat from creating any serious intelligence and analytic capacity that could be used for early-warning purposes and to create more effective prevention policies". 76 This, combined with a lack of a common database for the collection and processing of information, provides a weakness in the United Nations planning and preparation prior to and during the conduct of peacekeeping operations. The differences in communications equipment 73 United Nations Charter, Chapter VI. 74 Hayward, A, p. 36. 75 Ibid. p. 30. 76 Price, R.M, & Zacher, M.W, p. 63. 22 utilised by military forces around the world also provides a significant challenge, and in many cases a complete block, to providing the timely information that is so vital to force protection. Interestingly, there has been a significant increase in force contributors in the early 1990s. There are several acknowledged principal reasons for the increase in states contributing to peacekeeping operations. First and foremost is the increased need or demand for peacekeepers, primarily as a result of the increased instability and deteriorating international security environment. The second is the political sway that a state is afforded by involvement with the United Nations. This involvement allows smaller states, such as New Zealand, to be heard in an international forum and creates an air of credibility when they are talking about international security issues. The third reason is the pressure that is placed on governments by its people to support humanitarian relief and the prestige that comes with this. The fourth is arguably the financial benefit achieved by contributing states. The money received by governments is not necessarily put back into the military, but used by the government to fund other outputs, as has been seen by the Fijian government with the employment of Fijian peacekeepers in Lebanon throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The primary advantage of peacekeeping operations for military forces around the world is the fact that their personnel will receive real time operational experience which can be used as a base to test the training and readiness state of their forces. The contacts and training ties that are established with other military forces are also invaluable in developing and training personnel. The fact that some peacekeeping forces will inevitably receive equipment as a benefit of peacekeeping (as was seen in Somalia and East Timar) is also a powerful motivator for military forces. However, it must be noted from the outset that in the majority of cases the main decision makers of volunteering military forces for peacekeeping operations are the politicians. UNOSOM 1 is an example of a peace enforcement mandate, instead of a peacekeeping operation. It is important to understand the differences 23 between the two types of operations and the main differences between both are explained by Fleitz (2002) in the table below: Comparison of Peacekeeping and Peace Enforcement Characteristics77 Traditional Expanded Peacekeeping Peace Enforcement Peacekeeping Consent of Required. Desired from at least one Not needed. Parties combatant Use of Force Only in self-defence. Discouraged. Troops may Prepared to use engage in limited, military overwhelming military operations, such as to defend aid force to compel parties convoys. Proposals were tabled to abide by peace in 2000, however, to authorise accords. these operations to use force to fight "evil" when disputants are not "moral equals". Troops Unarmed or lightly Unarmed or lightly armed. Heavily armed combat armed. forces. Impartiality Required. Are viewed Technically required but tends to Generally ally with one as non-threatening by side against one party. party and identify the combatants. other as the aggressor. Relationship Traditional Also forbidden to interfere in Can be short in with Parties peacekeeping forces domestic poli tics of hosts. duration, or long term to Dispute may not interfere in missions that are the domestic politics essentially occupation of the host countries. forces. Command and Control In any operation where more than one military chain of command exists there are going to be significant issues, not only with the contro l of troops on the ground , but also with the perception of Use of Force. Each nation's military has its own enforced Rules of Engagement (ROE) which it must legally operate within. This, coupled with the fact that many commanders will first seek guidance from their own government prior to many perceived 'risky' operations regardless of the approved chain of command in theatre, results in a breakdown of confidence in command in theatre and often the use of the so called "Red Card". A Red Card is what many nations commanders will use to 77 Fleitz Jr, F.H, Peacekeeping Fiascoes of the 1990s: Causes. Solutions and U.S. Interests, Praeger, Westport, CT, 2002, p. 6. 24 get out of completing tasks in theatre that their governments do not approve or want them involved with. 78 The United Nations control over military commanders is tenuous at best. The fact that it does not control or own the forces voluntarily given by troop contributing nations is a severe limiting factor in its operations. A state can withdraw or down size its force at any time of its choosing, regardless of the United Nations need for the force to remain in place. As was experienced with UNITAF and UNOSOM II when the US dictated when their troops would withdraw. During the United Nations operations in Somalia there was no clear evidence of any form of unity of command. This is clearly highlighted by the employment of the Rangers under General Montgomery.79 The definition of unity of command is having all forces under one responsible commander. "It requires having a single commander with the requisite authority to direct all forces employed in support of a unified purpose".80 The issue of unity of command is one that will be referred to several times throughout this study. Unity of command is one of the principles of war accepted in most established militaries around the world. So the question must be asked, why has the United Nations generally not been afforded the ability to exercise this form of command? The answer is simple, it is because of the intervention of the permanent five and national caveats imposed by troop contributing nations. However, nations will without fail retain full command of their own forces through a national commander in theatre; this is not likely to ever change. In order for the United Nations to deploy on future operations with a clear unity of command considerable negotiation and agreement on the way ahead for implementing unity of command needs to be adopted by all force contributing nations'. 76 The use of a Red Card was experienced first hand by the author during operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Afghanistan. 79 Bellamy, A.J, Williams, P, & Griffith, S, p. 81 . 6° Connaughton, R, p. 127. 25 Intelligence and Communications There exists a real time significant threat to deployed forces from the lack of proactive intelligence sharing between many coalition forces. The nature of intelligence collection means that the way it is collected, and in some cases the fact that it has been collected at all, has security implications not only for the national intelligence agency that has collected the information, but also for the safety of the sources that may have provided it. Should this information or intelligence get into the wrong hands or a security breach occur through human error, then it is much easier to accept if this error has occurred by your own people, as opposed to the error of someone from another state as it will create significant security and operational ramifications. On a basic communications level, the fact that many nations' militaries operate with different equipment, with secret codes and encryptions, means that the ability to get a single net for a combined or joint task force to operate within is extremely difficult. For example, the US military will only allow its communications encryption devices to be used by those nations that it believes have adequate security procedures and processes. New Zealand operates in exactly the same manner. This had command and control and information flow ramifications of UNOSOM and UNITAF. It also meant that the flow of information to NGOs needed to be facilitated through daily face to face briefings as NGOs did not have the communications systems utilised by the military. Logistics Logistics is arguably one of the most critical elements of getting a force into and out of an area of operations. The use of strategic air and sea lift, as well as the sustainment of forces whilst in theatre in critical to mission success. The United Nations operations in Somalia were faced with the standard initial logistical difficulties, such as lack of power sources, drinkable water, and basic infrastructure to use for hospitals and warehouses, when they deployed on UNOSOM I. However, these issues are standard on most operations and 26 as a result contingency planning is able to be conducted prior to deployment so that they can be resolved quickly and without difficulty once a force is on the ground. Inherent in combining a large number of military troops from different nations is the fact that not all of them will be equipped in the same way. Most Western nations carry the same types of weaponry and equipment, so the provision of basic necessities such as batteries for communication equipment and ammunition types for key weapon systems can be planned and prepared for in advance. However, the inclusion of lesser developed or financed military forces will result in the "poor cousin syndrome" whereby these smaller nations attempt to up-scale or better equip themselves. If this occurs, and has not been planned for, then there will be the problem of increased demand for basic critical equipment. This will ultimately result in a shortage of logistic supplies and equipment in theatre . Conclusion Peacekeeping is no longer solely the jurisdiction or responsibility of military forces. There has been a significant increase in the employment of civilian police and other personnel in peacekeeping operations. Civilians are essential for completing administrative tasks, law and order or policing functions , and assisting with humanitarian issues such as refugee control, repatriation and providing elections monitoring and assistance. These components are integral to running operations and it must be clearly highlighted that the combination of military and civilian personnel on peacekeeping operations brings with it its own complex issues. s1 H Questions surrounding mandate definition, rules of engagement, legal aspects, and the motivations of contributing nations must be addressed ... humanitarian reasons for justifying an intervention appear spurious when applied inconsistently. Without resolving these problems, UN credibility and capacity to deal with problems will remain severely impaired. 81 ayward, A, p. 21 . 27 In looking at the United Nations and its methods and techniques for the employment of modern peacekeeping operations, it is important to understand that this has evolved from a basic form of 'armed' or 'unarmed' operation in which lightly armed troops or unarmed monitoring observers operated between 1947 and 1985. In fact, during the period between 1947 an 1985 only 1382 peacekeeping operations were conducted. Again , it cannot be stressed enough that neither the United Nations, nor its Charter were established with peacekeeping operations in mind. The United Nations has had to develop and adapt, based on the lessons learnt from past peacekeeping operations, in order to keep pace with the current security environment and the steadily increasing requirement for peacekeeping operations. The requirement for a move from traditional peacekeeping to a more robust or complex peace enforcement or peace-building type of operation has been seen through the case studies on Somalia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The United Nations is not equipped to authorise or adequately lead and support operations that extend outside of the definition of peacekeeping operations. The successful use of interim forces, such as UNITAF and INTERFET, which are based on the foundations of a large, well led, trained, equipped, professional and experienced force contributing nation has proven to be the best method of creating a secure and stable environment prior to the deployment of a follow on United Nations peacekeeping force . Many authors', such as Fleitz (2002) have shied away from the distinction between traditional or so called second generation peacekeeping operations, however, it is terminology that is used by numerous authors', such as Arbuckle (2006),83 to clearly delineate how peacekeeping operations have evolved from what was envisaged in the mid 1950s to what was actually required in the 1990s. It must again be highlighted that when the United Nations Charter was developed and signed there was no provision made anywhere in the document for the United Nations to conduct peacekeeping 82 O'Neil, J.T, & Rees, N, p. 21 . 83 Arbuckle, J.V, p. 109. 28 operations.84 So the question must again be asked, why does the United Nations continue to be criticised for its inability to successfully conduct peacekeeping operations when the organisation was never equipped, funded or intended to? In order to gain an in-depth understanding of the lessons learnt from United Nations peacekeeping operations, the case studies of Somalia , Haiti , Bosnia­ Herzegovina and East Timar will serve to highlight some of the problems that are inherent with United Nations peace operations. 84 Arbuckle, J.V, p. 109. 29 Chapter 3: Case Study One - Somalia The vicious internecine warfare witnessed in Somalia during the late 1980s and early 1990s shocked casual observers across the globe, in terms of both excesses of violence and the seeming inability of the international community to bring about a resolution.85 ., .... i ·-. r 1...-"T ~-- · ~--·-·'· · ' ~ .... - "- . ~· ~ .. •,_J "'_,ii. . ' \- ~·;~~·~ .... !':__..; ...... ... 0 ... .... - ........ ' ·•'/t