Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Exploring the factors in food marketing that influence food choice preferences in New Zealand Adults A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics Massey University, Albany, New Zealand Courtney Hampton 2025 i Abstract Background: Over the past few decades, there has been growing concern regarding modern dietary habits, particularly the overconsumption of processed, sugary, and fast foods. While various factors shape food choices, targeted marketing strategies aimed at specific population segments have emerged as a primary influence. Food marketing shapes individual preferences and choices towards food. It involves the use of television, print media, digital platforms, social media, packaging, labelling, health claims, pricing and product placement and celebrity/influencer endorsement to reinforce messages to consumers. A substantial body of evidence exists on the influence of marketing on children's food choices, but there is currently limited research focusing on adult populations. Aim: This study aimed to investigate the factors in food marketing that influence food choice preferences of adults in New Zealand (NZ). Methods: A qualitative research method was adopted in the form of semi-structured interviews to explore experiences with and influences of food marketing in NZ Adults. Data was analysed through thematic analysis where main themes across participants were recognised. 15 participants took part in this study, with two groups identified as; 18 – 44 years old (n=8) and over 45 years old (n=7). Results: Seven main themes were identified; (1) Health consciousness (2) Packaging attributes, (3) Interpersonal influence, (4) Product placement, (5) Price, (6) Exposure and influence of food marketing, and (7) Suggestions to improve marketing that promote healthier choices. The findings suggest that there are factors related to food marketing that influence food choice or preferences across multiple levels of the Ecological Model of Health Promotion. These influences exist at the individual, interpersonal, organisational, community and policy levels. Conclusion: The findings highlight that food marketing strategies influenced food choice or preferences in NZ Adults, while also presenting differences between adult generations. The findings indicate that current food marketing regulation around advertisement, as well as the heath star rating may need to be reviewed in the promotion of healthier food choices. It is important that health professionals and policy makers take this into consideration when ii working with the population of NZ or developing future policy or regulation surrounding food marketing. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my primary supervisor Dr Ravi Reddy for his guidance and support in navigating such a large piece of work. I am extremely grateful for your knowledge, efforts and contributions to this study, along with your ability to produce timely feedback. Thank you to my co supervisor Dr Sharon Henare for your feedback and advice on the final draft stages in my writing. To the participants that took part in this study, I am so grateful for your interest to volunteer and the time that you spent in doing so. Thank you for sharing your personal experiences and thoughts within the topic of food marketing, the insight you have provided is truly invaluable. To my parents, sister and grandparents in Christchurch, thank you for consistent support, hard love and phone calls as I have progressed throughout my studies, and thank you for making my journey to Auckland possible. To my dietetic classmates and friends who have encouraged me along this journey. The laughs, fun and tears that we have shared over the last two years are memories that I will cherish forever. Finally, to the dietetics programme and Massey University. Thank you for providing the opportunity to pursue the study of nutritional science as I wait to secure my dream role as a NZ Registered Dietitian. iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures .................................................................................................................. vi List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ vi Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Overview of Food Marketing .............................................................................................................1 1.2 Research Aim .....................................................................................................................................5 1.3 Research Objectives ...........................................................................................................................5 1.4 Structure of Thesis .............................................................................................................................5 1.5 Researcher Contributions ..................................................................................................................6 Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 7 2.1 Food Marketing History .....................................................................................................................7 2.2 Modes of Food Marketing .............................................................................................................9 2.2.2 Traditional Modes of Food Marketing ........................................................................................9 2.2.2.1 Print Media .........................................................................................................................................9 2.2.2.2 Outdoor Advertising ........................................................................................................................ 11 2.2.2.3 Television ......................................................................................................................................... 12 2.2.2.4 Radio ................................................................................................................................................ 13 2.2.3 Digital Media ........................................................................................................................... 14 2.2.3.1 Social Media .................................................................................................................................... 14 2.2.3.2 Email ................................................................................................................................................ 16 2.2.4 Endorsements .......................................................................................................................... 17 2.3 Techniques used in Food Marketing ............................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Price ......................................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.2 Packaging ................................................................................................................................. 19 2.3.2.1 Colour .............................................................................................................................................. 19 2.3.2.2 Branding........................................................................................................................................... 20 2.2.2.3 Physical Packaging ........................................................................................................................... 21 2.2.3 Labelling................................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.3.1 Labelling Requirements ................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.3.2 Health and Nutrient Content Claims ............................................................................................... 22 2.2.3.3 Interpretive Nutrition Labelling ....................................................................................................... 24 2.3.4 Product Placement .................................................................................................................. 25 2.3.5 Sponsorship ............................................................................................................................. 26 2.4 Summary of the Literature Review ................................................................................................. 27 Chapter 3: Methodology .................................................................................................29 3.1 Ethics and Consent .......................................................................................................................... 29 3.2 Study Design ................................................................................................................................... 29 3.3 Participant Criteria .......................................................................................................................... 30 3.4 Recruitment .................................................................................................................................... 30 3.5 Interview Facilitation / Data Collection .......................................................................................... 31 3.6 Data Storage .................................................................................................................................... 32 3.8 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................... 32 v 3.8.1 Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................................. 33 3.9 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................... 33 Chapter 4: Results ...........................................................................................................34 4.1 Emerged Themes and Sub-themes ................................................................................................. 34 4.2 Theoretical Framework and Link to Themes .................................................................................. 56 4.3 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 5: Discussion ......................................................................................................59 5.1 Individual Level ............................................................................................................................... 59 5.2 Interpersonal Level ......................................................................................................................... 63 5.3 Organisational Level ........................................................................................................................ 64 5.4 Community Level ............................................................................................................................ 67 5.5 Policy Level ...................................................................................................................................... 69 5.6 Strengths and Limitations ............................................................................................................... 71 5.7 Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................................................ 72 5.8 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................... 73 Chapter 6: Conclusion .....................................................................................................74 References ......................................................................................................................76 Appendices .....................................................................................................................88 APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... 88 APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................... 89 APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................................... 92 APPENDIX D .......................................................................................................................................... 94 vi List of Tables Table 1: Researcher Contributions ............................................................................... 6 Table 2: Overview of Participants .............................................................................. 34 Table 3: Ecological Model and Link to Themes and Sub-themes ..................................... 57 List of Figures Figure 1: Ecological Model of Health Promotion ............................................................ 4 List of Abbreviations ANZFSC Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code ASA Advertising Standards Authority EMHP Ecological Model of Health Promotion FBAC Food and Beverage Advertising Code FOP Front of pack HEM Hierarchy of Effects Model HSR Health Star Rating NZ New Zealand TV Television 1 Chapter 1: Introduction This thesis explores the factors in food marketing that influence food choice preference in NZ Adults. Chapter One begins by outlining the research topic by providing an overview of food marketing and the current literature. Next, food choices are discussed followed by models used in health promotion. The purpose and significance of this research is then explained followed by the aims and objectives of the study. The chapter ends by providing an overview of the thesis structure within the six subsequent chapters followed by researcher contributions to this study. 1.1 Overview of Food Marketing The World Health Organisation has identified that food marketing lies predominantly within the marketing of foods that contribute to unhealthy diets and dietary behaviours (World Health Organization, 2022). This includes the marketing of fast food, sugar-sweetened beverages and confectionaries (World Health Organization, 2022). Therefore, food marketing has been identified as a contributor to obesogenic environments, thus having a negative influence over the health of populations (Folkvord & Hermans, 2020). Particular concerns have been raised in the influence of unhealthy food marketing and the health outcomes in children, such as obesity (World Health Organization, 2022). As a result, literature points to food marketing and its ability to shape food choices, preferences and eating behaviours within children. For instance, research consistently demonstrates that exposure to unhealthy food marketing leads to unhealthy eating behaviours in children (Boyland et al., 2022; Boyland et al., 2025; Folkvord et al., 2016) and intake or preference towards associated products (Boyland et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2019). Food marketing is an external tool used to influence consumer choices and preferences to drive purchases towards a particular product or brand (Martinho, 2020). To achieve this, companies use a variety of marketing modes and strategies to increase the awareness of a product in the hopes for eventual purchase (Qader et al., 2022). Food marketing is 2 presented via multiple channels such as print media (billboards, flyers, brochures), outdoor advertising, television (TV), radio, digital media (social media) and endorsement. Alternatively, marketers use techniques such as price, packaging, labelling, health claims, and placement or display to influence consumers (Qader et al., 2022). Exposure to food advertising through Television (TV) as well as the visual elements of packaging are common influences of food choice seen in children (Hallez et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2019). Children are particularly vulnerable to the persuasiveness and sales intent in food marketing, as their cognitive development is limited compared to adults (Rozendaal et al., 2010). This is of concern, especially given the influence of unhealthy food marketing demonstrated in children (Smith et al., 2019). In NZ, food and beverage advertising is currently regulated by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) under the Food and Beverage Advertising Code (FBAC) (Advertising Standards Authority, 2024). The FBAC applies to all food and beverage placed in any media, including but not limited to; print media, billboards, TV, streaming services, radio, social media, online content creation, email, websites and point of sale materials (Advertising Standards Authority, 2024). While not law, the FBAC is a self-regulatory code that sets expectations and standards to uphold social responsibility towards the promotion of food and beverages for the greater good of the population. The FBAC is defined by three principles; advertisements must display a high level of social responsibility, advertisements must be truthful and not misleading in terms of nutritional value and the advertising sponsorship of occasional food and beverage towards children is to be restricted (Advertising Standards Authority, 2024). Occasional food and beverage is defined by the Advertising Standards Authority (2024) as products that do not meet a specific nutrient profiling score. The FBAC is important to consider as it provides a basis for food and beverage advertising in NZ. Less is clear about food marketing and its influence on adult populations. However, it is known that adults are exposed to a high amount of unhealthy food marketing across various modes (Mills et al., 2013; Nieto et al., 2022). Few studies have demonstrated the influence of food marketing outcomes in adults, with recent reviews concluding insignificant evidence 3 when compared to children (Boyland et al., 2016; Mills et al., 2013). Researchers conclude that the majority of the studies situated around adults have limitations in sample size, reliance and mainly focus on lab based experimental or observational work of previous researchers (Mills et al., 2013). However, it is known that adults are exposed to a high frequency of food marketing (Nieto et al., 2022), and may be similarly impacted (Boyland et al., 2025; Vukmirovic, 2015). For instance, adults can be influenced by food marketing through grocery store strategies, such as product, samples and end of aisle displays as well as through TV advertisements (Vukmirovic, 2015). Additionally, food marketing has been associated with hunger and craving in adults, particularly when presented through TV or digital media (Boyland et al., 2024). Moreover, less is known about the influence of food marketing in NZ adults. It is important to consider how food marketing may influence individuals through different stages of life, not just in childhood. Younger adults are becoming independent in decision- making as well as entering the work force and becoming financially independent (Nelson et al., 2008). Unhealthy food marketing is known to target this group, therefore having an impact on the development of unhealthy eating behaviours that could inflict negative health outcomes such as obesity (Nelson et al., 2008). Good eating behaviour and food choice promotes good health as adults age (Delaney & McCarthy, 2011). Particularly in older adults, who are more susceptible to developing health conditions within the later stages of life (Delaney & McCarthy, 2011). A model used to explain the success of marketing is the Hierarchy of Effects Model (HEM). The HEM proposes three phases that consumers go through, leading to the purchase of products. The three phases include; 1, the cognitive thinking stage, defined by the awareness and knowledge of a product, 2, the affective stage, being the liking, preference and conviction of a product and 3, the behavioural phase, purchase of a product (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961). The HEM indicates that advertising may not lead to the immediate purchase of a product but acts to influence consumer awareness, preference and decision-making over time (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961). The HEM has been applied in food marketing research finding that repetitive exposure to food advertising triggers positive attitudes, recall and normalisation of products, therefore influencing food choice (Kelly et al., 2024). 4 An individual’s food choice behaviour is shaped by personal, economic, political, environmental and sociocultural influences (McLeroy et al., 1988; Pin-Jane & Marta, 2020). The overall process of food choice and preference is complex and is influenced by multiple factors, which have been demonstrated through the development of theoretical models used in health promotion. The Ecological Model of Health Promotion (EMHP), developed by McLeroy et al. (1988) in the late 1900’s seeks to understand human behaviour through multi-level influences relating to food choice. The EMHP (Figure 1) considers five levels of influence being individual, interpersonal, organisational, community and policy (McLeroy et al., 1988). Individual factors include knowledge, preferences and behaviour, while the interpersonal level considers the influence of others (McLeroy et al., 1988). In addition, organisational institutions can influence behaviours (McLeroy et al., 1988), while the community can influence responses and perceived norms (Poux, 2017). Policy refers to current or future policies that could influence behaviour (McLeroy et al., 1988). Figure 1: Ecological Model of Health Promotion Food marketing operates across multiple levels and can be applied to aspects of the EMHP. For instance, food marketing shapes individual preferences, influences food choice from others, operates at an organisational level, creates community norms through exposure and can implement policy or induce regulation. Therefore, this thesis uses the EMHP as the 5 theoretical framework to guide the multi-level influence of consumers’ food choices and preferences in a food marketing context. The findings from this study will increase awareness of these factors and help to inform health professionals and policy makers in decision-making. 1.2 Research Aim This study aims to explore the factors in food marketing that influence food choice preferences amongst NZ Adults. 1.3 Research Objectives 1. To explore the influence of food marketing on food choice between individuals aged 18 to 44-years-old and over 45 years old in NZ. 2. To use the EMHP to understand food marketing and its influence on adults in NZ. 3. To make recommendations that inform future practical, policy and research directions related to the influence of food marketing on adult food choice behaviour. 1.4 Structure of Thesis This thesis is comprised of six chapters. Chapter One provides background and context on food marketing and identifies gaps in the literature regarding context towards NZ Adults. Chapter Two presents a narrative literature review of the histories in food marketing, common modes of food marketing, strategies used in food marketing and how they influence food choice or preference. Next, the methodology of the study is described in Chapter Three. Chapter four presents the findings of the study, following a discussion of the findings in Chapter Five. Lastly, Chapter Six consolidates the findings of the study in relation to the aim, presents strengths and weaknesses of the study and explores further research opportunities. 6 1.5 Researcher Contributions Table 1: Researcher Contributions Researcher Contribution Courtney Hampton MSc Nutrition and Dietetics Student Primary author of the thesis, involved in all of the ethics, participant recruitment, data collection, presentation of findings, data analysis, discussions, conclusions as well as literature review. Dr Ravi Reedy Primary Academic Supervisor Main supervisor providing guidance and assistance with ethics application, literature review structure, data analysis and feedback of each thesis chapter in preparation for submission. Dr Sharon Henare Co-Supervisor Guidance and revisions of the complete thesis draft in preparation for submission. 7 Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter provides an overview of the literature on food marketing and associated food choices and preferences. The first section explores the history of food marketing by noting the changes over centuries and the growth of food marketing globally. Secondly, various modes of food marketing are discussed. Common techniques of food marketing and their influence on food choice are explored in the third section. A summary of the literature is presented in the final paragraph, along with gaps within the current literature. This review was completed by searching for literature in the databases of Scopus and Google Scholar. Key words and their alternatives were searched such as ‘food marketing’, ‘food choices’, ‘food marketing influence’, ‘strategies’, and ‘techniques’. Grey literature, such as government reports and webpages was searched where applicable. 2.1 Food Marketing History In the early 19th century, marketing strategy largely focused on the production, transportation and sale of goods (Van Trijp & Meulenberg, 1996). Demand of goods exceeding supply as well as lack of purchasing power was the main driver of marketing methods at the time and wider promotional strategy was not yet considered (Van Trijp & Meulenberg, 1996). However, during this time, food production increased as processing methods and machinery became more advanced (Biswas et al., 2025). This initiated a rapid growth of food production as companies took low cost goods and manufactured them on a large scale to produce products of high value to consumers (Lonier, 2010; Tedlow & Jones, 2014). During this period, major food brands that are seen today began to emerge into wider markets such as Kellogg’s and Heinz (Biswas et al., 2025). Variety and product availability increased as buyers had greater purchasing power and demand for specific goods (Van Trijp & Meulenberg, 1996), and mass production drove food prices down (Biswas et al., 2025). In this environment, food marketing became a pivotal method for companies to remain successful (Qader et al., 2022; Van Trijp & Meulenberg, 1996). 8 Food marketing sort to build confidence and ties of loyalty between sellers, retailers and consumers (Martinho, 2020). Leading into the mid 19th century, marketing strategy shifted with companies utilising mass production, branding and product packaging as a way to shape consumer food choices (Lonier, 2010). Companies began to produce, adapt and market products to satisfy the needs of their target groups more efficiently than their competitors (Tedlow & Jones, 2014; Van Trijp & Meulenberg, 1996). Further, the use of advertising platforms such as radio, television and newspapers became pivotal promotional methods for food products (Biswas et al., 2025; Conference et al., 2015). Today food marketing has expanded rapidly as companies seek to influence consumers using a wide range of techniques and strategies. This includes the shift of food marketing to online platforms such as social media (Qader et al., 2022). The scale at which food marketing has expanded is reflected on the annual expenditure of food marketing. For example, it is estimated that $696 million was spent on food and beverage marketing in Canada alone during 2019 (Potvin Kent et al., 2022). Expenditure was highest in advertising medium of TV and digital media, with the most spending completed by fast food restaurants (Potvin Kent et al., 2022). Additionally, Potvin Kent et al. (2022) note that 87% of advertising was spent on unhealthy food and beverage marketing. There are four key variables of marketing used as a strategy to target consumers. They include; product, price, place and promotion, known as the 4P’s of marketing or the ‘marketing mix’ (Singh, 2012). Each variable can be manipulated to influence consumers and drive a competitive advantage (Singh, 2012). Promotion, being the key element within the marketing mix describes the advertising and promotional methods for the product (Singh, 2012). The marketing mix is crucial to understand when it comes to food marketing and its influence on food choices and preferences, as it describes how marketers target consumers to shape individual preferences. Aspects of the marketing mix, including their strategies will be described throughout this chapter. 9 2.2 Modes of Food Marketing Modes of food marketing details the promotional methods that companies use to communicate products to consumers. This is achieved through advertising, defined as “any message, the content of which is controlled directly or indirectly by the advertiser, expressed in any language and communicated in any medium with the intent to influence the choice, opinion or behaviour of those to whom it is addressed” (Advertising Standards Authority, 2025). Food advertising can therefore act as a medium for food marketing, with these terms being used interchangeably. Food advertising details the fourth variable within the marketing mix, being promotion and is achieved via various modes such as print media, outdoor advertising, TV, digital media, and endorsement. Companies often use a combination of marketing modes to increase product exposure and reinforce messages to consumers (Scully et al., 2012). Understanding where individuals are presented with food marketing is important for health professionals and policy makers to better understand the food marketing environment and how it may influence food choice or preferences. 2.2.2 Traditional Modes of Food Marketing Traditional modes of food marketing include the use of print media, outdoor advertising such as billboards, TV and radio to advertise products to the consumer. The traditional modes of food marketing are explained in the following section. 2.2.2.1 Print Media Print advertising is one of the oldest forms of food marketing that uses physical materials, visuals and descriptions to convey a brands’ message to a broad demographic (Biswas et al., 2025). It includes the use of flyers, pamphlets or brochures to promote food products to consumers (Qader et al., 2022). Advertisements may also be placed in magazines or newspapers (Hee & Yen, 2018; Qader et al., 2022). Print materials are used to offer discounts, promote new products, advertise specials or advertise a product in general (Biswas et al., 2025), with the purpose of spreading awareness to consumers (Hee & Yen, 10 2018). Literature points to a large proportion of unhealthy food advertising in print media, raising concern among researchers. For example, studies have shown that food and beverages advertised within supermarket flyers do not align with national nutritional guidelines (Hendriksen et al., 2021; Laframboise et al., 2022; Ravensbergen et al., 2015). This has been demonstrated through research in the Netherlands, finding only 28.9% of healthy food promotion within supermarket flyers (Ravensbergen et al., 2015), while Hendriksen et al. (2021) found 70% of supermarket flyers promoting unhealthy food products. A similar study conducted in Canada found 60% of food in grocery store flyers did not align with national nutritional guidelines (Laframboise et al., 2022). Similar findings have been identified in NZ where supermarket flyers had displayed a high amount of unhealthy food advertising of sugar-sweetened food and beverages, baked, fried or packaged foods high in salt, fat and sugar (Vandevijvere et al., 2014). The call for supermarket flyers to promote healthy options has been widely suggested, as well as addressing barriers towards healthy food promotion (Hendriksen et al., 2021; Ravensbergen et al., 2015; Vandevijvere et al., 2014). Although these studies do not evaluate the impact of print media and food choices, the frequent exposure to unhealthy food advertisements within flyers may indicate some influence over food preferences. In addition, in the past advertisements placed in magazines have been shown to influence food choice behaviour, particularly among children (Jones & Kervin, 2011; King & Hill, 2008; Vandevijvere & Swinburn, 2014). In contrast, the evidence of the effectiveness of print media in adults is limited, however one study in Malaysia found a relationship between print media and consumer purchasing of food and beverages (Hee & Yen, 2018). However, the type of print media and influence over specific food choices were not addressed in this study. There is also evidence to suggest that print media may not be as successful compared to modern forms of food advertising such as digital media due to the decline in modes of communication such as physical newspaper sales (Hee & Yen, 2018; Upadhyay, 2014), but it remains relevant amongst older populations. Older adults are more likely to engage in print media compared to the upcoming generation of adults, who are more inclined to use electronic media. (Upadhyay, 2014). The overall finding suggests notable gaps in the research on print media and its influence on food choice preferences in adults, possibly 11 reflected by the rise in alternative food marketing modes and the difficulty to obtain specific data relating to print media influence. 2.2.2.2 Outdoor Advertising Furthermore, advertising is commonly used outdoors on billboards, posters at bus stops (Lowery & Sloane, 2014; Wray et al., 2025) or displays on the back of buses, trains, walls or buildings (Qader et al., 2022; Roux & Van der Waldt, 2014). This form of advertising markets goods not typically sold at the location of the sign (Lowery & Sloane, 2014). Outdoor advertising is common amongst marketers due to its cost effectiveness and vast reach to potential consumers (Kelly et al., 2008; Shanmugathas, 2018). Outdoor advertising commonly displays a few words, a catch phrase, product image, promotions or new products (Shanmugathas, 2018). Due to the various locations of outdoor advertising, marketers can place billboards in areas that are easiest to convey their messages (Shanmugathas, 2018). The majority of outdoor food advertising has been found to display unhealthy food products (Finlay et al., 2022; Lowery & Sloane, 2014). For example, a scoping review conducted by Finlay et al. (2022) of 39 high income countries found that out of 22% of outdoor advertising for food, 63% was of unhealthy nature. Similarly, researchers across Australasia highlight the large volume of unhealthy food advertising around schools in NZ, (Kneller et al., 2025; Maher et al., 2005; Vandevijvere et al., 2018b) Australia (Kelly et al., 2008) and public spaces such as residential areas (Liu et al., 2020). Examples included advertisements for sugar- sweetened beverages, frozen desserts and fast food products (Liu et al., 2020; Vandevijvere et al., 2018b). The impact of such advertising has been demonstrated overseas, with studies correlating outdoor advertisements with food purchasing amongst adolescents. For example, He et al. (2012) and Wray et al. (2025) found that the availability of outdoor advertisements around school and home environments prompted purchases at fast food, convenience or grocery outlets as they made the journey from home to school, indicating an influence over food choice. However, these studies present limitations as the data was self-reported, potentially leading to biases. When it comes to outdoor advertising and adults, the literature is limited, 12 particularly towards the impact on food choice and preferences. For example, Finlay et al. (2022) noted three studies to explore outdoor advertising and behaviour or health outcomes, with only two studies to support the association between outdoor advertising and food intake in adults, while the third found little significance. However, it is clear that individuals are exposed to a high amount of outdoor food advertising around home environments, schools and public places, which could point to an influence on food choice, but further research is needed to draw accurate conclusions on the impact of outdoor food marketing, especially towards food choice and preference in adults within a NZ context. 2.2.2.3 Television Another traditional mode of food marketing is the use of audio-visual methods such as TV advertisements. TV advertising has become an easy way for marketers to target a large population due to TV being an essential item in most households (Qader et al., 2022). TV advertising combines the use of sound and visuals to engage consumers (Qader et al., 2022; Tedlow & Jones, 2014). The success of TV advertisements to influence food choice or preferences has been widely demonstrated within systematic reviews on food advertising amongst children (Boyland et al., 2025; Smith et al., 2019). Evidence of the influence of TV advertising on food choice and preference in adults is limited. Some observational studies have associated TV food advertising to unhealthy food consumption in adults. For example, Scully et al. (2009) found that adults that spent a greater time watching TV were more likely to consume fast food at dinner time compared to those who spent less time watching TV. Furthermore, TV advertisements have been shown to elicit feelings of craving adults. Food craving is the immediate desire or urge to consume a food product (Boyland et al., 2024). This effect has been demonstrated within experimental studies where individuals reported feelings of craving towards food products following the exposure to food advertisements on TV (Boyland et al., 2024; Boyland et al., 2017). This feeling was exacerbated towards TV advertisements for sugar-sweetened beverages, fast food, snacks and confectionery (Boyland et al., 2024). 13 In addition, some experimental studies have assessed the priming effect of TV advertisements in promoting immediate food or beverage intake. For example, Koordeman et al. (2010) found TV advertisements for sugar-sweetened beverages promoted intake of these beverages compared to TV ads for water, while Harris et al. (2009) found increased snack intake in children and adults following exposure to food advertisements on TV, compared to when no food advertisements were displayed. The impact of TV advertising on feelings of cravings may indicate some influence over food choice, whereas the ability of TV food advertisements to prime eating behaviours may not reflect food intake outside of an experimental environment. It is important to note that there has been a shift in recent trends on TV usage with on- demand or streaming services taking preference over traditional or linear TV viewing. For example, a recent report conducted by NZ on Air (2024) noted an overall decline in the use of linear TV and an increase in streaming services or on-demand viewing. While traditional TV advertising may not be a dominant form of food marketing exposure to young people as time spent engaging in digital media increases (Boyland et al., 2025). However, there are currently no studies that indicate the influence of food marketing on food choice and preference in NZ adults. 2.2.2.4 Radio A final traditional mode of food marketing is presented via radio, often described as broadcast advertising. The introduction of the radio in the early 1920s marked the beginning of broadcast advertising globally (Biswas et al., 2025). Radio advertising, being limited to audio, uses sound, jingles or phrases to gain attention (Biswas et al., 2025). The use of sound provides an advantage over print media as the need to read and analyse text is taken away (Hee & Yen, 2018). In terms of food marketing, radio is often used by supermarkets to broadcast sales and promotions (Qader et al., 2022). However, limited studies point to the impact of radio advertisements on food choice. Qader et al. (2022) note that radio advertisements in moderate tone that elicit positive emotion may have a greater impact on consumers. 14 2.2.3 Digital Media Digital media describes the online modes of food marketing used such as social media and email and are important to consider as food marketing trends have shifted towards online modes. 2.2.3.1 Social Media In more recent years, food marketing has moved from traditional modes of TV and print to digital platforms. The rise of the internet and the establishment of media sharing platforms within the past decade has led to the development of social media (Voramontri & Klieb, 2019). This includes the rise of social media applications such as Instagram, Facebook, TikTok and X, formerly known as Twitter (Biswas et al., 2025). Social media platforms have become a popular mode for food marketing (Murphy et al., 2020) as they provide a cost effective method for companies to promote food products (Martinho, 2020). Social media can be described as a tool used to communicate and share information to and between users (Lad-Khairnar, 2021). This involves the creation of company generated content such as posts, videos or updates across platforms to expand product awareness to users (Godlewska et al., 2025; Lad-Khairnar, 2021). Techniques include posting special offers, deals, limited edition items, humour in posts and visual elements such as colour, font and use of animations (Elliott & Truman, 2024). Users then engage and connect with posts through likes, comments and shares (Voramontri & Klieb, 2019). Additionally, social media acts as a platform for companies to showcase sponsored advertisements to increase exposure of food products. Sponsored advertisements are common within the food industry, with an estimated $2.8 billion spent globally across social media platforms between 2020 to 2021 (Bragg et al., 2025). The purpose of sponsored advertisements is to increase brand awareness and build consumer preferences in the hope of eventual purchase (Kulathunga et al., 2024). 15 Literature points to high exposure of unhealthy food and beverage advertisement on social media in adolescents (Ares et al., 2025; Murphy et al., 2020; Potvin Kent et al., 2019; Qutteina et al., 2019) and young adults (Aljefree & Alhothali, 2022; Molenaar et al., 2021). Due to this, adolescents have been known to recall and engage with unhealthy food adverts on social media (Ares et al., 2025; Kucharczuk et al., 2022; Murphy et al., 2020). These advertisements triggered an increase in desire and preference towards unhealthy food, whereas advertisements for healthy food have been shown to have a minimal effect (Ares et al., 2025; Murphy et al., 2020; Qutteina et al., 2019). In adults, research on social media food marketing and food choice or preference is limited, however similar findings have been highlighted. For example, a study in Saudi Arabia on university students found that half of the participants purchased food products from social media, particularly that of unhealthy nature (Aljefree & Alhothali, 2022). Their findings indicate that unhealthy food advertising exposure on social media is related to unhealthy food choices amongst students. This is of concern as consumers are often unaware of the persuasive nature and the influence towards the purchasing of unhealthy food and beverage products (Molenaar et al., 2021). In contrast, Molenaar et al. (2021) found that young adults often ignored food advertisements appearing in social media, noting that the exposure and frequency of food advertising was frustrating (Molenaar et al., 2021). Other research points to differences in purchasing behaviour between men and women from advertisements on social media. For instance, Godlewska et al. (2025) found that men were more likely to purchase food promoted on social media, while women used social media to gain knowledge about food and food products, particularly those of a healthy nature. Additionally, young adults have identified social media food advertisements to be more persuasive in nature compared to TV advertisements for food (Molenaar et al., 2021). This could be explained due to the use of social media amongst this generation increasing meaning that young adults are spending less time watching TV (Aljefree & Alhothali, 2022), further indicating the effectiveness of social media marketing over traditional modes of food marketing, particularly when it comes to influencing younger populations. 16 In NZ, social media is widely used by companies to promote food and beverage products. Studies have identified the use of Facebook or YouTube for the promotion of occasional food and beverage brands and their products (Garton et al., 2022; Gerritsen et al., 2021; Vandevijvere et al., 2018c). Occasional food and beverage being products that do not align with current NZ Ministry of Health guidelines (Garton et al., 2022). Marketing techniques identified across Facebook and YouTube included offers, limited edition items, sports team endorsements and competitions (Garton et al., 2022; Vandevijvere et al., 2018c). Advertisements also prompted users to interact with posts, including commenting, sharing or tagging friends as a strategy to increase engagement and exposure of their advertisements (Vandevijvere et al., 2014). The studies assessed user engagement of posts through likes, shares, comments or views with Garton et al. (2022) finding an average of 285 likes, 24 shares and 397 comments between 285 Facebook posts while Gerritsen et al. (2021) noted a reach of up to 300,000 views between Facebook and YouTube advertisements. The impact of food choice and preference was not assessed within these studies, however the engagement and reach of posts containing occasional food products may point to an effect on food choice or preferences in NZ adults as they opt to engage with advertisements of food brands on social media. 2.2.3.2 Email In addition to social media, companies may use emails as a form of communication to reach consumers. Email is a cost effective marketing mode that targets consumers directly (Biswas et al., 2025). Email marketing involves sending out promotional or non-promotional information to consumers (Thomas et al., 2022). Promotional material includes deals or offers, while non promotional materials aim to inform consumers about new products or build brand connection (Biswas et al., 2025; Thomas et al., 2022). Generally, consumers need to opt in to receive email marketing, usually through signing up or subscribing to a company (Abrahams et al., 2010; Thomas et al., 2022). Although research on the impact of email marketing remains limited, it can promote incentives for purchases, especially when emails contain deals, new products or reminders of past purchases (Kulathunga et al., 2024). Hence, email can be used by marketers to shape consumer food preferences or choice, as 17 consumers opt to receive emails from various food and beverage retailers, although no specific evidence of this effect was found within the literature. 2.2.4 Endorsements Food companies may also promote the sale of their products through others, such as celebrities. These collaborations can enhance the credibility and visibility of a brand, prompting food choices especially with consumers who hold an emotional connection towards the promoter (Biswas et al., 2025; Calvo-Porral et al., 2021). The use of celebrity endorsement has become increasingly common in food marketing to promote the consumption of a product, service or brand (Calvo-Porral et al., 2021). It poses an effective marketing mode to influence food consumption and purchasing behaviour (Calvo-Porral et al., 2021). For instance, Calvo-Porral et al. (2021) found that consumers are likely to pay premium prices for food products that are endorsed by their favourite celebrity, therefore indicating an influence over food choice. Moreover, celebrity endorsement associated with sporting personnel has been found to influence preference and consumption of energy dense nutrient poor food products in children (Dixon et al., 2014) while also enhancing recall and awareness of unhealthy food products endorsed by celebrities through social media (Kucharczuk et al., 2022; Murphy et al., 2020). Similar research has been found in adults, where celebrity sport endorsement may lead to higher consumption of unhealthy food and beverages (Zhou & Kraak, 2022). Overall, celebrity endorsement has been demonstrated within literature to impact consumer purchase intention, food choice or preference, particularly in children. However, research poses limitations due to low sample size, study design and focus on children, limiting the evidence in adults, particularly within a NZ context. 2.3 Techniques used in Food Marketing This section will discuss the various techniques used by markets to influence consumer food choice and preference. Techniques of price, packaging, labelling and product placement and 18 how these may influence food choice or preferences is explained in the subsequent paragraphs of section 2.3. This section details the variables of price, product and placement within the marketing mix, and is therefore crucial to understand the strategies used by marketers and their potential influence on food choice and preferences. 2.3.1 Price Price is an important component of food marketing strategy as it determines a products affordability and ability to create profit, as well as influencing consumers’ purchasing decisions (Biswas et al., 2025). There are three main methods that companies use to determine the price of a product including; cost, value and competition based pricing (Biswas et al., 2025). Cost-based pricing is determined by the overall price of a product by taking into consideration the cost of production, distribution, marketing spend and mark up to obtain reasonable profits from sale (Biswas et al., 2025; Singh, 2012). Value-based pricing considers the perceived value, benefit and price consumers are willing to pay, rather than the overall price (Biswas et al., 2025). Competition based pricing is used to set the price based on what competitors are charging (Biswas et al., 2025). Sales and promotions are an important component of the marketing mix used as an incentive for consumers to purchase products (Hawkes, 2009). Research indicates that the price of food and beverages is a key element of food choice and preferences. In NZ, a study on household purchases found that 46% of food and beverage purchases were completed with products on promotion (Tawfiq et al., 2022). Promotion was largely dominated by food products that do not support healthy eating behaviours, such as those with a low Health Star Rating (HSR) or sugar-sweetened beverages (Tawfiq et al., 2022), therefore indicating that price strategies may influence unhealthy food choices. In addition, research has identified that healthy items such as fruit, vegetables, milk and bread are less likely to be on promotion within supermarkets, compared to packaged foods of snacks, sugar-sweetened beverages and confectionaries (Powell et al., 2016). The effect on food choice has been demonstrated through supermarket purchasing data that found 19 that purchases were higher for sugar-sweetened beverages, grain snacks and sweet snacks items on sale when compared to fruit and vegetable promotion (Phipps et al., 2014). Therefore, the price has an influence over food choice and preferences, as consumers are inclined to select products based on pricing strategy. 2.3.2 Packaging Food packaging is important to consider regarding the choice of individuals. Visual elements such as colour and branding are strategies used to draw attention to a product (Li et al., 2020; Prinsloo et al., 2012). Packaging details the ‘product’ within the marketing mix, with various aspects of colour, branding and physical packaging detailed in the following section of 2.3.2. 2.3.2.1 Colour Packaging colour can fulfil both aesthetic and psychological perceptions as consumers associate colour with meanings and judgements (Biswas et al., 2025; Steiner & Florack, 2023). Warm vibrant colours such as red and yellow relay feelings of excitement, joy or energy, while blue and green signify calmness (Hallez et al., 2023; Mead & Richerson, 2018). The colours of red and yellow are used to gain attention and promote a sense of urgency (Biswas et al., 2025). Hence, these colours are often used in the packaging of unhealthy snacks or beverages (Biswas et al., 2025). Individuals have been known to associate warm colours with higher saturation with unhealthy food products (Mead & Richerson, 2018; Steiner & Florack, 2023). This is evident as Su and Wang (2024) found that warm packaging increases consumer purchase intention for unhealthy food products, compared to when packaged in cool colours. However, it is noted that colour preference remains variable amongst consumers and can come down to individual preferences (Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2014) or overall aesthetic of the packaging which may elicit positive emotion, regardless of its colour and is therefore a better indicator at driving food choice or preference (Kauppinen- Räisänen, 2014; Mohebbi, 2014). 20 Colours are also used by marketers to dictate the perceived healthfulness of a product. Light coloured packaging is a common strategy used in the promotion of healthy food products (Mai et al., 2016; Mead & Richerson, 2018). Light tones such as blue and green may influence perceptions of health (Hallez et al., 2023). For example, in Tijssen et al. (2017) less saturated colours such as white and blue were associated with perceived healthiness, and may influence health conscious individuals. On the other hand, these individuals may associate colours of higher saturation with unhealthy products (Mead & Richerson, 2018; Steiner & Florack, 2023). For example, Mead and Richerson (2018) found that consumers reported muesli bars packaged in bright, high saturated colours to be less healthy compared to those in less saturated packaging. In contrast, unhealth conscious consumers may find light colours less attractive compared to high saturated warm colours (Tijssen et al., 2017). This perception of healthfulness has been shown to lower taste expectation amongst these consumers (Hallez et al., 2023). Due to the influence of colour and perceived healthfulness, it has been suggested that pale colours should be used with caution when trying to nudge consumers towards healthier food choices (Mai et al., 2016). However, it is important to note that perceived healthfulness of packaged products may vary between food categories (Plasek et al., 2020; Steiner & Florack, 2023). As such, the colour of the packaging may not indicate if a product is actually healthier, leaving consumers vulnerable to the influence of product packaging colours when trying to promote healthy food items. 2.3.2.2 Branding Branding involves adopting a specific logo or name for a company, which sets them apart from other products and their competitors (Biswas et al., 2025; Ismail et al., 2017). One marketing strategy of branding aims for consumers to develop preference, satisfaction and loyalty toward a specific brand (Martinho, 2020). In doing so, companies obtain the trust and satisfaction of consumers, leading to an increase in sales and profit of their brand (Ismail et al., 2017). Consumers will often have at least two brands in mind between product categories (Martinho, 2020), while at least 70% of consumers’ brand decisions are made in 21 store, even as they enter a supermarket with a planned shopping list (Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2014). Consumers often remain loyal to specific brands and their products. Loyalty develops as consumers make repetitive purchases from the same brand, due to previous satisfaction (Ismail et al., 2017), brand exposure over the lifetime (Frost et al., 2025) or through brand awareness over time (Lou & Yuan, 2019). Brand awareness can act as a short cut to decision- making, shaping consumers’ purchase intention (Lou & Yuan, 2019), therefore acting as a component on brand loyalty. Brand loyalty often develops from a young age, with children obtaining preferences towards specific brands and their products namely through advertising exposure that proceeds into adulthood (Boyland & Halford, 2013b). Studies indicate mixed findings of brand loyalty that differs across the generations of adults. For example, millennials have a strong correlation with food and beverage brand image and loyalty, as they have been conditioned to brand imaging over time (Ismail et al., 2017). However, this generation have been known to follow current trends and select the newest brand or product on the market (Ismail et al., 2017). Older adults are less inclined to switch brands once a preference or liking to a specific brand has been established (Fraccastoro & Karani, 2010). 2.2.2.3 Physical Packaging Physical packaging refers to the material that a product is presented in. Materials such as plastic, cardboard, aluminium, and steel are widely used and function as a protective mechanism through transport, handling storage and food safety (Cordeiro et al., 2025). Packaging can also act as a marketing strategy used by food companies to influence choices (Biswas et al., 2025). For instance, packaging products into sustainable materials can influence environmentally conscious consumers and shape preference towards products or brands (Biswas et al., 2025) as trends in green consumption and the demand for sustainable packaging continues to grow (Donato et al., 2021). Research suggests that sustainable packaging, such as recyclable materials holds greater importance to consumers who are environmentally conscious (Martinho et al., 2015). 22 2.2.3 Labelling Food labelling communicates information about a product to assist or draw consumers into purchase (Prinsloo et al., 2012). Techniques focused on in this section include health claims and nutrition content labelling and are detailed in the following section. 2.2.3.1 Labelling Requirements Food labelling is regulated by governing authorities, with each country having specific labelling requirements for packaged food products (Biswas et al., 2025). In NZ, food labelling is regulated by the Food Act 2014 and the Australia NZ Food Standards Code (ANZFSC) (Ministry for Primary Industries, 2022a). The ANZFSC states that packaged food products must display in English; a name or description, date mark, batch number, physical address, net contents of the food, storage instructions, ingredient list, allergen declaration and a nutrition information panel (Food Standards Australia New Zealand, 2025). 2.2.3.2 Health and Nutrient Content Claims Front of pack (FOP) labelling can help consumers identify the nutritional elements of a product (Ikonen et al., 2020). One type of FOP labelling is the voluntary display of health claims or nutrient content claims. Health claims are statements presented on the front of a product that depict nutritional benefits in relation to health (Biswas et al., 2025). For example, calcium being good for bone health. However, the claim must meet specific conditions set out by the ANZFSC (Food Standards Australia New Zealand, 2025). Additionally, nutrient content claims for fibre, salt, protein, fat, sugar or energy and may state as being low, high, free, source of or contains (Biswas et al., 2025). These claims may display a numerical value such as grams or percentage of the nutrient that the food contains. Like health claims, nutrient content claims are regulated by the ANZFSC and must meet specific conditions. For example, a product claiming to be a good source of fibre must contain at least 4g of dietary fibre per serving (Food Standards Australia New Zealand, 2025). 23 In NZ, nutrient content claims are more widely used than health claims, with 43% of surveyed products containing a nutrient content claim and 6% containing a general health claim in 2022 (Ministry for Primary Industries, 2022b). However, researchers question the authenticity of nutrient content and health claims stating that they may mislead consumers towards products that aren’t necessarily classified as being ‘healthy’ (Al-Ani et al., 2016; Gorton et al., 2010). For example, in a sample of 7526 products, Al-Ani et al. (2016) found one third of products classified as being ‘unhealthy’, displaying claims with 26% nutrition content and 7% health claims respectively. This points to concerns about the authenticity of nutrient content claims on products, while positively influencing the purchase of both healthy and unhealthy products (Ikonen et al., 2020). The influence of health and nutrient content claims varies between consumers. Studies on adults have indicated that individuals often mistrust claims, stating that they are ‘just a marketing tactic’ used to perceive a product as being healthy (Chan et al., 2005; Lawrence et al., 2017; Stuthridge et al., 2022). However, some consumers may perceive a product with a nutrient content claim of fat free and no added sugar as being healthy overall, therefore influencing food choice (Gorton et al., 2010). Additionally, claims relating to low or reduced fat content have been found to influence consumers through increased purchase intention (Chan et al., 2005; Mai & Hoffmann, 2015). Practically in women, who were more likely to choose a product with a nutrient content claim relating to fat (Lynam et al., 2011). Research in Australia and NZ has indicated that over two thirds of participants had purchased a product after reading a nutrient content claim, with fat or sugar claims being main drivers of label use on food choice (Colmar Brunton Social Research, 2007). In addition, consumers may check the nutrient content claim against the nutrition information panel to ensure that they are not being misled towards a product (Chan et al., 2005; Lawrence et al., 2017). Other studies have found that individuals with health conditions may find claims helpful, but this depended greatly on their education level and understanding of the health claim itself (Lynam et al., 2011; Stuthridge et al., 2022; Svederberg & Wendin, 2011). 24 2.2.3.3 Interpretive Nutrition Labelling Governments have adopted interpretive FOP strategies to help guide consumers towards healthier food purchases (Bablani et al., 2022; Campos et al., 2011; Ni Mhurchu et al., 2017). Interpretive FOP labels give a food product an overall nutrition score or summary of nutrients (Hallez et al., 2020). They provide a visual for consumers to make a quick judgment of the healthfulness of a product, without the need to read extensive labels (Biswas et al., 2025; Stuthridge et al., 2022). A systematic literature review conducted overseas found interpretive nutrition label use more effective than health claims, but concluded mixed evidence on food choice in adults and children (Hallez et al., 2020). However, they may have an effect when used in conjunction with a nutrient content claim (Talati et al., 2018). In NZ, the HSR may be used as a form of interpretive nutrition labelling on food products. The HSR was adopted in 2014 as a voluntary method to compare the health rating of food products within the same category (Ni Mhurchu et al., 2017). It uses a ranking system between zero and five stars based on a products energy or nutrient content; sodium, sugar, saturated fat, fibre, protein or calcium content (Bablani et al., 2022; Ni Mhurchu et al., 2017). In Bablani et al. (2022), the HSR was more likely to be adopted on cereals, produce, convenience foods and meats compared to confectionery and sugar-sweetened beverages or used by brands with a variety of products. Due to this, the HSR was more likely to appear on products with a HSR of 4.0 to 5.0 stars (Bablani et al., 2022). There is evidence to suggest that HSR has encouraged companies to reformulate existing products to improve the HSR as part of a wider marketing strategy (Ni Mhurchu et al., 2017; Vyth et al., 2010). However, studies have found mixed evidence on the impact of the HSR on consumer choices as Bablani et al. (2022) and Hamlin and McNeill (2018) note limited impact on consumer purchase or choice, while Hallak et al. (2021) found the HSR to influence beverage choice, indicating that more research is needed to draw accurate conclusions towards the impact of the HSR and consumer food choices. 25 2.3.4 Product Placement The layout of food retail environments, such as supermarkets is important to consider regarding food choices as they are the main source of food for high income countries, including NZ (Young et al., 2020). Supermarkets often have a strategic layout, designed to influence food choices at the point of purchase (Aires et al., 2024). The placement and layout of food products within a supermarket can determine whether a product sells (Cohen & Babey, 2012). Therefore, manufacturers pay retailers to display their products within supermarkets in areas known to influence sales (Cohen & Babey, 2012). Factors to consider are end of aisle displays, the height of the product on the shelf and items located around the checkout area (Cohen & Babey, 2012). End of aisle displays are mainly used as a strategy to display products on promotion (Nakamura et al., 2014). Product placement is known to influence adult purchasing decisions within food retail environments (Cohen & Babey, 2012; Glanz et al., 2012). For example, in a review conducted by Glanz et al. (2012) end of aisle displays were identified as being a main influence over consumer food purchases, therefore having an influence over food choices, while Cohen and Babey (2012) estimate 30% of supermarket purchases come from end of aisle displays. Furthermore, the allocation of shelf space for products within retail environments is another strategy used to influence consumer choices. Scarce shelf space within the retail environment is an issue that manufacturers face therefore, they pay retailers to display their products on the shelves through ‘slotting allowances’ (Marx & Shaffer, 2010). Slotting allowances are the locations on the shelf paid for by companies to display food products (Marx & Shaffer, 2010). Research suggests that products placed in middle or top shelf locations are more likely to be selected by consumers (Chandon et al., 2009), therefore may drive manufacturers to select these positions. Additionally, checkout areas encourage impulse purchases as they encounter a high amount of foot traffic as consumers pay for their goods (Miranda, 2008). Products placed at the checkout area are mainly classified as being of unhealthy nature including, sugar-sweetened beverages, confectionery or chewing gum (Cohen & Babey, 2012; Lam et al., 2018). There is 26 evidence to suggest that adults found difficulty in resisting items at the checkout area, resulting in impulse purchases even when aware that the product selected is not considered healthy (Ford et al., 2020). The manipulation of product placement to display healthier food items has been assessed to promote healthier food purchase, thus consumption in adults. There is a positive influence in food choice in enhancing the salience of healthy food and beverage products in end of aisle and eye level areas on dietary outcomes, therefore food choice (Shaw et al., 2020). However, their findings conflict with previous research by Escaron et al. (2013), noting inconclusive evidence, but acknowledging some positive influence on the placement strategy of healthier food and purchases. 2.3.5 Sponsorship Sponsorship is a marketing strategy commonly used within a sports environment to promote specific products or brands (Cornwell, 2008). Many sports teams, events or clubs rely on sponsorship as a financial backbone, while marketers benefit through brand or product awareness and exposure (Greenhalgh & Greenwell, 2013). Companies select who to sponsor based on media coverage at regional and national levels, cost effectiveness or reach of targeted consumers (Greenhalgh & Greenwell, 2013). The sports environment in NZ is known to have a large proportion of food and beverage sponsorship from companies that do not promote healthy lifestyles. This is evident in both national and regional sport settings (Batty & Gee, 2019; O'Brien & Kypri, 2008). Scholars have increasing concern around the use of such sponsorship within sporting environments, placing pressure on sports outlets to reconsider their sponsorship approach (Batty & Gee, 2019). Research has indicated that unhealthy food sponsorship in sports increases the awareness and preferences towards unhealthy food products in young adults (Dixon et al., 2018). Other research points to the impact of alcohol sponsorship on intake within regional sports clubs in NZ. For instance, O'Brien and Kypri (2008) found that players belonging to a sports club affiliated with an alcoholic beverage sponsor were more inclined to consume the beverage provided by the sponsor. There has been calls for a complete ban on alcohol 27 sponsorship, as appealed for by a private members bill (Chambers et al., 2021). The bill acknowledges the impact of alcohol sponsorship in NZ sports and its potential to influence preference and consumption with concerns of harm to the health of the NZ population (Chambers et al., 2021). 2.4 Summary of the Literature Review This chapter presented an overview of food marketing including the history, various modes of food marketing and techniques used to influence consumers’ food choice or preferences. The review indicates the expansion of food marketing over the centuries, particularly regarding the shift from traditional modes (print and radio) to digital modes such as social media. There is extensive literature that points to unhealthy food marketing through the modes of print media, outdoor advertising, TV, social media and endorsement and its influence on children’s food choice or preference. There was some evidence found on the influence of food marketing advertisements on adults’ consumption or preference of unhealthy food or beverages through TV (Boyland et al., 2024; Boyland et al., 2017; Harris et al., 2009; Scully et al., 2009) or purchase intention through social media (Aljefree & Alhothali, 2022). Moreover, multiple techniques used in food marketing presented an influence over food choice and preference. This included pricing strategies (Tawfiq et al., 2022), packaging colour and perceived healthfulness (Mead & Richerson, 2018; Tijssen et al., 2017), branding strategies indicated to influence brand loyalty (Lou & Yuan, 2019), as well as sustainable packaging, used to influence environmentally conscious consumers (Biswas et al., 2025; Martinho et al., 2015). In addition, labelling strategies such as nutrient content claims were shown to influence some consumers (Colmar Brunton Social Research, 2007; Gorton et al., 2010) however, researchers questioned the presence of nutrient content claims presented on unhealthy products (Al-Ani et al., 2016). Research indicated the HSR was widely used, however had an insignificant influence over food choice (Bablani et al., 2022). Moreover, the literature found 28 that product placement strategies (end of aisle, checkout areas, shelf location) are commonly used to influence consumers (Cohen & Babey, 2012), while sponsorship was largely devoted to unhealthy food and beverage products within sports environments, with its influence being demonstrated among young adults (Dixon et al., 2018). There are notable gaps presented within the literature on the effect of food marketing and food choice and preference in adults. For instance, the lack of high-quality evidence and use of experimental or qualitative research throughout each mode or technique of food marketing present limitations in the evidence. Even so, a lot of the research presented focused on children, adolescents or young adults, with evidence towards the impact of food marketing between adult generations limited, presenting a gap of valuable literature in this population. Furthermore, there were gaps of evidence within print media, outdoor advertising, radio and email food marketing modes as the influence of food choice preference in adults and not been rigorously studied. This implies that these forms of advertising modes are not the current focus of researchers, maybe due to the shift in traditional food advertising to alternative modes, or difficulty to obtain results within an observational nature. There is limited evidence of association or influence between food marketing and food choice and preference within a NZ context. The next chapter (Chapter 3) presents the methodology used in this study. It details aspects of the study design, data collection and analysis used to explore the effect of food marketing on food choice and preference in NZ adults 29 Chapter 3: Methodology Chapter 3 outlines and justifies the methodology used in this study. This chapter commences by noting the ethical considerations, followed by the study design, participant criteria, recruitment and data collection. The final section details the process of data analysis for the development of results. 3.1 Ethics and Consent The study and methodology were approved by the Massey University Human Ethics under a low-risk application (notification number 4000027419) in March 2024. Information considered within this application was participant autonomy, storage and use of data, and exclusion criteria. Participants under the age of 18 were excluded from this study. At the beginning of each interview, participants were reminded of their rights and given an opportunity to opt out. 3.2 Study Design A qualitative research approach in the form of semi-structured interviews was applied to this research. Qualitative research uses non numerical data to grant researchers access to participants’ experiences, perspectives and behaviours surrounding a topic of interest (Benlahcene & Ramdani, 2020; Creswell & Poth, 2016). Qualitative methodology is an accepted approach used within marketing research to explore the ‘how’ ‘what’ and ‘why’ of advertisement or marketing phenomenon and how it may influence perception, attitude or behaviour of individuals (Maison, 2019). The qualitative research approach can therefore be considered appropriate to the design of this study to explore the factors in food marketing that influence food choice preference in NZ adults. Semi-structured interviews are deployed in qualitative research, allowing for a flexible structure guided by open-ended questioning style to explore participant ideas or experiences in-depth (Benlahcene & Ramdani, 2020). Interview questions were formulated 30 through applying two questioning levels of main theme and follow up questions to allow participants to speak freely and expand on their experiences (Kallio et al., 2016). Follow up questions were applied to probe and direct the interviewee toward the study objectives (Benlahcene & Ramdani, 2020). Probing techniques offer participants time to gather and expand their thoughts while allowing unexpected information to emerge (Benlahcene & Ramdani, 2020). Semi-structured interviews were therefore applied to this research as an appropriate data collection methodology to address the aim and objectives of this research. 3.3 Participant Criteria To be eligible to participate in this study, participants needed to be 18 years of age or older and living in NZ. This study aimed to explore the influence of food marketing on NZ adults, therefore anyone under the age of 18 was not considered. Additionally, this research focused on food marketing in an NZ context, therefore participants were recruited from NZ to ensure that participants were exposed to similar food marketing techniques and methods. 3.4 Recruitment Recruitment for this study occurred via private Facebook community groups. Social media applications such as Facebook are efficient channels used to recruit research participants and enable access to a large group of users across diverse demographics and backgrounds (Darko et al., 2022). The main researcher requested access into seven Facebook community groups on the Northshore of Auckland NZ; Hobsonville Point, Schnapper Rock, Takapuna / Milford, Torbay, Birkenhead / Northcote, Beach Haven / Birkdale and Devonport. Upon acceptance, a recruitment poster (Appendix A) was uploaded into each community group, asking for volunteers to take part in the study. The recruitment poster included the contact details of the main researcher and a QR code that led to a Google Form. The Google form asked volunteers for their name, age range, gender and email address. Age range included 18 – 44 years old group and more than 45 years old group. Eligible individuals were contacted by the main researcher and sent the participant information sheet (Appendix B) 31 and consent form (Appendix C) as well as interview date availability, should they wish to participate. Upon receiving the consent form and interview availability, the participants were then emailed a Zoom invitation for the agreed interview date and time. Recruitment posters were also printed and placed in the bathrooms and the notice board of the Massey University Albany campus library. 3.5 Interview Facilitation / Data Collection Discussions around interview strategy were held between the primary researcher and the main supervisor of this study. Interview concepts such as open-ended questioning strategy and probing were discussed before the primary researcher undertook the interviews for this study. The main supervisor provided feedback and guidance on the interview schedule and structure to ensure the application of open-ended questions and logical flow. The interview schedule was set out to follow the nature of the EMHP at all levels; individual, interpersonal, organisational, community and policy identified by (McLeroy et al., 1988). All interviews were conducted online via Zoom, on the main researcher’s computer with participants attending remotely online. Interviews were completed between July to August 2024. Each interview lasted between 30 – 40 minutes to ensure there was sufficient time to capture participant thoughts and experiences related to food marketing. The interview began with the main researcher introducing themselves and explaining the basis of the study research aims. The consent form was reiterated with verbal consent obtained to proceed with the interview and recording for transcription purposes. Participants were given an opportunity to ask questions or opt out of the interview. For privacy reasons, the participants were given an option to have their camera on or off during the interview. Following this, the main researcher proceeded with the interview and participants were asked a set of pre-determined questions outlined in Appendix D. Interviews were conducted to the point of saturation, where no new themes or information emerged, leading to a redundancy in data collection (Renjith et al., 2021). Saturation was determined by the main researcher following the 15th interview, where there was sufficient 32 data obtained to reflect the research objectives and no new information was being captured. Saturation in qualitative research has been found to be achieved by 9 to 17 interviews (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022), while the saturation range of semi-structured interviews falls between 5 and 20 (Creswell & Poth, 2016), therefore supporting the interview number of this study. Initial coding of the interview recordings included taking the first letter of the participant’s name and age range, e.g.: M18-24. Recordings were further coded into participant number and age group, e.g.: G1P1, forming the two age groups of this study; 18 to 44 and over 45- year-olds. The two age groups of this study were selected to represent different adult generations, who are likely exposed and influenced by different modes of food marketing and have differences in food preferences. Participants aged 18 to 44 years old captures Generation Z, born between 1997 to 2012 and Millennials, born between 1981 to 1996. The over 45 years group was selected to represent Generation X, born between 1965 and 1980. 3.6 Data Storage The data obtained in this study were saved within Microsoft Word documents and NVivo software password protected by a University account belonging to the main researcher. Interview recordings and transcripts were saved within folders on the desktop computer of the main researcher. All personal identifiers of participants were removed. The data obtained in this study is to be stored for no longer than five years following the studies completion and will be deleted thereafter. 3.8 Data Analysis Audio recordings were uploaded onto Otter.ai, a transcription software that produced the transcripts of each interview. Interview transcripts were saved and carefully edited to maintain fluency by removing non meaningful words or general chatter. Once transcripts 33 had been checked for fluency, they were uploaded in NVivo (Version 15). NVivo being a qualitative data analysis software used to manage, sort and organise data to find connections themes or patterns was an appropriate application for data analysis of this study (Nvivo: Leading qualitative data analysis software, n.d). The data obtained in this study was analysed thematically using the six steps of thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke (2023). Firstly, the main researcher read through each transcript to become familiar with the data and concepts relating to the research objectives (Braun & Clarke, 2023). Next, coding was achieved through highlighting quotes and establishing codes and definitions (Braun & Clarke, 2023). Once coding had been completed, emerging themes were identified, with codes being reorganised into sub-themes (Braun & Clarke, 2023). Following the final phases of thematic analysis, the main themes and sub- themes were reviewed and named to produce the final themes of the study (Braun & Clarke, 2023). The main themes were then organised in relation to each level of the EMHP, and presented as Table 3 in the Results chapter (Chapter 4). 3.8.1 Validity and Reliability The credibility of this study was enhanced through including reflexivity and recognition of the primary researchers’ own bias and preconceptions (Renjith et al., 2021). The bias considered included their background in nutrition and dietetics, and their female gender of white NZ European descent. The unconscious bias was continually reassessed throughout the process of this research. This was done through a personal reflection of data collection, literature review and discussion with supervisors. In addition, the coding of the qualitative data underwent several iterations as a reflective exercise to ensure effective capture of themes. The themes and sub-themes were also reviewed by the supervisors, and this exercise ensured revisions and the final confirmation of themes by consensus. 3.9 Chapter Summary 34 Chapter 3 justified and explained the methodology used for this research by noting the study design, criteria, recruitment of participants, data collection, storage and analysis. The following chapter (Chapter 4) presents the findings of the study and identifies emerging themes and sub-themes between both age groups, identified from the data analysis. Chapter 4: Results This chapter provides an overview of the participant groups and themes generated from the data analysis. In total, 15 participants took part in this study. Participant groups identified as Group 1, 18 to 44 years old (n=8) and Group 2, >45 years old (n=7), as indicated in Table 3. A complete breakdown of participant age range and gender is presented in Table 2. Table 2: Overview of Participants Group Age Range Number of Participants Number of Males Number of Females Total Number of Participants Group 1 18 – 24 4 1 4 8 25 - 34 3 2 1 35 - 44 1 0 1 Group 2 45 - 54 5 0 5 7 55 - 64 1 0 1 >65 1 0 1 Total 3 12 15 4.1 Emerged Themes and Sub-themes There were 7 major themes identified in this research. These themes are supported by sub- themes that relate to marketing and food choice behaviour. The key themes reported below are (1) Health consciousness, (2) Packaging attributes, (3) Interpersonal influence, (4) 35 Product placement, (5) Price, (6) Exposure and influence of food marketing, and (7) Suggestions to improve marketing that promote healthier choices. Each sub-theme is supported by sub-themes and separated into participant age groups. Theme 1.0: Health Consciousness Participants in both groups expressed mixed thoughts about food labelling techniques such as nutrient content claims or interpretive labelling, such as the HSR. Some being drawn into or influenced to purchase food or beverages utilising these techniques, indicating a level of health consciousness, however some were more suspicious of such strategies. Sub-theme 1.1: Nutrient Content Claims Nutrient content claims had a high influence amongst participants aged 18 to 44 years old as they often opted for products perceived as the healthiest. 18 – 44 years age group Participants in the 18 to 44 years age group were influenced by energy drinks with claims of zero sugar. “If they're, zero sugar I'm more likely to go because I drink energy drinks. and I'm more likely to go for the zero sugar than the, like, full sugar ones”. [G1P1] While others reported the influence of high protein nutrient content claims in yoghurt and muesli bars. 36 “Zero sugar, that's what I look for in my drinks, and then high protein or fibre, what I look for in my muesli bars or protein yogurt as well, high protein, is usually what I would go for”. [G1P6] Participants reported perceiving products with nutrient content claims of reduced sugar and more fibre as a healthy option, compared to products with no nutrient content claim and would purchase food products that displayed a nutrient content claim over one that did not. “I always try to go for the healthier option. So, if something doesn't I guess I think muesli bars, if it says it's healthier than the other one with less sugar or more fibre then I'd probably pick it up more than the one that doesn't say anything…”. [G1P1] However, it was reported that nutrient content claims only had an influence when the food product was inexpensive. “But then again, the price is probably the biggest thing. Like, if it's way more expensive than I wouldn't go for I'd go for the cheaper one. But if it had like, a low price and the like health claims on it, then I would definitely go for it”. [G1P1] While another participant reported that nutrient content claims had begun to discourage food choice of products, explaining that often other ingredients are added to compensate. “I've noticed over the last year or so that if they are claims of things like sugar- free or low fat on a product…it actually discourages me where, at some point it attracted me, it now actually actively discourages me from even picking up the product. If something is sugar-free, there's probably 37 something else to compensate. If something is low fat, there's probably something else to compensate”. [G1P8] >45 years age group Similarly, participants in the over 45 years age group reported being influenced to choose food products displaying nutrient content claims relating to sugar and fibre, while additionally reporting influence of fat claims on food choices. “Low fat, sugar-free. Yeah, that definitely draws me to it, to at least have a look anyway. I think especially when I stand in front of the muesli bars… that's a big one normally they have the claims, like it might be saying high fibre”. [G2P9]. “The ingredient I care about is the sugar, yeah, and some additional ones that is not that natural. I'd prefer sugar-free. When I bought some yogurt, I always buy the sugar-free, low fat one, like Greek. I think it means more protein in it”. [G2P13]. Sub-theme 1.2: Health Star Rating Participants reported that food choices were guided by interpretive nutrition labelling, such as the HSR. However, some participants reported that the HSR had no influence over food choice. 18 – 44 years age group Participants in the 18 to 44 years age group reported using the HSR to make healthy food choices. 38 “New Zealand is a specific authority in New Zealand that provides that healthy stars rating. That would influence me yeah, because the closer to five stars, is more healthy, I will go and purchase it”. [G1P7] While other participants were less concerned about the HSR on products, explaining that it did not influence them as much as it would for their friends. “I know people look at the health stars and some of my friends do but not really, like, I can't say I read the nutrition information and stuff like that, I’m too concerned about that”. [G1P2] >45 years age group In contrast, participants aged over 45 years old were less likely to be influenced by the HSR, claiming that is it just a marketing strategy, or thinking that companies need to pay to add the HSR to their packaging. “I tend to just ignore the health stars…that is a marketing ploy to me”. [G2P13] “I've heard that people have to buy their health claims. Some products that don't have that health rating on it, but you have to pay to get that star put on. So, I don't take a lot of notice of that”. [G2P14] Theme 2.0: Packaging Attributes A common theme between participant groups was the influence of product packaging. This included aspects of the packaging design, colour, branding and the physical packaging of 39 food products, all influencing the food choices or preferences of participants within a supermarket environment. Sub-theme 2.1: Packaging Design 18 – 44 years age group Participants aged 18 to 44 years old reported having a preference towards food products with minimalistic packaging that was plain, simple and easy to read compared to messy distracting packaging which was perceived by some as being lower in quality overall. “If the packaging is simple and not too busy, I would normally go for products where I can read what is clearly and it’s not that old fashion bright, messy packaging. I feel like I wouldn’t choose those products as they feel like they would be less quality than products with simple aesthetic packaging”. [G1P4] “If the labelling and the physical imagery on the on the product itself, if it's cleaner design I'm more inclined to try it or to look at it over something that is really busy or has a lot of small print on it kind of distracts me too much”. [G1P8] While others reported that they would choose food products based off artistic designs or images. “If I buy things like craft beers, I'll pay attention to the design a lot more. They've always got real artistic hard work on them, on the cans…I don't know enough about wine to choose based on the flavours, so if the bottle looks cool or has a nice design then I will choose it”. [G1P6] “I drink oat milk, and I go for the same brand, the Boring oat milk just because the bottle is cooler compared to the other ones…It just looks nicer, 40 looks cleaner and more fresh than the other brands with aesthetic colours and an image of a bear”. [G1P1] >45 years age group Similarly, participants aged over 45 years old preferred products with simple packaging and disliked those that were busy and harder to read. “Probably one where the packaging looks professional, and someone’s thought about it, and it’s not cluttered, and It’s easy to read, and it’s appealing”. [G1P12] Sub-theme 2.2: Colour Aspects of colour were reported to be of significance to participants’ food choices in the 18 to 44 years age group. 18 – 44 years age group One participant reported that they often selected beverage products that were blue, while another participant reported that natural coloured packaging such as green was appealing as it related to health. “I was looking at a vending machine before and trying to pick out which drink to drink today, and this one was chosen because it's blue. But I know I like the blue one with most things, when I buy a Powerade, it's pretty safe to go for the blue Powerade. I don’t know maybe that's the colour that works”. [G1P6] 41 “I think colours can play a crucial role in how we feel about the foods we interact with, while things that could be wholesome could be represented, let's say, in different shades of beige and brown. I'm probably going to be as attracted to it as something that has green to it. So those colours would play a role when it comes to health”. [G1P8] Sub-theme 2.3: Physical Packaging When asked, participants reported that the packaging material had influenced their preferences. >45 years age group Participants in the over 45 years age group reported selecting products based on the sustainability of the packaging material, often opting for eco-friendly packaging by avoiding goods wrapped individually packaged or choosing products in recyclable materials. “If things are individually packaged, I try not to choose that either, it’s just not as eco-friendly”. [G2P13] “I go for the kind of things that can be recycled, because if it's packaged in plastic, I make sure that I put it through the recycling. Or if the packaging that's brown, or that say that it's environmentally friendly”. [G2P10] Sub-theme 2.4: Branding Participants explained that the brand of the product only mattered when it was a product that they liked, otherwise they would still opt for a cheaper option for more staple food products. 18 – 44 years age group 42 “If it’s a brand I like then I would choose that… But then only for some things, other things, like, I don't care if it's cheaper ill just buy the cheaper version. This is such a random example, but tinned tomatoes, I'll just choose the cheapest version. Whereas, if I was going to buy peanut butter, I would buy a brand that I like”. [G1P4] While others were more likely to stay loyal towards the brand that they liked, no matter the price. “I'm a type of a loyal customer, you know, once I get used to the food product, I'll go and buy, like, no matter if it is advertised or not”. [G1P7] >45 years age group Similarly, participants in the over 45 years group reported to stay loyal to specific brands, no matter what the price was, or reported choosing the cheapest option for staple food products. “There’re a few items that I will not buy the cheaper version because they're just not nice. For example, Gingernuts, I won't buy whatever the cheaper one is. I don't even know if Griffin's having a competition anymore, but you know, there's some things I won't skimp on.” [G2P14] “Like granol