Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for 
a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and 
private study only.  The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without 
the permission of the Author. 
 
Transfer of Sustainable Energy Technology to Developing 
Countries as a Means of Reducing Greenhouse Gas 
Emission: 
The Case of Bangladesh 
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the 
degree of 
Doctor of Philosophy 
in 
Applied and International Economics 
at Massey University 
Palmerston North, New Zealand 
Mohammad Ershad AIi 
2001 
Abstract 
Over the last two decades the world has been becoming increasingly concerned 
about greenhouse gas ( GHG) emissions, global warming, unsustainable 
development, and poverty in the developing countries. The most acceptable way of 
mitigating GHG emission is the use of sustainable energy technology ( SET) instead 
of fossil fuel. SET is available in the global market, but is outside the scope of 
availability for many developing countries. Due to the lack of economic and 
technical capabilities and wide-spread poverty, developing countries are unable to 
introduce SET independently, hence a need for appropriate assistance from 
developed countries. The case study was conducted in Bangladesh, one of the 
poorest countries in the world, with acute shortages of energy and largely 
disadvantaged rural population. 
The study assessed three energy technologies-biomass, solar, and wind-to 
identify the most viable options of SET for the rural Bangladesh. The 
appropriateness of the proposed SETs is assessed on the basis of certain criteria: 
availability of resources, cost-effectiveness, degree of technological complexity, 
matching demand and supply, and contribution to reducing GHG emission. It has 
been found that each SET taken separately, has its limitations. The main barrier for 
biomass energy technology is the availability of biomass due to scarcity of land, and 
hence, producing food is preferable to growing trees for fuel. The major limitations 
for solar and wind energy technologies are high levels of capital investment and 
technological complexity. 
The study proposes a combination of biomass, solar, and wind SETs as a long-term 
solution of energy crisis in the rural Bangladesh. It suggests relevant policy and 
types of assistance in the form of investment in education and training, machinery, 
spare parts, know-how etc. A brief proposal for capacity building has been prepared. 
It is expected that the proposed SETs will benefit sustainable development, poverty 
alleviation of rural Bangladesh, and the national socio-economic conditions. The 
study findings contribute to general knowledge, and are especially useful for 
developing countries. 
ii 
Acknowledgments 
I am grateful to almighty Allah who gave me the opportunity to complete this 
research amidst many difficulties. I owe a great deal to Dr. Peter Read who 
supervised me throughout the period of this research. His guidance, advice, and 
comments at every stage of this research were crucial to the success of this research 
project. Indeed, I feel fortunate and proud of having worked under his supervision. I 
also acknowledge the invaluable guidance received from my supervisors Professor 
John Overton and Dr. A.K.Enamul Haque. 
It is a pleasure to acknowledge financial assistance provided by the Massey 
University without which I could not have undertaken this research. I also 
acknowledge the financial assistance received from the Department of Applied and 
International Economics. I am greatly indebted to all staff members of this 
Department. 
I gratefully acknowledge the continuous support from my relatives, friends and well 
wishers in completing this study. 
I acknowledge my sincere gratitude to Professor Srikanta Chatterjee, Dr. Nabiul 
Islam and Dr. Waresul Karim for their kind help and support in completing this 
study. Without their support and assistance it would have been impossible to 
complete this research. I also express my thanks to Abdul Wahab, Kamal Ahmed, 
Ainul Islam and Omar Al Farooque for their friendly co-operation and logistical 
support in completing my study. 
Finally, I am proud of the support and co-operation provided by my wife lulekha 
who sacrificed a lot for the success of my research. My daughters Sumaya and 
Shakiya always encouraged and pushed me to step forward to the door of success. 
III 
Table of Contents 
Abstract 
Acknowledgment 
Table of contents 
List of Tables 
List of Maps 
List of Figures and Photographs 
List of Annexes 
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 
Energy Conversion Factors 
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 
1 .l. Introduction 
1 .2. The Bangladesh Context 
1 .3. Energy Demand and supply scenario of Bangladesh 
1.4. Research Problem 
1 .5. Objectives of the Study 
1 .6. Sustainable Energy Technology 
1.  7. Importance of the Study 
1.8. Scope and Limitations of the Study 
1 .8.1. Scope 
1.8.2. Limitations 
1 .9. Structure of the Thesis 
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 Introduction 
2.2. Studies Relevant to Global Concern of environmental effects 
2.3. Studies Relevant to Availability of SET 
2.4. Conceptual Debate 
2.4.1 . Sustainable Development, Poverty and Environment 
2.4.2. Alternative, Renewable and Sustainable Energy 
IV 
Page 
11 
111 
iv 
Xl 
XIV 
XV 
XVI 
XV11 
xx 
1 
5 
9 
10 
14 
14 
14 
16 
16 
17 
17 
20 
20 
21 
28 
31 
32 
34 
2.4.3. Difference in Gross and Net Reduction of 
C02 Emission 
2.5. The Bangladesh Context 
2.6. Conclusion 
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 
3.1 Introduction 
3.2 Identification of Parameters and Their Definitions 
3.3 Nature of Demand and Supply 
3.3.1 Demand for Energy 
3.3.2 Supply of Energy 
3.4 Household as an Unit 
3.4.1 Family Size 
3.4.2 Joint Family 
3.5 Background Characteristics of Energy Users 
3.5.1 Land Ownership 
3.5.2 Household Income 
3.5.3 Education 
3.6 Environmental Awareness 
3.7 Willingness of Participation in SET Transfer 
3.8 Methods of Data Collection 
3.8.1 Questionnaire Administration 
3.8.2 Participant Observation 
3.8.3 Participatory Rural Appraisal 
3.9 Sampling Design 
3.10 The Questionnaire 
3.1 1  The Interview Team 
3.12  Data Analysis 
3.13 Conclusion 
CHAPTER FOUR: BABGLADESH ENERGY SCENARIO 
4.1 Introduction 
4.2 General Features of Bangladesh 
y 
35 
38 
42 
44 
44 
46 
48 
48 
50 
51 
52 
52 
53 
53 
53 
54 
54 
55 
55 
55 
56 
57 
61 
64 
66 
67 
68 
69 
69 
69 
4.3 
4.4 
4.5 
4.6 
4.7 
Background of the Energy Sector 
Institutional Arrangements 
Energy Supply Networks 
Energy Consumption Networks 
Major Weaknesses of Energy Infrastructure of Bangladesh 
71 
72 
75 
77 
79 
4.8 Non Renewable Energy Resources in Bangladesh 84 
4.8.1 Natural Gas 84 
4.8.1.1 Gas Resource Classification and Reserve Estimation 86 
4.8.1.2 Differences in Opinions on Gas Reserve Records 88 
4.8.1.3 Projection of Gas Demand 89 
4.8.1.4 Projection of Gas Supply 90 
4.8.1.5 Existing Gas Pipelines 91 
4.8.1.6 Projection of Gas Production Capacity in Bangladesh 91 
4.8.1 .7 Would Natural Gas be a Sustainable Resource of Energy 
for Rural Bangladesh 93 
4.8.2 Coal 93 
4.8.2.1 Coal Use 93 
4.8.2.2 Jamalgonj Coal 94 
4.8.2.3 Dinajpur Coal 96 
4.8.2.4 Peat Reserve 96 
4.8.2.5 Would Coal be a Sustainable Source of Energy for Rural Bangladesh 97 
4.8.3 Electricity 98 
4.8.4 Hydropower 99 
4.8.5 Oil 100 
4.9 Renewable Energy Resources in Bangladesh 101 
4.1 0 Pattern of Energy Balance 102 
4.11 Conclusion 1 04 
CHAPTER FIVE: SET OPTIONS IN RURAL BANGLADESH 107 
5.1 Introduction 
5.2 Pattern of Expenditure on Energy in Rural Bangladesh 
5.3 Pattern of Energy Supply and Demand in Rural Bangladesh 
5.3.1 Biomass 
vi 
107 
107 
110 
110  
5.4 Available Renewable Energy Technologies in Rural Bangladesh 113 
5.4.1 Biomass Energy Technology 1 13  
5.4.1.1 Charcoal 1 14  
5.4.1.2 Charcoal Cake 1 16  
5.4.1. 3 Animal Dung Cake or Stick 1 16  
5.4.1.4 Woods, Twigs, Leaves 119 
5.4.1 .5 Crop Residues 121 
5.4.1 .6 Biogas 124 
5.5 Other Renewable Energy Technologies 127 
5.5.1 Solar Energy 127 
Passive Solar Systems 
Solar Ponds 
Solar Drying 
Light Utilizing Systems 
Wind Energy 134 
5.5.2 
5.5.3 
5.5.4 
5.5.5 
5.6 
5.7 
5.8 
Sustainable Energy Technologies ( SETs) in Rural Bangladesh 
Conclusion 
CHAPTER SIX: ENERGY USE IN RURAL BANGLADESH 
6.1 Introduction 
6.2 Characteristics of the Sample 
6.3 Rural Energy Situation in Bangladesh 
6.3.1 Sources of Existing Energy Supply 
6.3.1.1 Energy from Own Animals 
6.3.1.2 Energy from Own ForestlLand 
6.3.1 .3 Energy from Market Based Sources 
6.3.1.4 Electricity 
6.3.2 Usage of Energy by Rural Households 
6.3.3 Usage of Energy for Commercial Activities 
6.3.4 Reasons for Using the Existing Sources of Energy 
6.3.5 Energy from Home Sources 
6.4 Potential for SET in Rural Bangladesh 
6.5 Perception on Producing Energy with SETs 
vii 
128 
128 
1 29 
129 
1 36 
1 38 
139 
139 
142 
147 
147 
148 
149 
149 
150 
150 
1 51 
152 
1 53 
1 54 
158 
6.6 
6.7 
6.8 
Rural Energy Demand 
Leaders'p Opinions on SETs 
Conclusion 
CHAPTER SEVEN: ANALYSIS OF RESPONDENTS' 
BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS 
7.1 Introduction 
7.2 Energy users' Characteristics 
7.2.1 Dung Users' Characteristics 
7.2.2 Firewood Users' Characteristics 
7.2.3 Leaf Users' Characteristics 
7.2.4 Kerosene Users' Characteristics 
7.2.5 Diesel Users' Characteristics 
7.2.6 Environmental Awareness 
7.2.7 Willingness to Participate in SET Transfer Process 
7.2.8 Energy Needs for Cooking 
7.2.9 Energy Needs for Lighting 
7.2.10 Energy Uses for Entertainment 
7.3 Correlation Analysis 
7.4 Regression Test 
7.5 Conclusion 
160 
164 
165 
167 
167 
169 
169 
173 
176 
178 
181 
183 
185 
187 
189 
191 
194 
195 
198 
CHAPTER EIGHT: CHOICE OF SET FOR RURAL BANGLADESH 201 
8.1 Introduction 
8.2 Criteria of Justifying SET 
8.3 Nature of Energy Needs in Rural Bangladesh 
8.3.1 Energy for Households 
8.3.1.1 Cooking in Rural Households 
8.3.1.2 Household Lighting 
8.3.2 Energy for Commercial Activities 
8.3.3 Energy Demand in Agriculture 
8.3.3.1 Human Labor 
viii 
201 
202 
203 
207 
208 
211 
213 
215 
216 
8.3.3.2 Animal Power 218 
8.3.3.3 Energy for Irrigation 219 
8.3.4 Energy for Rural Industries 221 
8.3.5 Summary 221 
8.3.6 Justification of SET 222 
8.4 Feasibility of Biomass Technology 222 
8.4.1 Availability of Biomass for Energy 222 
8.4.2 Technological Complexity of Biomass Use 231 
8.4.3 Cost Effectiveness of Biomass Technology 231 
8.4.4 Matching with Demand and Supply 232 
8.4.5 Contribution to GHG Reduction 232 
8.4.6 Major Constraints of Biomass Technology 233 
8.5 Feasibility of Solar Energy 234 
8.5.1 Availability of Solar radiation for Energy 234 
8.5.2 Technological Complexity of Solar Energy 234 
8.5.3 Cost Effectiveness of Solar Energy 235 
8.5.4 Matching with Demand and Supply 237 
8.5.5 Contribution to GHG Reduction 237 
8.5.6 Major Constraints of Solar Energy Technology 237 
8.6 Feasibility of Wind Power 237 
8.6.1 Availability of Wind for Energy 238 
8.6.2 Technological Complexity of Wind Power 239 
8.6.3 Cost Effectiveness of Wind Power 240 
8.6.4 Matching with Demand and Supply 241 
8.6.5 Contribution to GHG Reduction 242 
8.6.6 Major Constraints of Wind Power Technology 242 
8.7 Summary of Feasibility of SET in Matrix Format 242 
8.8 Energy Supply and Demand Linkage Model 244 
8.9 Conclusion 247 
CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 248 
9.1 Introduction 
9.2 Summary of Previous Chapters 
ix 
248 
248 
9.2.1 Background of the Study 248 
9.2.2 Literature Review 249 
9.2.3 Methodology of the Study 250 
9.2.4 Bangladesh Energy Scenario 251 
9.2.5 SET Options in Rural Bangladesh 253 
9.2.6 Energy Use in Rural Bangladesh 254 
9.2.7 Analysis of Respondents' Background Characteristics 256 
9.2.8 Choice of SET in Rural Bangladesh 257 
9.3 Achievement of Objectives 259 
9.4 Policy Implications 260 
9.5 Directions for Further Research 263 
9.6 Conclusion 263 
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 265 
x 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table 1.1 Percentage of Export Earnings Spent for Fuel Import 
of Bangladesh 8 
Table 1.2 Energy Demand and Supply Scenario of Bangladesh 10 
Table 3.1 Major Topographical Features of Sampled Villages 56 
Table 3.2 Number of Sampled Respondents by Sex, Land Ownership, 
and Divisions 62 
Table 4.2 .1 Comparison of Per Capita Energy Consumption of 
Bangladesh and Some Neighbouring Countries 71 
Table 4.4.1 Organisations Involved in Energy Management, and Their 
Responsibilities 74 
Table 4.5.1 Energy Supply Networks in Bangladesh 76 
Table 4.6.1 Energy Consumption Networks in Bangladesh 78 
Table 4.8.1 Information on Discovered Gas Fields 87 
Table 4.8.1.2 Announced Gas Reserves in Bangladesh 89 
Table 4.8. 1.4 Gas Production Capacity of Bangladesh as of 2000 91 
Table 4.8.1.6 Production Forecast Ti1l2005 of Gas Fields 92 
Table 4.8.2.1 Summary of Typical Seam Sections of Jamalgonj 
Coal Reserve 95 
Table 4.8.3.1 Installed, Production and Distribution Capacity of Electricity in 
Bangladesh 98 
Table 4.8.5.1  Volume of  Oil Import ( in Thousand Tons) 100 
Table 4.10 .1 Bangladesh Overall Energy Balance (1994/95 )  103 
Table 5.2.1 Energy Expenditure Pattern in Rural Bangladesh 108 
Table 5.3.1 Major Sources of Biomass in Rural Bangladesh 111 
Table 5.4.1.5  Alternative Use of Crop Residues 121 
Table 5.5.1.1 Solar-Based Power Plants in Rural Bangladesh 128 
Table 5.6.1 Wind Power Generation in Bangladesh 134 
Table 6.1.1 Sampled Household survey by Division 140 
Table 6.2.1 Educational Qualification of Respondents 142 
Table 6.2 .2 Respondents by Occupation 144 
Table 6.2 .3 Annual Income of Rural Households 145 
xi 
Table 6.2.4 Homestead Land Area 145 
Table 6.2.5 Arable Land Area 147 
Table 6.3.1 Sources of Energy Supply in Rural Bangladesh 148 
Table 6.3.2 Animals Owned by Rural Households 149 
Table 6.3.2.1 Use of Energy by Rural Households 151 
Table 6.3.3.1 Use of Energy by Rural Commercial Enterprises 152 
Table 6.3.4.1 Reasons for Using the Existing Energy Sources 153 
Table 6.3.5.1 Energy from Home Sources by Rural Households 154 
Table 6.4.1 Awareness about Environmental Pollution from Energy Use 155 
Table 6.4.2 Knowledge of Environmental Consequences of Energy Use 155 
Table 6.4.3 Knowledge of SET 156 
Table 6.4.4 Knowledge of Wind Energy and Its Use 156 
Table 6.4.5 Knowledge ofBiogas and Its Use 157 
Table 6.4.6 Knowledge of Solar Energy and Its Use 158 
Table 6.5 .1 Will You Participate in Producing SET? 158 
Table 6.5.2 What Do You Need to Participate in Producing 
Energy Using SET? 159 
Table 6.5 .3 Assistance Available from the Rural Population in 
Building SET Plants 160 
Table 6.6.1 Activities Suffering Due to Energy Shortages 161 
Table 6.6.2 What Will You Do if You Have More Energy? 162 
Table 6.6.3 More Energy Means 163 
Table 6.6.4 Potential Future Benefits from More Energy in 
Rural Bangladesh 163 
Table 6.7.1 Number of Respondents According to Sampled Villages 164 
Table 7.2.1 Dung Users' Characteristics 172 
Table 7.2.2 Firewood Users' Characteristics 175 
Table 7.2.3 Leaf Users' Characteristics 177 
Table 7.2.4 Kerosene Users' Characteristics 180 
Table 7.2.5 Diesel Users' Characteristics 182 
Table 7.2.6 Characteristics of Respondents' Environmental Awareness 184 
Table 7.2.7 Characteristics of Respondents' Willingness to SET 186 
Table 7.2.8 Characteristics of Respondents' Who Used Energy for Cooking 188 
Table 7.2.9 Characteristics of Respondents' Who Used Energy for Lighting 190 
xii 
Table 7.2.10 Characteristics of Respondents' Who Used Energy for 
Entertainment 193 
Table 7.3.1 Correlation Output 194 
Regression Equation 7.1 197 
Regression Equation 7.2 197 
Table 8.3.1.1 Per Capita Biomass Fuel Consumption for Cooking as 
Estimated by Some Studies 209 
Table 8.3.2.1 Estimated Energy Consumption in Major Areas of 
Rural Households of Bangladesh 214 
Table 8.3.3.3 Area Covered by Using Different Devices in 1998 
in Rural Bangladesh 220 
Table 8.4.1 Projection of Biomass Fuel Supply in Usual 
Business Scenario 223 
Table 8.7.1 Feasibility of Introducing SET in Rural Bangladesh, 
in Matrix Format 243 
xiii 
LIST OF MAPS 
Map 4.7.1 : Category-Related Location of Power Plants in Bangladesh 83 
Map 4.8.1 : Location of Gaswells, Existing and Proposed Gas 
Transmission Pipelines in Bangladesh 85 
Map 5.1 : F orestland of Bangladesh 1 22 
Map 5.2: Types of Land in Bangladesh 1 23 
Map 5.3: Location of PV System Used in Bangladesh 1 32 
Map 5.4: Location of Wind Power Generators in Bangladesh 1 35 
Map 6.l Sample Location for Household Survey in Bangladesh 1 41 
Map 8.1 Characteristics of Arable Land in Bangladesh 229 
xiv 
UST OF FIGURES AND PHOTOGRAPHS 
Figure 4 .8 .1 .1 Production Shares of Natural Gas by Operators 9 2  
Figure 4.9 .1 The Use of III Health Cows for Preparing Land 10 2 
Figure 5 .3 .1 A Woman Carrying Firewood 112 
Figure 5 .3 .1 .2 Children Carrying Collected Biomass 112 
Figure 5.4.1 .1 Charcoal Production System in Rural Community 115 
Figure 5.4.1.3. c A Woman Making Dung Cakes with Cow Dung 117 
Figure 5 .4 .1.3a A Woman Collecting Cow Dung 118 
Figure 5.4.1.3b A Woman Making Dung Sticks with Cow Dung 
and Jute Straws 118 
Figure 5 .4 .1 .6 a  Biogas Plant under Construction 1 26 
Figure 5 .4.1.6 b A Woman Cooking with Biogas 1 26 
Figure 5.5.4.1 a A Woman Cooking with Solar Cooker 133 
Figure 5 .5.4.1 b A Woman Drying Chili with Solar Dryer 133 
Figure 8 .8 .1 Energy Supply and Demand Linkage Model for Rural 
Bangladesh ( Household Purposes) 245 
Figure 8.8 .2 Energy Supply and Demand Linkage Model for Rural 
Bangladesh ( Commercial Purposes) 246 
xv 
LIST OF ANNEXES 
Annex 1 Sea Level Rise at Low Growth Rate 293 
Annex 2 Sea Level Rise at Medium Growth Rate 294 
Annex 3 Air Pollution: Photograph taken from Dhaka City 295 
Annex 4 Focus Group Interview: Some of the Female 
Participants of Kutubdia Village 296 
Annex 5 Focus Group Interview (PRA Survey) 
Female Paliicipants Drawing Map of the Area to Suitable 
Location for Windmill at Loxmikola Village 297 
Annex 6 Focus Group Interview (PRA Survey) 
Male Pruiicipants Drawing Map of the Area to Suitable 
Location for Windmill at Kutubdia Village 298 
Almex 7 Living Condition of Focus Group in Kutubdia Village 299 
Almex 8 Location of Windmill Site Proposed by Focus Group 
of Loxmikola Village 300 
Annex 9 Location of Windmill Site Proposed by Focus Group 
of Kutubdia Village 301 
Annex 10 Questionnaire for Household Survey 302 
Almex 11 QuestiOlmaire of Leadership Opinion Survey 309 
Annex 12 Map of Bangladesh 312 
Annex 13 Width of Banks of Major Rivers in Bangladesh 313 
Annex 14 Intensity and Duration of Sunshine in Bangladesh 317 
Annex 15 Wind Speed Data of Bangladesh 322 
Annex 16 Concepti Guideline for Preparing Project Proposal of Capacity 
Building on Sustainable Energy Technology Transfer 327 
Nmex 17 Concept of Mann-Whitney Test 348 
Annex 18a Regression Output (Table 7.4.1 a) 351 
Annex 18b Regression Output (Table 7.4.1 b) 352 
xvi 
AC 
ACRE 
ADB 
ADP 
BBS 
BCIC 
BCSIR 
BFIDC 
BIDS 
BPC 
BPDB 
BRAC 
BRDB 
BREB 
BSCIC 
BTC 
btc/year 
BTV 
BUET 
BUP 
BWDB 
CMI 
C02 
DC 
DE 
DESA 
DESCO 
FCCC 
FFYP 
FFYP 
SFYP 
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 
Alternating current 
Unit of land (I acre=IOO decimals) 
Asian Development Bank 
Annual Development Programme 
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 
Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation 
Bangladesh Council for Scientific and Industrial Research 
Bangladesh Forest Industries Development Corporation 
Bangladesh Institute of Development 
Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation 
Bangladesh Power development Board 
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (NGO) 
Bangladesh Rural Development Board 
Bangladesh Rural Electrification Board 
Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation 
British Tobacco Company 
Billion tons per year 
Bangladesh Television 
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology 
Bangladesh Unnayan Parishad 
Bangladesh Water Development Board 
Census of Manufacturing Industries 
Carbon dioxide 
Direct current 
Department of Environment 
Dhaka Electric Supply Authority 
Dhaka Electric Supply Company 
Framework Convention for Climate Change 
Fourth Five-Year Plan 
Fifth Five-Year Plan 
Sixth Five-Year Plan 
XVlI 
GHG 
GIIP 
GJ 
GOB 
GTCL 
Ha 
IFAD 
IOC 
IPCC 
Kg 
LGED 
LPG 
ME&F 
MEMR 
MLR 
NEP 
NGO 
OECD 
PC 
PJ 
PRA 
PSC 
PSMP 
PV 
REDB 
RES 
RISP 
SET 
SFYP 
SPSS 
sq. km. 
tcf 
TFYP 
TGL 
Greenhouse gas 
Gas Initially In Place 
Gigajoule, Energy unit of 10*10 
Government of Bangladesh 
Gas Transmission Company Limited 
Unit of land measurement 
International Fund for Agricultural Development 
International Oil Company 
Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change 
Kilogram 
Local Government Engineering Department 
Liquid Petroleum Gas 
Ministry of Environment and Forestry 
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources 
Multiple Linear Regression 
National Energy Policy 
Non-Government Organisation 
Overseas Economic Cooperation and Development 
Planning Commission of the Government of Bangladesh 
Peta Joule, energy unit of 10* 15  joules 
Participatory Rural Appraisal 
Production Sharing Contract 
Power Sector Master Plan 
Photovoltaic 
Rural Electrification Development Board 
Rio Earth Summit 
Rural Industries Study Project 
Sustainable Energy Technology 
Second Five-Year Plan 
Statistical Package for Social Science 
Square kilometre 
Trillion cubic foot 
Third Five-Year Plan 
Titas Gas Limited 
xviii 
TOE 
UNDP 
WAPDA 
WB 
Ton of Oil Equivalent 
United Nations Development Programmes 
Water and Power Development Authority 
World Bank 
xix 
1000 cft of gas 
1000 cft of gas 
1000 cft of gas 
1000 eft of gas 
1000 cft of gas 
1 ton erude oil 
1 gallon of kerosene oil 
1 gallon of diesel oil 
1 mound firewood 
1 ton firewood 
1 ton coal 
1 hectare 
1 acre 
1 acre 
1 bigha ( lOcal unit) 
1 BTU 
1 calorie 
1 foot 
1 sft. 
1 yard 
1 toe 
1 PJ 
Energy Conversion Factors 
= 
= 
= 
= 
= 
= 
= 
xx 
6.4 gallon of crude oil 
6.5 gallon of furnace oil 
6.1 gallon of kerosene 
6.1 gallon of diesel oil 
6.1 gallon of gasoline oil 
40 MCF of gas 
164 eft of gas 
164 eft gas 
572 eft gas 
15.5 MCF gas 
28.00 MCF gas 
2.471 acres 
4,046 sq.m 
100 decimals 
33 decimals 
1055 J 
4.184 J 
0.3048 ID 
0.092903 sq.m 
0.9144 m 
42.7 GJ 
10 EIS J