Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. i Careers in cross-cultural context: a study of Sri Lankan immigrants in New Zealand A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand. Nithiyaluxmy Tharmaseelan 2005 ii Abstract This study considered migrants’ career outcomes as the result of their adjustments in terms of culture and career adaptation along with other positive attributes they brought on their arrival as well as developing in their new country. It conside red that career is the property of individuals and managing it successfully is the responsibility of individuals themselves. Prior research into migrants’ issues and careers was used as the basis of this study and a model for analysis was developed using such issues. The resultant model included the wider life of migrants. A questionnaire including reliable measures of key variables was developed based on the literature. Two hundred and twenty- one Sri Lankan migrants completed the pilot tested survey. The results were analysed using factor analysis, tests of association and multiple regression analysis at the first stage to formulate a less complex model. Structural equation modelling was then used to confirm the relationships assumed between different variables. Although some of the relationships and/or variables assumed initially were removed from the model, the final model explained strong links between the variables that remained. Qualification gained before migration and career self - efficacy were found to be the most significant variables in explaining job satisfaction before migration. Usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and habits, efforts made towards career, education in New Zealand, information seeking, length of time in New Zealand and ove rseas experience had the greatest influence on current job level. Current job level, length of time in New Zealand and overseas experience were found to be the most significant variables explaining subjective career success after migration. Adapting to N ew Zealand culture was found to be significant in explaining only the career satisfaction after migration. It was also found that migrants’ career outcomes (success and satisfaction) after migration were significant variables in explaining overall career satisfaction of this migrant group: however, with the exception of job satisfaction, career outcomes before migration did not play a significant role in determining overall career satisfaction. The implications of the present study were considered, from both migrants’ perspective and that of New Zealand as the host society. A number of possible practical strategies relevant to migrants, community organisations and policy makers and authorities were suggested. Several potential avenues for future researches were identified and discussed. Thus, it is expected that this study will contribute to better career outcomes of migrants in New Zealand. iii Acknowledgements I have been very grateful for the encouragement and support of many individuals before and during the course of my study and enabled me to first attempt, and then complete, this study. However, there are a few in particular to whom I shoul d like to express my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation. Professor Kerr Inkson, my chief supervisor for this research study has been a wonderful role model, guide, mentor and teacher. I feel privileged to have had him as my supervisor for this study. His commitment, support and inspiration made me strong and enabled me to work through the stresses of balancing multiple roles. I am so grateful for his invaluable support and guidance in spite of his own busy schedule. I owe a deep sense of gratitude t o my co- supervisor Dr.Carole Page who has been a marvellous teacher, guide and friend. She committed herself to the task of encouraging me when in difficult circumstances and gave steady guidance to me throughout the duration of this project. I offer nothing but my deepest thanks to her invaluable support. Associate Professor Denny Meyer has been there for me whenever I needed help with my data analysis and especially when using new software. I owe her my warmest appreciation and deepest thanks. My be loved husband, Seelan, has both encouraged (often sacrificing his own wishes) and supported and has been a mentor at all times. When I became frustrated, tired or discouraged, at times, he lifted me up, celebrated my achievements and took care of all other commitments. I am so thankful to him, for his love and support - I could certainly not have done it without him as my lifelong partner. My dear Dr.Nithi, who had been my teacher during my bachelor degree programme, showed me the starting place when I was a newcomer to this country and has been an invaluable mentor. I will never forget his support and encouragement. My deepest thanks to him. And last, but not least, I wish to acknowledge all the institutions and individuals who helped me with the data collection, the backbone of this study. I am so thankful to all for their constant support in this process. It should be noted that this research was approved by the Massey University Human Ethics Committee (approval number MUHEC 03/024 ). iv Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my little darling daughters Sweta, Suruthi, Surabhi and Swathi who lifted me up by their smiles, touches, talks and kisses throughout the process of my study. It is their birth and love that made me feel proud and spurred me on to work harder. All my achievements are dedicated to them. v Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Dedication Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Background Introduction Background The Problem Situation and Purpose of the Study Immigrants in New Zealand Sri Lankan Migrants: The target group of this study Originality of the Research Importance of the Research Scope and limitations of the study An outline of the remainder of the thesis Chapter 2 Literature Review Introduction Differing cultural dimensions Migration and culture Acculturation Career Management Definitions of Career Changing Types of Career Management Migration and Careers Immigration and Careers in New Zealand Predictors of Career Success and Satisfaction of Migrants: A cross - cultural point of view Career success and career satisfaction Factors influencing career success and career satisfaction of migrants Acculturation strategies ii iii iv v ix xi 1 1 1 2 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 9 15 20 30 31 34 39 41 46 46 49 49 vi Motivation to migrate Mode of adjustment to career Social support Language ability Career strategies Age Education Educational experience in the host country Overseas experience Self - efficacy Gender Job satisfaction Conclusion Chapter 3 A model for immigrants’ Career integration Introduction Rationale and theoretical framework Predictors of career outcomes before migration Career outcomes after migration An integrated model for migrants’ career outcomes Conclusion Chapter 4 Methodology Introduction Model Overview Research Questions Operational Definitions Independent variables Intervening and mediator variables Dependent variable Operational Hypotheses Sample and Procedure Pilot testing and reliability analysis 50 52 57 57 58 61 62 62 62 62 63 63 65 67 67 68 70 72 76 76 78 78 78 79 79 79 89 94 95 103 103 vii Sample Questionnaires Data Analysis Editing Coding and entry Analysis Summary Chapter 5 Data Analysis Introduction Sample Profile Sample composition Situation before migration Background variables: Migration and thereafter Reliability analysis Factor Analysis Cluster Analysis Tests of Association Multiple Regression Analysis Predictors of overall career satisfaction Predictors of employment status at present Predictors of job satisfaction before migration Predictors of subjective career success after migration Predictors of career satisfaction after migration Structural Equation Modelling Unidimensionality of constructs Confirmatory factor analysis Est imation of the hypothesised model Model 1 - the hypothesised model Model 2 – removing non significant paths Model 3 – removing non significant covariances Model 4 – removing variables with no paths 1 0 5 106 107 107 107 107 108 109 109 110 110 112 116 122 123 129 136 158 161 164 168 170 173 177 184 186 197 200 203 204 205 viii Content Analysis Summary Chapter 6 Findings, Discussion, Summary and Recommendations Introduction Review of previous chapters Migrants’ career management as their own responsibility Answers to the research questions Implications Future Research Recommendations Conclusions References Appendix 1 Questionnaire Appendix 2 Code book of content analysis Appendix 3 Raw data (in floppy) 20 9 218 219 219 219 220 223 224 225 227 233 235 253 268 271 ix List of Tables Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 1.4 Table 2.1 Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 5.7 Table 5.8 Table 5.9 Table 5.10 Table 5.11 Table 5.12 Table 5.13 Table 5.14 Table 5.15 Table 5.16 Table 5. 17 Table 5.18 Table 5.19 Table 5.20 Table 5.21 Table 5.22 Table 5.23 Table 5.24 Table 5.25 Table 5.26 Table 5.27 Table 5.28 Table 5.29 Table 5.30 Composition of New Zealand Population Population composition – Auckland Region Sri La nkan Population in New Zealand – Geographical distribution Sri Lankan Population in New Zealand – Age distribution Hofstede’s Rankings on cultural dimensions Reliability scores on pilot testing Relationship between population and sample frequencies Gender distribution of the sample Qualifications at the time of migration Employment status before migration Salary from the last job before migration Overseas experience at the time of migration Present employment statuses Occupational status before and after mi gration Statistics on unemployment period (unemployed respondents). Scale Reliability Five - factor solution loadings for the principal components analysis of ‘motivation to migrate’ Six - factor solution loadings for the principal components analysis of ‘career strategies Cluster centres on Social support: mean scores for different forms of support Acculturation cluster centres: mean scores for different forms of acculturation Mean scores by cluster centres of mode of adjustment to career Correlation between different motivations to migrate and Objective success after migration variables Correlation between different motivations to migrate and career satisfaction after migration and subjective career success after migration Correlation between social support variables and objective career success after migration variables Correlation between social support variables and different career outcomes after migration Correlation between mode of adjustment to career variables and objective career success after migration variables Correlation between mode of adjustment career variables and different career outcomes after migration Correlation between acculturation variables and objective career success after migration variables Correlation between acculturation variables and different career outcomes after migration Correlation between language ability variables and objective career success after migration variables Correlation between language ability variables and different career outcomes after migration Correlation between different career strategies and objective career success after migration variables Correlation between different career strategies and different career outcomes after migration Correlation between overseas experience and objective career success after migration variables Correlation between overseas experience and different career outcomes after migration Correlation between NZ qualification and different career outcomes after migration 2 3 4 5 14 104 111 112 113 114 114 115 119 120 121 122 124 127 130 132 134 137 138 140 140 141 141 142 143 143 144 145 146 147 147 148 x Table 5.31 Table 5.32 Table 5.33 Table 5.34 Table 5.35 Table 5.36 Table 5.37 Table 5.38 Table 5.39 Table 5.40 Table 5.41 Table 5.42 Table 5.43 Table 5.44 Table 5.45 Table 5.46 Table 5.47 Table 5.48 Table 5.49 Table 5.50 Table 5.51 Table 5.52 Table 5.53 Table 5.54 Table 5.55 Table 5.56 Table 5.57 Table 5.58 Table 5.59 Table 5.60 Table 5.61 Table 5.61a Table 5.62 Table 5.63 Table 5.64 Table 5.65 Table 5.66 Table 5.67 Table 5.68 Table 5.69 Table 5.70 Table 5.71 Table 5.72 Table 5.73 Table 5.74 Table 5.75 Correlation between length of time in New Zealand and objec tive career success after migration variables Correlation between length of time in New Zealand and different career outcomes after migration Correlation between age and related career outcomes Kruskal – Wallis Test Statistics for gender and related variab les Differing present salary between genders Correlation between career self- efficacy and related career outcomes Pearson correlation for career self- efficacy and related career outcomes Correlation between qualification gained before migration and related career outcomes Correlation between length of service and related career outcomes Correlation between objective success variables, employment status before migration and overall career satisfaction Correlation between subjective success before and after m igration, job satisfaction before migration, career satisfaction after migration and overall career satisfaction Summary results of hypotheses testing Predictors of overall career satisfaction – model summary Predictors of overall career satisfaction – coe fficients Excluded variables for overall career satisfaction Predictors of employment status at present – model summary Coefficients for predictors of employment status at present Model for predictors of employment status at present – excluded variables M odel summary – predictors of job satisfaction before migration Coefficients for predictors of job satisfaction before migration E xcluded variables from the model – job satisfaction before migration Predictors of subjective career success after migration – model summary Coefficients for predictors of subjective career success after migration Excluded variables from the model – subjective career success before migration Predictors of career satisfaction after migration – model summary Coefficients for predictors of career satisfaction after migration Excluded variables from the model – career satisfaction after migration Five - factor solution loadings (standardised regression weights) for confirmatory factor analysis of motivation to migrate Construct reliabilities and Variance extracted on factors Factor standardised regression weights and significance on the concept of Motivation to migrate Six - factor solution loadings for the confirmatory factor analysis of career strategies Standardised regression weights f or simulated model Variables in the model with their scale reliability Regression coefficient – model 1 Covariances – model 1 Standardised regression coefficients and t-values – model 4 Correlations and t- values – model 4 Goodness of fit measures – comparison of models Comments about country: nature & environment Comments about NZ people Comments about personal life Comments about life of family Comments about employers Comments about employment Comments about Income Support and adjustment 148 148 149 149 150 150 151 151 152 153 153 155 162 163 164 165 166 168 169 170 170 171 172 173 175 175 176 189 191 191 194 196 199 200 201 206 207 208 214 214 215 215 216 217 217 21 8 xi List of Figures Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 4.1 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Fi gure 5.11 Figure 5.12 Figure 5.13 Figure 5.14 Figure 5.15 Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17 Figure5.17(a) Figure 5.18 Figure 5.19 The acculturation curve Acculturation Strategies Global Strategic Options Acculturation strategies & phases – an integrated model Schematic summary showing relationships of determinants in the theory of work role transitions Modes of adjustment to career A model of career outcomes before migration Model of determinants of career outcomes after migration Model of predictors of overall career satisfaction of migrants An integrated model of determinants of migrants’ career outcomes Dimensions of social support Gender proportion of the sample Subject of the qualification at the time of migration Employment Situation before migration Resid ence category of Sri Lankan Immigrants Respondents’ length of time in New Zealand . Qualification obtained in New Zealand Current employment situation Cluster centres for social support received Acculturation clusters Clusters of mode of adjustment to caree r Normal Probability Plot for regression standardised residuals – career satisfaction Normal Probability Plot for regression standardised residuals – employment status at present Normal Probability Plot of regression standardised residuals – job satisfaction before migration Normal probability plot of regression standardised residuals – Subjective career success after migration Normal probability plot of regression standardised residuals – career satisfaction after migration Second order factor model for th e concept of Motivation to migrate Second order Factor Analysis Model for Career Strategies A simulated model to test discriminant validity Model 1 – Hypothesised model Model 4 – model after removing variables with no paths 2 4 27 28 29 54 56 71 74 75 77 81 110 113 116 117 117 118 118 131 133 135 164 169 171 174 177 188 193 195 198 20 5 1 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Background Introduction The present research attempted to apply the considerable literature on immigration, cultural adaptation and career prospects to the situation of immigrants who have got their permanent residency status and living permanently in New Zealand. In recognising the situation of immigrants in a new land, and from what was known about their career success and satisfaction from supporting research and media releases, it was hoped that this study would exte nd the understanding and knowledge of migrants’ careers in a cross- cultural environment. Many factors have been thought to have made an impact on immigrants’ career success and satisfaction. By examining some of the possible factors with respect to Sri L ankan migrants in New Zealand, it was hoped to determine the factors that influenced their career success and satisfaction in a new and culturally different environment. Their adjustment to culture and career has been considered and many factors that coul d give a real picture of their career environment have also been incorporated. The background theme of the present study was that career is the property of an individual and managing it successfully is solely his/her responsibility. The premise of the stu dy was that successful career management in terms of a new cultural environment would lead to successful and satisfied migrants and this formed the study’s framework. Background There is a large amount of literature on expatriation. Broadly, empirical s tudies (Nesdale & Mak, 2000; Riusala & Suutari, 2000; Webb & Wright, 1996; Selmer, 1999 & 2000, Zakaria, 2000; Kosic, 2002) of expatriation and cultural differences explore the issues of cultural adaptation of immigrants or expatriate employees and their f amily members. In the case of expatriates on organisational assignments there can be problems for the sending organisations and/or host countries. A gap was identified in the literature as being the dearth of empirical studies on migration and career outcomes. This focus was established from the exploratory studies on New Zealand immigrants’ employment situations (Department of Internal Affairs, 1996; Basnayake, 1999; Friesen, 1993) and media reports (Dearnaley, 1999; Bingham, 1999; Barber, 2000). 2 The Problem Situation and Purpose of the Study Immigrants in New Zealand The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines an immigrant as a person who comes to live permanently in a foreign country (Pearsall, 1999). Every country and its people have unique characteristics, habits and customs; however there have been similarities among groups based on their behavioural modes. New Zealand is a multicultural society with migrants from various countries and the flow of migrants has been high during the past two decades. Howev er, there is much criticism about immigrants’ employment in New Zealand, and that provides a stimulus for the study of immigrants’ careers. The division of the New Zealand population into three broad ethnic groups, namely, European, Maori and other race s, is based on colour, geographical distribution and certain common social characteristics. The third group of people, other races, have migrated from countries which have certain geographical affinities with New Zealand - namely the southwest Pacific, Southeast Asia, India and China (Tiwari, 1980). Over the last 150 years the numbers of people arriving each year to live in New Zealand have fluctuated considerably. There have also been changes over time in the birthplace distribution of immigrants to New Z ealand (Statistics New Zealand, 1998). Immigration has gained an important place in the make up of today’s New Zealand population. Over the last 20 years from 1998 there were major unprecedented changes in immigration flows to New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 1998) and during the decade of 1990- 2000, immigration has added over 110,000 people to the population of New Zealand (Bedford, 2001). According to the 2001 census, 7.34% of the total population (usually resident) of New Zealand is represented by Asian and other ethnic groups. Table 1.1: Composition of New Zealand Population Population European ethnic groups Maori Ethnic Group Pacific Peoples Ethnic Groups Asian Ethnic Groups Other Ethnic Groups Total People Male 1,395,900 257,484 114,153 113,070 13,161 1,747,752 Female 1,475,532 268,797 117,645 125,109 11,832 1,838,982 Total 2,871,432 526,281 231,798 238,179 24,993 3,586,731 Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2001 3 Of the total New Zealand population, 31% live in the Auckland region and of that number 15% are Asians or other ethnic groups. This excludes all other immigrants from European and Pacific countries. On the other hand, 62.8% of the whole population of Asian and other ethnic groups live in the Auckland region. Table 1.2: Population composition- Auckland Region Auckland Region European ethnic groups Maori Ethnic Group Pacific Peoples Ethnic Groups Asian Ethnic Groups Other Ethnic Groups Total People Male 366,192 61,650 75,240 72,486 7,191 534,771 Female 388,560 65,979 79,437 79,116 6,471 566,823 Total 754,749 127,629 154,680 151,602 13,662 1,101,594 Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2001 What is important here is the fact that these people have certain soc ial and cultural characteristics which are different from those of Europeans. These immigrants have made New Zealand their chosen country of residence (Tiwari, 19 80) and their experiences in every walk of life in New Zealand will have an impact on New Zeal and as a whole. One of many issues is the immigrants’ careers in New Zealand. Sources prove that immigrants have high rates of unemployment which leads to frustration. Dearnaley (1999 ) noted that almost a third of the country’s unemployed are immigrants and many of them are highly qualified. As a result, concerns have been expressed that New Zealand’s economy is not benefiting from the significant pool of intellectual capital of immigrants. One study revealed several reasons including the lack of recognition of qualifications, misleading advice from immigration consultants and difficulties in equal employment opportunities and employers’ preference for locals not because the others are any less qualified, just because they feel more comfortable that way (NZ Herald, 2000). The present study tried to see the other side of the coin. The purpose of the study was to examine the determinants of career success and satisfaction of Sri Lankan immigrants in New Zealand. This has been an important objective sinc e New Zealand is increasingly becoming a country where the number of immigrants is substantial and rising. Furthermore, it is a real issue that migrants face many difficulties getting into the employment market and adjusting their life in an environment that is completely different from their homeland. It is also understood that career is an individual’s property and success or failure depends on each individual’s efforts. 4 Sri Lankan Migrants: The target group of this study The selection of Sri Lankan imm igrants was based on the rationale that Sri Lankans living in New Zealand are more educationally qualified. Tertiary qualifications for Sri Lankans living in New Zealand are greater than the national average for New Zealanders (Basnayake, 1999) and the re asons for migration of these people are unique and identifiable from researcher’s own experience. If an attempt had been made to include various groups of immigrants in the study, it might have been difficult to combine different sets of characteristics. Moreover, previous (descriptive) studies (Department of Internal Affairs, 1996; Basnayake, 1999) have been done with Sri Lankan immigrants and there is a need to explore in greater depth and to formulate a foundation for the study of other ethnic groups. Like many other Asian ethnic groups, the Sri Lankan population in New Zealand is concentrated in the Auckland region and 91.5% of the total Sri Lankan population in New Zealand live in the North Island. 63% of the Sri Lankans living in the North Island have taken Auckland as their home with 23.7% living in Wellington. Sri Lankans are one of the eight largest Asian ethnic groups living in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2001). Table 1.3: Sri Lankan Population in New Zealand- Geographical Distribution Region Number of Sri Lankans usually resident Northland 51 Auckland 3486 Waikato 243 Bay of Plenty 87 Gisborne 6 Hawke’s Bay 45 Taranaki 90 Manawatu-Wanganui 213 Wellington 1308 Total, North Island 5529 Tasman 00 Nelson 15 Marlborough 3 West Coast 21 Canterbury 327 Otago 129 Southland 18 Total, South Island 513 Total, New Zealand 6042 Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2001 5 The age distribution of Sri Lankans in New Zealand shows that 54.42 % of them are between the ages of 25 and 64. Children under 14 years old make up 23% of the total Sri Lankan population in New Zealand. Elderly people of 65 years or over make up only 5.61%. Table 1.4: Sri Lankan Population in New Zealand- Age Distribution Age group Number of Sri Lankans usually resident 0-14 years 1392 15-19 years 570 20-24 years 453 25-34 years 783 35-44 years 1140 45-64 years 1365 65 years and Over 339 Total, New Zealand 6042 Source: Statistics New Zealand, 2001 Based on this information and the researcher’s background, it seemed to be appropriate to select Sri Lankans as the participants of this study. Originality of the Research The ‘expatriate’ stream of research and literature, and that concerning the success of migrants are largely varied. There are instances where migrant groups have been used to study expatriate issues such as acculturation and adaptation (Selmer, 2000; Friesen, Manying, Ho, Bedford, and Goodwin, 1997; Selvarajah, 1997; Yu and Berryman, 1996) and career related issues on expatriates especially on overseas assignments (Zakaria, 2000; Selmer, 1999). But there is little evidence of research on migrants being used to illustrate, refine, or explain issues pertinent to migrants’ career and the impact of their own efforts to succeed in a new environment. Some surveys on employment experiences (Basnayake, 1999; Department of Internal Affairs, 1996, Friesen, 1993) and published materials on problems faced by immigrants in finding a good job or a job related to their qualifications (McNaughton, 2001; De Sil va, 2001; Barber, 2000; Dearnaley, 1999) have mirrored the necessity of in - depth research about these issues. 6 In discussion with researchers involved in career issues and migrants’ experiences, the idea emerged that such a study looking at migrants’ own efforts and behaviour would be useful in the contemporary situation. Further, personal discussions with migrants about their employment experiences and observations of migrants’ life including the researcher’s own experience led to a conclusion that this sort of research is of utmost importance. It is believed that this research is original in its nature and by drawing major strands of literature and testing together has resulted in new information which adds to knowledge in a way that is new (Phillips & Pugh, 2000), thus broadening the scope of migrants’ research. Importance of the Research It may seem initially that migrants’ feelings of uneasiness in a new country are due to the differences they face and the difficulty in adjusting and adapting to a new environment. But there are several reasons behind their success or failure. Career is one of many important parts of life to every individual and it is important to build up the intended career successfully wherever they may live. However, it becomes a problematic issue for migrants who move out of their comfort zone as many migrants, by definition, do. New Zealand shows a picture of migrants’ life with high rates of unemployment, underemployment and major career changes from professional careers to lower level inferior careers (Department of Internal Affairs, 1996; Basnayake, 1999, Statistics New Zealand, 2001). Shaw (2001), an Auckland based personnel consultant stated “we have an interesting problem in our country. Qualified people are jumping the ditch at an ever increasing rate. On the other hand, people who are equally or more qualified are immigrating but struggle to find work in a country where the talent shortage is readily acknowledged” which confirms the basis of this thesis. On the other hand, there are voices (Penning, 2001; Robinson, 1996) that say migrants, who are reported to make up a certain proportion of New Zealand’s long term unemployed, are no asset to the country and that the high level of unemployment questions the success of country’s immigration policy. In fact, migrants’ success and satisfaction in the host country is important for individual migrants as well as the host nation. There are many reasons to look at this issue, and at individuals’ own efforts and behavioura l adaptation in terms of their career outcomes. It is an area of research, so far unattempted, which could assist migrants’ in their pursuit of a successful life in a new environment. 7 Potentially, results from this study could be developed into individuals ’ strategies for successful career and as guidelines for future immigrants to this country. On the other hand, the results may open a path for future studies with other migrant groups in the country and also other related issues raised at the end of this study. Scope and limitations of the study Immigration in New Zealand has always provide d people for the workforce, and migrants to this country have been from various parts of the world including Britain, South Africa, India, China, the Republic of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka etc. The numbers of migrants are ever growing and government policy changes are always in favour of migrant flows to support the skill shortage in New Zealand. However, the growing problem of migrants’ unemployment is a contemporary issue. While it is impossible to study all migrants in New Zealand, it is hoped that this study of one migrant group could help identify potential issues and could be a lesson for other migrants and future researchers. The present study focuses on Sri Lankan migrants in New Zealand living in the Auckland region. It is acknowledged that this limits the generalisation of the results. However, it is expected that a clear picture drawn from a small group will help to create a foundation for future researches with other migrants in this country. There are many different cultural groups living in New Zealand and their norms and beliefs obviously differ to a certain extent. This created a boundary in selecting potential participants of this study. This is a recognised limitation. This study was stimulated by the personal experiences of the researcher as a migrant herself to New Zealand and the observations of fellow migrants’ lives. There are institutions (migrant centres, new migrant support s ervices) and programmes available to facilitate the process of learning the culture and practices of New Zealand for new migrants, however research focussing on migrants’ career could assist those who seek to overcome the difficulties they face. Thus, the scope of this study is to concentrate on migrants’ individual efforts and adjustments to their new environment. 8 Existing literature has explored issues mainly relevant to expatriates in new environments with little written about permanent migrants. This study could add more to the existing understanding of migrants’ career in a new environment and thus enable them to develop themselves and take appropriate steps to move on towards their career goals. Thus, this study tries to identify the factors that influence the career outcomes; success and satisfaction of migrant individuals. An outline of the remainder of the thesis Chapter 2 provides a review of relevant literature covering the issues of culture, migrants and cultural adjustments, migrants’ care er and factors commonly identified as influencing career outcomes. Chapter 3 presents the conceptual model developed in this study based on the ideas drawn from the literature along with relevant theories. Chapter 4 outlines the methodology used in the s tudy including the research questions, the definitions and measures of concepts and variables, sample selection and rationale, and the methods of analysis. It also presents the hypotheses developed in accordance with the ideas of the conceptual model. Chapter 5 presents and interprets the results obtained from the analysis, commenting on the significance of findings at every stage and testing the hypotheses. It covers all the aspects of data analysis including a description of the data and other preliminary analyses to provide a general overview; and tests of association, multiple regression analysis and structural equation modelling to test relationships between the variables. Chapter 6 provides a summary of the findings of the study, the learning point s and implications of the findings along with the answers to the research questions and other avenues for related future researches that could enhance the findings of this study. It also discusses the significance of the findings to the migrants’ research arena and to the migrants’ practical life in developing, and succeeding in, their careers and suggests some possible practical solutions. 9 Chapter 2 Literature Review Introduction The present chapter discusses relevant literature from previous researches in the cross- cultural and career areas, focusing on recent studies which address the issues of migrants’ careers, particularly the issues mo re closely related to the main theme of this study. This study considered career as an individual property and managing it successfully as solely the responsibility of the individual. At the same time, the increasing interdependency of the contemporary world and individuals’ propensity to move out of their cultural comfort zones to completely different environments was also considered. This study considered the situation of migrant individuals as self- expatriates (Richardson & McKenna, 2002) which is a quite different concept from many researches on expatriate employment and adjustment. Thus, the situation demands that a cultural researcher of careers study the basic differences in culture, what happens to individuals when they move between cultures, how culture interacts with individuals’ careers and the factors that affect career success and satisfaction in a new cultural environment. This study is limited to migrants’ career management issues and thus the literature review attempted to identify the cultural differences that commonly exist between societies based on the cultural dimensions determined by various researchers, the process of acculturation, career development issues in cross - cultural environments and their impacts on career outcomes. In addition, relevant studies have been cited in identifying the factors related to developing a conceptual framework for this study. Differing cultural dimensions This study tries to identify the impact of cultural factors on career outcomes with a selected community group. Our behaviours differ in various ways, many of them determined by culture, and those differences create incompatibilities in different cultural environments. In the context of this study, it is therefore necessary to understand the nature of cultural differences individuals could exhibit. What is a culture? From the perspective of common sense, we could define it as the accepted way of doing different things in a particular environment. The concept of culture has been enriched by the work of anthropologists, sociologists, and many other 10 researchers. A number of theorists in different fields have defined the term and these definitions vary. The existence of culture is what distinguishes human societies from the societies of other species (Deeks, 1993, p.12). Commonly, it could be defined as the way in which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas (Trompenaars & Turner, 1997) which is shared by members of a particular group and transmitted through a process of learning and interaction with the environment (Thomas, 2002). It is made up of customs and practices and tells who the members of a group or society are, where they came from and how they behave in relation to various conditions. According to Kluckhohn (1951 cited in Hofstede, 2001, p.9), culture consists of patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artefacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values. As Groeschl and Doherty (2000, p.13) argue, the lack of clarity between researchers on the different meanings of the terms used to describe cultural elements supports the fact that so far it has not been possible to find a common language to define such a complex idea as culture. One reason for this might be that researchers come from different fields in which terms have different meanings. Furthermore, the cultural background of the researcher might influence their way of thinking, feeling and seeing things. Hofstede (1980, 1991) stated that there is no commonly accepted way to describe a complex thing such as culture. He defines “cultur e” as “collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group or category from another” (Hofstede, 2001, p.9). He believed that this programming derives from one’s social culture. Every individual belongs to a unique culture, which has its own power of existence. The source of one’s mental programmes lies within the social environment in which one grew up and collected one’s life experiences. According to Hofstede (1991) , the programming starts within the family; it continues within the neighbourhood, at school, in youth groups, at the workplace and in the living community. He used the term “mental software” to describe the term “culture”. One could conclude, from his 11 explanation, that an individual starts accumulating culture once he/she is born. Hofstede saw culture as an always- collective phenomenon because it is at least partly shared with people who live or have lived within the social environment, which is where it was learned. He emphasized that culture is learned, not i nherited, and derives from one’s social environment not from one’s genes. Hofstede (2001, p.11) describes the manifestations of culture as layers of an onion where values, rituals, heroes and symbols collectively create the nature of a culture, and its practices are based on the layers. Values are the core of any culture. The idea of layers is used also by Turner and Trompenaars (1997 & 1998, p.22) who indicate that a proper understanding requires a proper unpeeling. But this model has slight differences from Hofstede’s. Seelye and Wasilewski (1996, p.62) see culture as a boundary creator and say that culture, this “mother of all boundaries”, does not obey the nation- state lines drawn (and redrawn) on the map, or the membership criteria of race or ethnici ty or language or even the ties of family membership. It is a boundary that conditions its recipients into a reasonably cohesive system for viewing themselves and the world. The term “reasonably” suggests that there might be room for exceptions. Deeks (1 993, pp. 13- 14) analysed business and culture, and parallels Hofstede in his views. He indicates that there are a number of key elements in the idea of culture or a cultural system including symbolling (meanings to behaviours and objects), language and the body of ideas that incorporates the beliefs shared by the members of the groups or society. There are clear similarities in the different approaches and terms used to define the concept: “culture”. To view it collectively, culture is an organized syste m, related to the members of a group, which has its own boundary, which is learned over the span of one’s life and it has a historical background which has been passed down over generations by one’s ancestors. Finally, culture is a man - made composition with certain values, beliefs, norms and practices towards the behaviour of the people attached to that particular group or society which provides them with a unique identity. 12 Culture makes societies differ from each other. We all know that two objects are n ever the same; no two human beings can be identical (identical twins are exceptions). But there are similarities between people. We all try to identify common features or commonalities, and use these features to categorise objects, people etc. Turner and Trompenaars (1998, p.8) emphasize that every culture distinguishes itself from others by the specific solutions it chooses to certain problems, which reveal themselves as dilemmas. Researchers from various disciplines have conducted studies on the bas ics of culture and have provided different dimensions. Some of these dimensions relate closely and some do not. How can one identify the cultural differences between groups, societies, organizations and countries etc.? A possible view could include the patterns of acceptable relationships in the family, organizations and social structures, patterns of work and practices, decision making approaches, communication styles and practices, food habits, property ownerships, clothing styles, their locus of cont rol etc. There are many sources of cultural classifications used by various researchers and theorists. However, the most used models are Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientations (1961), Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural values (198 0 & 1991 ), Trompenaars and Turner’s cultural groupings (1997 & 1998) and the Schwartz value survey (1990, 1992 & 19 94). Instead of being restricted to one set of classifications, it is a useful approach to compare, contrast and find a consensus within the available literature. Despite being conducted at widely different times using different methods, these studies have resulted in very similar descriptions of cultural dimensions (Thomas, 2002, p.48). Many researchers and authors (Nahavandi & Malekzadeh, 1999; Adler, 2002; Rodrigues, 1998; Vecchio, 1991 ) have discussed Hofstede’s dimensions and their studies have used them as a basis to analyse cultural differences among people. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s (1961) framework of cultural variation identified six dimensions; environment, time orientation, nature of people, activity orientation, responsibility and conception of space. Hofstede’s (1980) initial study with IBM employees resulted in four cultural dimensions; power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism Vs co llectivism, and masculinity Vs femininity. Later in 1991, his study (Hofstede, 1991) with Chinese employees added another dimension; long - term Vs short- term orientation. 13 Similarly, Turner and Trompenaar’s (1997) study resulted in five value orientations ; universalism Vs particularism, communitarianism Vs individualism, neutral Vs emotional, diffuse Vs specific and achievement Vs ascription. Schwartz and his colleagues’ analysis (19 90, 1992 &1994) yielded seven value types; egalitarianism, harmony, embed dedness, hierarchy, mastery, affective autonomy and intellectual autonomy. The basics of these dimensions concentrated on how individuals and societies deal with others (relationship or caring for each other), how they relate to the nature, how they behave in doing an activity, how they accept existing different societal levels, and how they manage their time. Approaches may result in alternative views: some may be complementary and some may reveal commonality while others differ. A comparison of the studies can show the extensions and refinements in the value dimensions. Although the studies were carried out independently and with different types of samples, they seem to have links to each other at least in one or two dimensions. The terms used may be different in describing the values but the existence of relationships is obvious among the studies. Whatever the dimensions are, the obvious aspect is the difference between societies. Such dimensions were used in this study to analyse the cultural differe nces between the respondents of this study and the New Zealand’s national culture. In Hofstede’s (1980) terms, New Zealand has been identified as an individualistic, low power distance, low uncertainty avoidance and masculine country whereas many Asian countries are completely opposite. Sri Lankans (the target group of the present study) were not included in Hofstede’s (1980) work. However, India is culturally similar to Sri Lanka and so is used to show the differences exist between New Zealand and Sri L anka. India is in close proximity geographically and culturally to Sri Lanka (based on the experiences of the researcher) and the scores of each dimension assigned to India and New Zealand have been shown in Table 2.1. 14 Table 2.1 Hofstede’s Rankings on cultural dimensions Country Power Distance Individualism Masculinity Uncertainty avoidance India New Zealand 77 22 48 79 56 58 40 49 SOURCE: Adapted from Hofstede, 1991 The scores shown above indicate substantial differences in the power distance and individualism dimensions while differences in masculinity and uncertainty avoidance are comparatively small. These scores were the average score for all participants in each country. Therefore, it is not appropriate to infer that because two nations differ on a particular value that any two individuals from those countries will differ in the same way (Thomas, 2002). The obvious thing is the existence of differing dimensions and the distance between groups based on those dimensions. Since Sri Lanka is culturally closer to India, it can be stated that the cultural difference between Sri Lanka and New Zealand is high in terms of power distance and individualism while differences in other dimensions are not as great. Beyond these quantitatively identif ied differences between the two countries, there are many examples to show that the cultural practices of these countries differ to a certain extent. Paternalism, family orientation, attitudes of gift giving, and maintaining face and dignity are some of the areas where these differences can be observed. Parental influence, especially the decisions of father or elder brothers, is an accepted practice in Sri Lanka for any important decision related to the younger members of the family. It goes beyond their childhood to adulthood in many cases. These influences include choosing a field for education or employment, deciding a life partner, and naming of a child to some extent. The extended family is an important feature of Sri Lankan society; it refers to f amily members beyond those who could normally be considered the nuclear family and includes even distant relatives including relationships created by marriage. It is a common practice for wealthy members to assist the poor members of the extended family and the well- being of an individual is considered to be the collective 15 responsibility of the family. In contrast, in New Zealand, the individual is responsible for his or her own prosperity. Gift giving is a common practice in both countries. But ther e is a difference in the timing of gift opening. Sri Lankans never open a gift in front of the visitor who presented it. Even if children have opened it, other members of the family feel embarrassed at the blunder. But in New Zealand, the practice is qu ite different. Gifts are opened in front of those who presented them and the receivers give immediate appreciation. Maintaining face and dignity is extremely important in Sri Lankan society and in order to protect superiors from losing face a Sri Lankan employee may not tell them about problems. Preserving harmony and having consideration for others is very much a part of the best environment (Dunung, 1995 ). In contrast, in New Zealand, subordinates talk to their superiors without any hesitation and disagree if they feel they want to do so. There are many examples like this of differences between the people of these two countries. Migration and Culture The term migration simply means an individual leaving his or her own territory where he or she was born and raised and going to live in a new environment. Migration is a major force accelerating social and cultural change (Bauböck, 1996, p.9). A person may expect some road blocks and may even prepare him or herself to live and work in a new environment. However, his or her success depends on living and working harmoniously within the community. In addition to dealing with the new culture at work, the migrant still functions in his or her own culture at home. He or she is faced with coping and communicating twenty- four hours a day, seven days a week. In cases where there are major cultural differences this causes a culture clash. As a result, he or she experiences a culture shock (Seelye & Seelye, 1995, pp.1- 4). Such a shock may cause physical and mental illnesses, depression and frustration in migrant individuals. Though these effects may not be universal, shock is a common feature in a new environment. 16 Why individuals move out of their comfort zones is the primary question of migration studies. Individuals or families make location decisions primarily by comparing their income opportunities at alternative locations. However, individuals who are well qualified and have been in high positions in their homeland reveal various motives for their moves. The quality of life and environment, better opportunities for children, a better standard of living, escaping war or political hardships (Nesdale & Mak, 2000; Economist, 2002a), accompanying family or spouse, greater opportunities for study, better employment opportunities (Calleja, 2000), joining family or relatives (including marriage) (Economist, 2002b), escaping religious or racial persecution and discrimination, and the lack of suitable employment at home are some common motivations migrants have reported in several studies. To succeed in their goals and purposes, it is important for each migrant to have a quality career and life in their host country. How do they start their life in a new environment? How should they behave in different situations? How do they feel in an environment different from their previous life? Gooneratne (1997, p.7) edited a book with the writings of many poets and many of them had experienced the trauma of expatriation . In that book, an Indian poet, Namjoshi, in her poem “How to be a foreigner” writes: First, You take off your clothes, And put on a garment Sterile and clear, With neat black letters, Marking the STRANGE R Then, You walk down the street, Alone in Fancy dress…….. The poem brings out the first stage of being in a completely new environment and how it could affect a person’s personal identity and ego. Seelye and Seelye (19 95) state that each of us experience difficulties as we attempt to function effectively in another culture. 17 These include dealing with anx iety whose origins are typically vague and learning new culturally appropriate behaviours. The difficulty lies in missing the behaviour that is appropriate to goal attainment in the new culture. New migrants suffer stresses and strains in their day to day life as well as in their new employment. L anguage is the chief factor among many others (Kossoudji, 1988; Ballente & Kogut, 1998; Leslie & Lindley, 2001). There is no question that in the best of all possible worlds, it is far better if the new person speaks the language of the host society. This will demonstrate, most effectively, to others his/her commitment to the new environment. The ability to communicate makes his/her daily life less fraught which in turn puts him/her in a better place to live h armoniously in that society. On the other hand, people in a new environment may encounter various problems and conflicts due to the nature of the host people. Ethnocentrism is one of many aspects people often experience in such a situation. Ethnocentris m is described as an attitude that one’s own cultural group is the centre of everything and all other groups are evaluated with reference to it (Sumner, 1940 as cited by Thomas 2002, p.44). Hofstede (1991) refers to the unfortunate tendency among some politicians to want to spread migrants geographically, rather than allowing them the social support of community compatriots where the social support is indirectly emphasized as important. Another important aspect referred to by Hofstede is the reaction of the local population, in particular those local people interacting with migrants, who may display ethnocentric and racist philosophies. The concept of ‘what is different is dangerous’ introduces a tendency towards ethnocentrism. In Hofstede’s terms, mig rants have a better excuse for such a tendency, as they are experiencing a hostile new environment. However, research results indicate that individual differences partially explain why some expatriates are more successful in adapting to the host society than others (Lee & Larwood, 1983) and this needs attention in cross- cultural research. Stereotyping is another common issue discussed by almost all cross - cultural analysts. Usually in a foreign environment, the newcomer is not perceived and assessed as an individual. Rather, these migrants are perceived in a stereotypical fashion based on the country of origin, region etc. 18 Hofstede (1991, p.212 ) says that the majority of people in the world live in collectivist societies, in which people throughout their lives remain members of in- groups which provide them with protection in exchange for loyalty. In such a society, groups with different cultural backgrounds are out - groups to an even greater extent than out - groups from their own culture. There are several implications of cultural conflicts for immigrants. As Webb and Wright (1996, p.38) reveal expatriates and migrants , who are unfamiliar with the cultural realities of the host country are often not only unhappy living abroad but are also a liability. Problems such as substance abuse, workaholism, psychological terrors and infidelity can undermine the ability of an individual who previously exhibited consistent career performance and a successful family life. Webb and Wright (1996, p.39) say that a sense of humour is critical in dealing with the stress of intercultural situations, the cultural mistakes and faux pas that an individual will most certainly commit at some point. The ability to approach, develop and maintain relationships with varying and separate groups of people will be essential to success. The newcomer must be open- minded, respectful, non- judgmental and diplomatic about opinions, attitudes and behaviours that differ from his or her own. Webb and Wright (1996 ) emphasize that a strong desi re to associate with others, a talent for communicating and a keen interest in people are essential elements to successful adaptation. The cultural compromise with the host society has been studied in many researches (Atiyyah, 19 96; Fouad & Tang, 199 7; Ne sdale & Mak, 200 0; Selvarajah, 1996 & 1997; Bird, 1999; Scott, 1999) and the term mostly used to describe the cultural adjustment process is “acculturation”. The needs of the current world and its global nature often demands that people learn and unlearn several things depending on the environment in which they live at the time. Among the many phenomena related to globalization, international migration is commonly perceived as one of the most important. Migration, however, is a different matter from the rest of globalisation. By changing the composition of receiving societies, migration affects those societies as well as the migrants in profound ways. Thus, continuous and large - scale migration inevitably raises the questions of self - identification: “wh o are we?” and “who belongs to us?” (Baub öck, 1996, p.7). 19 Fundamentally, the cultural classifications tell us that because different societies hold different views, a behavioural style that works in one culture will not necessarily work in another, and ada ptation must be made accordingly (Rodrigues, 1998, p.36). Hofstede (1991, p.223) compares the various situations of different family members in dealing with a new cultural environment and their difficulties in maintaining their role related cultural faces in the environment. This comparison sees the different roles of father, mother, sons and daughters in their host country situation. His discussion is especially related to a family that migrates from a collectivist, higher power distance society to an individualistic and low power distance society. In this present study, we have a special interest in movement from a collectivist, higher power distance country (Sri Lanka) to an individualistic and low power distance country (New Zealand). In this case, H ofstede’s (1991) analysis identifies the difficulties of this particular migrant group. Hofstede (1991, p.223) illustrates a migrant father as a person who tries to maintain his traditional authority in the home and has a low status in the work place. This was evident in Oliver’s (2000 ) study of three migrants group in New Zealand including Sri Lankans. Oliver says that the men from all the cultures studied found it hard to lose their status as the family breadwinner and to adjust to having no social status, as defined by employment. In some migrant cultures a mother, as Hofstede (1991, p.223) says, is virtually a prisoner in the home, locked up when the father has gone to work. In these cases , although in a new country, she has no contact with the host society, does not learn the language, and remains completely dependent on her husband and children. However if the mother has a career and becomes the breadwinner of the family, this poses a severe blow to the father’s self - respect. Hofstede’s view may not fit in the case of Sri Lankan women since most of them have professional backgrounds and are socialised to a greater extent. These are some general viewpoints of migrants’ intercultural encounters and some can be seen as specific to certain migrant groups. There are more issues than Hofstede showed when analysing the differences between societies including the differences of dress, manners, social interactions and customs between migrants and the host society. Many researchers (Liebkind & Jasinskaja- Laht i, 2000; Nesdale & Mak, 2000; Abouguendia & Noels, 2001; Lay & Safdar, 2003) have studied the issue of acculturation and adaptation in relation to the general well- being of immigrants in 20 different countries. For the purpose of the study it is important to look more specifically at the encounters in the world of work. Selvarajah (1997, p.2) says “apart from intrinsic qualities the adaptability of immigrants to a new environment is highly dependent on the prospects of gainful employment in the vocation of their training and experience”. Acculturation In order to bridge the gaps of identity between receiving societies and migrating individuals, processes of accommodation and change are necessary. One such process is acculturation. What is meant by accultur ation? How do individuals work through the process of acculturation in a culturally diverse environment? These important questions need consideration in this context. Acculturation is one of the most important words used by intercultural analysts and exp erts in the study of cross- cultural environments. Bhagat and London (1999, p.353) says that acculturation is concerned with those phenomena, which result when individuals from different cultures come into first- hand contact with each other. An important matter of interest is the very practical question: what happens to individuals, who have developed in one cultural context, when they attempt to live in a new cultural context? If culture is such a powerful shaper of behaviour, do individuals continue to act in the new setting as they did in the previous one, do they change their behavioural repertoire to be more appropriate in the new setting, or is there some complex pattern of continuity and change in how people go about their lives in the new society ( Berry, 1997, p.6)? Theoretically, such contacts in a new culture almost lead to changes in basic cultural values of either or both groups (Bhagat & London, 1999, p.353). To explain the changes occur in individuals when they interact with a new cultural endeavour analysts use a specific term “acculturation”. Acculturation is defined as “changes that occur as a result of first - hand contact between individuals of differing cultural origins” (Redfield et al., 1936, cited in Zakaria, 2000, p. 494). Berry (1997, p.16) suggests that a complete study of acculturation would need to start with a fairly comprehensive examination of the two societal contexts: that of origin and that of settlement. He emphasizes that cultural features of these two and the comparison between them are important in discussing the cultural distance. 21 His acculturation framework incorporates both societies and the individual and groups within them. The process of acculturation moves from acculturation experience to long - term outcomes, a nd moderating factors, both prior to and during acculturation influence the process. The acculturation process brings changes in individual’s cultural features and these affect the individual who is experiencing acculturation resulting in a number of possible psychological experiences and changes, leading finally to a person’s adaptation. The acculturation of migrants in a new environment is complex and difficult, both for the migrant and his/her family. In addition to problems normally faced by migrant s in their day- to- day life in the new environment (for example: adjustment of family members, dealing with the members of host society, difficulty in understanding informal language patterns, getting information etc.) they also face unemployment, low earning capacity, feelings of insecurity and loss of confidence (Selvarajah, 1997, p.9). However, the migrants have an important role to play in this new environment. They have to make an effort to initiate social contacts in their life; and adjust to the new environment, change their life style and quality of life while maintaining contact with the home country (De Silva, 2001, p.12). Such an adjustment can be a stressful experience and not everyone is successful at it (Selmer, 1999, p.77). Experts have def ined acculturation by various terms, which lead to a similar understanding of the concept. It is explained as the way through which cultures change. According to Thomas (2002, p.42), acculturation concerns the psychological and behavioural changes that occur in people as a result of contact with people from different cultures. Most often, it is used to describe the changes in people who relocate from one culture to another. Over time and through acculturation, the identification of migrant with his/her n ew country becomes stronger. As stated by Leong and Hartung (2000, p.219), acculturation refers to the process by which a member of one cultural group identifies with members of another cultural group, which he or she has entered. There are several mechanisms such as self- realization, occupational segregation, stereotyping, discrimination, prestige, mobility, attitudes, aspirations and expectations, stress, satisfaction, choice and interest that relate to the acculturation of individuals. 22 How could these difficulties be resolved? How do migrant individuals make their life in a new environment harmonious? Migrants in a host culture are inexperienced in the new environment and usually experience some form of culture shock. Hofstede (1991, p.209) says that the visitor in a foreign culture returns in a way to the mental state of an infant, in which he or she has to learn the simplest things over again. This emphasizes the need of acculturation for each and every individual entering a different culture. Acculturation can either be individual or collective. In collective acculturation, the whole group, as opposed to the individual, changes and achieves a special status in the new society (Triandis, 1995, p.121). What should be learned and in which way should learning take place? Hofstede’s ranking on cultural classification as shown in table 2.1 reveals New Zealand as a low power distance, moderate uncertainty avoidance, high individualism, and high masculinity country. People from other cultures with diffe rent characteristics need to learn the difference. On the other hand, the host society should also be prepared to respect diversity. Webb and Wright (1996, p.40) also emphasize that cultural sensitivity and empathy are important aspects of expatriate com petence. As Bird (1999, p.153) reveals, people have to make sense of their environment. They have categories or stereotypes that are formed on information they have gathered, on impressions they have experienced over time. Whatever the accumulation of th eir information is, that is what is applied. Seelye and Seelye (1995, p.38) emphasize that reading up on the target culture will show the host society that the immigrant is interested in them and will give him / her pointers on how to get things done. According to Seelye and Wasilewski (1996, p.xi), culture varies even between generations of the same society. Learning and adapting to new things is usual. They confirm that each generation is strongly influenced by the previous; we would not be who we are today without the evolving cultures to which we are heir. As Seelye and Wasilewski emphasize, we behave in the way we learned in the past and our learning was different from that of our ancestors. Therefore, learning and adapting new things in life as the circumstance demands is not a force but a need. 23 In the world of work cross - cultural communication plays an important role in every aspect to a person from the different environment. This is beyond the sense of language and it needs careful learning and understanding of meanings for terms used in different contexts. Hofstede (199 1, p.212) emphasizes that language differences contribute to mistaken cultural perceptions and therefore to establish a more fundamental intercultural understanding, the foreign partner must acquire the host culture language. Having to express oneself in another language means learning to adopt someone else’s frame of reference. Without knowing the language one can miss a lot of the subtleties of a culture and so remain a relative outsider. As Webb and Wright (199 6, p.40) state, the process of familiarization with the new culture and with the new and appropriate behaviour is necessary within that culture and is a continuous process which sometimes consists of negative outcomes on learners’ mind. However, at a certain stage, people are forced to pass through the stages of the process since it is inevitable for their survival in that different culture. In discussing the acculturation process Hofstede (1991, 2001) used an acculturation curve, which consists of four phases. Figure 2.1 show how the phases are developed over time and the trend of feelings at each stage. Though this curve was developed based on the people on temporary assignment to a foreign cultural environment, it is equally important in migration/self - expatriation. The basic concept behind this model is the ‘culture change’ which expressing the transition between a migrant’s own culture and the new culture (Zakaria, 2000). According to Hofstede (2001, pp. 425 - 426), in the first instance, migrants and expatriates experience an excitement at seeing new things. This is shown in the first phase of the acculturation curve. Phase one is the period of euphoria: the honeymoon, the excitement of travelling and seeing new l ands. Phase two is the period of culture shock when real life starts in the new environment and the negative experiences are felt. Phase three is acculturation which sets in when the migrant slowly learns to function under the new conditions, adopts some of the local values, finds increased self - confidence and becomes integrated into a new social network. Phase four is the stable state of mind eventually reached. 24 Positive + c Feelings b a Negative - 1 2 3 4 Phase Eup horia Culture shock Acculturation Stable state Time Figure 2.1: The acculturation curve Source: Adapted from Hofstede, G.H. (2001, p.426) Phase 4 may remain negative compared to home (4a) or may be just as good as before (4 b) or it may even be better (4c). The phase 4a represents a situation where the migrant individual continues to feel alien and discriminated against. The phase 4b shows a bicultural adaptation (the term bicultural is used here in the broader context as discussed in literature and not with the special New Zealand meaning relating to Maori - European relationships) while 4c represent an individual who has “gone native” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 426). This implies that a migrant who has positive feelings about his or her host culture has the potential to ‘go native’. In the above curve, the length of time taken for the four phases is arbitrary and Hofstede says that it seems to adapt to the length of expatriation period. Adler (2002) also states that the cultural adj ustment process can be described as following a U - shaped curve but she suggests three phases, namely enjoying excitement, culture shock and adjustment phase. 25 In the initial stage of experiencing an unfamiliar and strange culture, the new comer experiences a culture shock. Adler (2002, p. 26 3) defines this as “the frustration and confusion as a result of being bombarded by too many new and uninterpretable cues”. Hofstede (2001, pp.425 - 430) reveals that culture shocks may be so severe in some cases among refugees and migrants that there is a percentage that fall seriously physically or mentally ill, commit suicide or remain so homesick that they have to return, especially within the first year. Following the culture shock phase, newcomers begin adapting to their new culture: they generally begin to feel more positive, work more effectively, and live a more satisfying life (Adler, 2002 ). According to Zakaria (2000 , p.494), in this phase, full or partial acculturation takes place depending on factors such as former experience, length of stay, cultural distance between home and new culture, training, language competency and other factors. The greater the person’s ability to acculturate, the less the impact of culture shock is on the m. Zakaria (2000 ) emphasizes that the ability to acculturate and reduce the impact of culture shock can be developed through appropriate and effective cross- cultural training. Further, he says that the acculturation process begins at the societal level, wh ere cultural contact and cross- cultural communication take place between the society of origin and that of settlement. The difference between two societies is called the cultural distance. The societal variables consist of four main dimensions, which aff ect the acculturation process: namely social, political, economic, and cultural. The acculturation process is further influenced by the variables at the individual level, which may be divided according to two moderating factors; characteristics associated with: (1) the acculturating individual (e.g. personality, previous training and experience, language competency, and acculturation strategies), and (2) the acculturation situation (e.g. amount and length of cultural contact, perception of cultural distance, and a mount of life changes). According to Yu and Berryman (1996, p.252), acculturation is a process whereby an individual is socialized in an unfamiliar or a new culture, and the level of acculturation is a question of willingness and readiness. The lesser - acculturated individual will prefer ethnically related activities and will maintain a network of close friends, including a spouse, of the same ethnicity (group of origin). 26 In experiencing the process of acculturation, the newcomer starts out with very gros s kinds of categories or broad observations. The evolutionary process refines these categories and the person begins to see “oh, that’s why they are doing that”. Things that the newcomer has read about can, all of a sudden, make sense. That is what is m eant by self- learning and as Mendenhall (1999, p.157) says “self - learning never stops”. The newcomer picks up a lot of another culture in this process, organizational or national, so does not totally revert to the person he or she was in the beginning. After a point, however, rather than continuing to struggle to fit in, he or she demands that the host society adjust to him or her. This develops the stable state in the process which can be either being negative, biculturally adapted or ‘ gone native’ (Hof stede, 2001 ). The process of acculturation is facilitated by continuous learning of newcomers. Mainly, the learning process consists of two main attributes, self - awareness and cultural awareness. These attributes provide the framework for communication competence in a diverse society. Self - awareness provides attention to migrant’s own behaviour while cultural awareness of the host culture enables the newcomer to know what is acceptable and what is not. Migrants learn through their experiences how to ac t effectively in their new cultural environment and when they know what to do and what not to do, they will be able to communicate effectively without offending any parties (Scott, 19 99, p.141). The first requirement in any cultural situation is to be a ware that differences will exist. In other words, it is important to become culturally intelligent. “Cultural intelligence means being skilled and flexible about understanding a culture, learning more about it from one’s ongoing interactions with it, and gradually reshaping his/her thinking to be more sympathetic to the culture and his/her behaviour to be more skilled and appropriate when interacting with others from the culture” (Thomas & Inkson, 2004, p.14). Berry (1997, p.9) raises two major issues: cultural maintenance (to what extent are cultural identity and characteristics considered to be important, and their maintenance striven for); and contact and participation (to what extent should individuals become involved in other cultural groups, or re main primarily among themselves) with respect to the acculturation strategies. 27 Based on these issues, Berry (1997 ) identifies four types of acculturation strategies, which comprise of varying attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups. The following figure shows how these strategies are determined with regard to the issues stated. Figure 2.2: Acculturation Strategies, Adapted from Berry, 1997 From Berry’s (1997, p.9) point of view, when individuals do not wish to maintain their cultural identity and seek daily interaction with other cultures, the assimilation strategy is defined. In contrast, when individuals place a value on holding on to their original culture, and at the same time wish to avoid interaction wi th others, the separation alternative is defined. When there is an interest in both maintaining one’s original culture, while in daily interactions with other groups, integration is the option; here, some degree of cultural integrity is maintained, while at the same time the person seeks to participate as an integral part of the larger social network. Finally, when there is little possibility or interest in having relationships with others (often for reasons of exclusion or discrimination) then marginaliz ation is defined. Adler (2002) also discusses the idea of strategic options in a new cultural environment. The basic dimensions of maintaining one’s own culture and adapting to the host culture are similar to those of Berry (1997) in Adler’s model. However, the terms used to describe the strategies are different and she uses five options in contrast to the four of Integration Assimilation Separation/ Marginalisation Segregation Issue 2 “Yes” Is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with larger society? “No” Issue 1 Is it considered to be of value to maintain one’s identity and characteristics? “ Yes” “No” 28 Berry’s model. Adler’s strategic option of ‘cultural dominance’ suggests the continuous use of the approaches used at home and it is similar to the ‘separation’ strategy discussed by Berry. ‘Cultural accommodation’ in Adler’s terms is the opposite of ‘cultural dominance’ in which migrants attempt to imitate the host culture practices. This is similar to the ‘assimilation’ strategy defined by Berry. One of Adler’s five strategies, ‘cultural synergy’, corresponds closely to the ‘integration’ strategy of Berry’s perspectives where it involves individuals living simultaneously in two cultures that are in contact and respecting each culture’ s uniqueness. On the other hand, the cultural avoidance could be compared to the ‘marginalization’ strategy discussed by Berry. Finally Adler (2002) introduced a fifth strategic option; ‘cultural compromise’ which combines both ‘cultural dominance’ and ‘ cultural accommodation’ approaches. This approach implies that both sides concede something in order to work more successfully together. The fifth option creates a little bit of confusion in understanding the difference between the options ‘cultural compromise’ and ‘cultural synergy’. However, Adler has positioned these options in her model in a clearer manner. “My Culture’s Way” Cultural Cultural Dominance Synergy Cultural Compromise Cultural Cultural Avoidance Accommodation “Their Culture’s Way” Figure 2.3: Global Strategic Options , Adapted from Adler, N.J. (2002, p. 125) The strategies are based on the assumption that immigrants have the freedom to choose how they want to acculturate (Kosic, 2002, p.180). However, Berry (19 97, p.12) says that the choice of a strategy may be affected by the broader national context. Individuals may seek to match with the national policies where there is a very limited role for personal preference for example having to use the host country language in the workplace as required. On the other hand, people may be marginalized by stronger forces of the environment even when they seek to assimilate. 29 Berry (1997, p.11) a lso suggests that national policies and programmes may also be analysed in terms of these four strategies. For example, an analysis of “how the New Zealand employers are?” may be a necessary aspect in this regard. Are they assimilationists, expecting all immigrants and ethno - cultural groups to become like those in the dominant society? Are they integrationists, willing (even pleased) to accept and incorporate all groups to a large extent on their own cultural terms, or have they pursued segregationist policies or sought marginality of unwanted groups? This issue needs to be explored further. Incorporating Berry’s strategies into the acculturation curve, which has different phases from the time of arrival into the new environment to reaching a stable state, the different positions of individuals’ feelings can be easily viewed. Individuals will have a negative feeling when they cannot cope or face difficulties and cannot prosper in a situation, and will have a positive feeling if they can lead a happy and peaceful life. Bearing these aspects in mind, the figure 2.4 shows the incorporated acculturation model. Positive + Feelings Marginalization 1 2 3 4 Euphoria Culture Shock Acculturation Stable state Negative _ Time Figure 2.4: Acculturation strategies & phases – an integrated model Integration/ Bicultural Assimilation Separation 30 Expatriate literature (Lopez, Ehly & Garcia- Vazquez, 2002; Hogan & Goodson, 1990; Webb & Wright, 1996; Selmer, 1999 & 2000; Kosic, 2002) suggests that acculturation and an understanding of the host nation’s culture is important to migrants ’ success in general. Acculturation with regard to an individual’s life may have different outcomes and the strategies may lead to prosperity, survival, frustration or withdrawal. This thesis is about the specific application of acculturation theory in processes of career acculturation. That is, the author seeks to determine whether factors predicting, for example, cultural assimilation or integration, also predict career integration and success in the sample of recent migrants. An in- depth analysis is required to see the actual outcome in relation to a particular cultural group. A study of cross- cultural environment, individuals’ adjustment and career success needs an understanding of career related issues in a culturally different environment. The following section closely looks at career management from an individual’s perspective in order to develop such an understanding of individual career in a culturally different environment. Career Management Several researchers and academics have pointed out the changing nature of career in the world of work and alarms are everywhere . Increased internationalization, the global nature of business entities, increased technological advancements and the steady streams of immigrants and refugees from developing countries to developed ones have caused many changes in the more widely accepted conceptualizations of career. In addition, as Whymark and Ellis (1999, p.117) say, there are now very few occupations which offer “jobs for life”, and, the number of relatively ‘safe’ fields of employment continues to diminish. Efforts to identify the most successful careers have become important to every individual. Traditional career theories developed by well- known academics and experts are challenged by new findings and tr ends. New careers seem to be “mobile” in nature questioning the idea of a ‘career for life’. Woodd (2000, p. 273) emphasizes that the whole subject of a career needs to be reassessed and perhaps redefined. The changes in the world means that a “job for life” , that many people may once have expected , is a thing of the past and that we must take charge of our own careers because no one else can or will (Bennett, 1998, p.7). 31 As Hall and Moss (1998, p.1) emphasize, it is clear that organizational transforma tion is taking place on a global scale and the concept of a career with a single organisation or single profession with promotional ladders have been modified in recent years. And it is clear that the workplace has been transformed for everyone. Employees must become more flexible and adaptive in their career self - management. There are various voices here; researchers and new theorists put warning signals forward. The focus on the concept and the content of the career has become more important than ever before. Increased use of technologies in the world of work, new forms of organisation structure, globalisation of businesses, unlimited movement of individuals between territories and increased participation of women in the workforce are some of the changes in the contemporary world of work. These changes demand something new, something different from those people who have a thirst for a successful career. The emerging needs demand that researchers study diverse ideas about careers. Definitions of Career A number of authors have proposed alternative terms to describe “career” and it is obvious that the term is still variously understood and explained. The term career has a number of meanings. In popular usage it can mean advancement, a profession or a life long sequence of jobs. The Concise Oxford Dictionary (Pearsall, 1999) defines career as “an occupation undertaken for a significant period of a person’s life, usually with opportunities for progress through history of an institution or organization and working with commitment in a particular profession”. Many of the definitions given by experts in their career theories embrace three main themes: advancement, profession and stability, which are being questioned these days. As Greenhaus, Callanan a nd Godshalk (2000, pp. 8- 9) argue, all three themes put severe limitations on the meaning of a career. Adamson (1997, p. 245) says that the concept of career has been adopted by a wide range of disciplines in order to describe, explain and predict sequences of work related experiences throughout an individual’s life. Arnold (1997, p.15) reemphasizes that the word ‘career’ has been used a lot, but in different ways by different people. Arnold (1997, p.16) describes a career as “a sequence of employment re lated positions, roles, activities and experiences encountered by a person”. 32 In Arnold’s definition, employment is taken to include self - employment, entrepreneurship, consultancy and freelance work. The employment related positions are concerned with how an individual’s positions, roles, activities and experiences unfold over time, connect with each other (or not), change in predictable or unpredictable ways, match (or not) a person’s changing skills and interests, and enable (or not) a person to expand his or her skills or realize his or her potential (Arnold, 1997, p.16). Early theories of career developed in business schools (for example, Hall, 1976; Schein, 1978) looked at career as a shared property of individuals and organisations where the ladders and organisational hierarchies seemed to be the indications of career progress. Individuals who continuously climbed the ladder were perceived as having successful careers and their job titles with grades exhibited their position in the ladder. However , organizational hierarchies and ladders lose some of their potency in a global environment where individuals often make career moves across the organizations and countries and thus the term career needs to be looked at from a more contemporary viewpoint. Another more widely accepted conceptualization of career is that of Hall (1976 as cited in Hall, 1987, p.302) who defines a career as the individually perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviours associated with work - related experiences and activities over the span of a person’s life. It is further stated that career has both an internal focus (the subjective career, or the ways the individual perceives the career) and an external focus (the objective career, or the series of positions held) (Hughes, 1937, as cited in Hall 1987). This idea is confirmed by Robbins and Low (1986) and Greenhaus et al. (2000) in their discussion about careers. They show that an individual’s career has two views. One, called the external dimension, is realistic and objective and expressed by the structural properties of an occupation or organisation; while the other, the internal dimension, represents the individual’s subjective perceptions. The internal dimension in a career may be very vague, as when one has the general am bition to “get ahead” and in this view career becomes the property of an individual. Sparrow (19 98, p.48) sees the internal career as representing an individual’s subjective idea or map about work life and his or her role within it. 33 Individuals and companies both regard the career as a life- long sequence of work experiences. But the perspectives of the individual and the company are quite different (Inkson, 1999a, p.11). In Greenhaus et al’s (2000) definition, work related experiences are broadly const rued to include 1) objective events or situations such as job positions, job duties or activities; and work related decisions, and 2) subjective interpretations of work- related events such as work aspirations, expectations, values, needs, and feelings about particular work experiences. As Inkson (1995, p.184) says “the idea of ‘career’ provides coherence and stability to individuals as they consider such matters as choice of job and occupation, economic security and prosperity, self - identity and esteem, sta tus in the community and the establishment of a base on which to plan one’s life. Careers are also social constructions, establishing within the community and its institutions expected patterns of long- term individual aspirations and actions which organiz ations may utilize in the planning, and implementation of their own objectives and structures”. Adamson (1997, pp.245 – 253) particularly compares two different views: sociology and psychology. In the sociologists’ view, patterns of individuals lives we re determined by a series of relationships with significant others, which helped to define his/her sense of self. In contrast, vocational psychologists have traditionally focused on personality occupation matching through the study of personality differences and job adaptation. From his study, Adamson suggests that the vocational ‘destination’ may be conceived as a point of congruence or balance between the work career and life career and thus, career can be viewed fundamentally as a vehicle through which individuals may begin to construct a clearer conception of self and self in the world. It is noticeable that the term ‘career’ takes various definitions with different experts depending on the status quo and the experts’ knowledge and experiences. Howe ver, there are number of common aspects to be observed in an in depth review of these definitions. • A ‘career’ is related to an individual’s working life with or without an attachment to an organization; • Individuals see their career as a vehicle for their self - development; • A career consists of a sequence of experiences; 34 • A career takes different patterns for different individuals as individuals move in their chosen ways. It could be useful to review how contemporary experts have looked at careers of individuals and raised various issues in order to analyse the career behaviour of those individuals. Changing Types of Career Management “The concept of careers will be just as relevant in the 21 st century as it ever was, but is now more complex and in need of more skilful management. People who are unemployed need resourcing to maintain or enhance their employability, or the prospect of a viable alternative lifestyle if this not realistic” (Arnold, 1997, p.13). Inkson (1997, as cited in Inkson, 2001, p.1) replicates the same idea when stating: “as we enter the twenty- first century the world of work is changing dramatically. Occupations and organizations, the familiar institutions around which twentieth century careers were built no longer have the stability they once did. Technological change and deregulation alter occupations irrevocably. Restructuring, outsourcing, and flexible organization forms make it difficult to rely on organizations as loci for careers”. Inkson (1999b, p.32) offers the term “improv isation” to assist in the adaptation to change. Ball (1998, p.04) compares the traditional and emerging assumptions of work and his comparison shows that the major difference is stability Vs flexibility. According to traditional assumptions, full employment is sustainable, most people follow a stable, linear career path to retirement, career development means upward mobility, only new or young employees can be developed, and career development relates primarily to work experience and can take place only i n one’s job. But, in contrast, the emerging assumptions are: full employment is unlikely to return in the foreseeable future; career paths are increasingly going to be diverted and interrupted; career development can be facilitated by lateral and downward moves, learning and change can occur at any age and career stage, career development is influenced by family, personal and community roles and can be facilitated by work outside paid employment. 35 Much of the established career theory was developed before recent changes in both workforce and the organization of work began to set in. Arthur (1992, p.65) predicted the 21 st century changes and said “many workers will have limited formal education; many more will have education made redundant by the pace of technological evolution”. He added that “there will be greater competition at both national and international levels and let us hope for a “peace economy:” driven by interdependencies among nations in a market driven global arena. All of this imagery is f ar removed from the relatively stable views of people and organizations, or of their development, from which much existing career theory is drawn”. The pervasive pace of recent organizational change and restructuring has destroyed many organizational careers, and has frequently rendered the principles of organizational career planning inoperable. Companies are beginning to realize that there is a better way: employees can be ceded ownership of their careers, and the company’s role can be reduced to suppor ting individual career self- development and learning (Inkson & Arthur, 2001, p.50). From a traditional company perspective, career management is a matter of “matching individual and organizational needs” and devising “organizational careers” along upward- pointing pathways (Inkson & Arthur, 20 01, p.48). The traditional career was related to a specific occupation or organisation and the ongoing practice with higher levels of expertise or responsibility. This tendency has become outdated and nowadays more and more careers take place across occupations and organizations rather than within them, and these more mobile careers are just as “legitimate” as the traditional ones (Inkson & Kolb, 20 02, pp. 443- 444). The basic nature of work is changing. The idea of employee loyalty to an organisation until retirement just does not fit the reality of life for most working people. In addition, work and organizations have become international in scope, not simply bound to one country (Reardon et al., 2000, p. 3). Again Whymark and Ellis (1999, p.117) sound the alarm bells; “there are very few occupations which offer “jobs for life” and the number of relatively safe fields of employment continues to diminish”. Greenhaus et al. (2000) also emphasise the changing structure of organizations. 36 Career paths, a stable career, and life- long attachment to a particular organization, have all become unrealistic in the world of downsizing, constantly changing jobs and boundaryless careers. A boundaryless career is independent from a particular organisation and its existing career paths. Today’s world of work allows people to work part - time, flexi- time, on temporary contract, on a contingency basis and even to telecommute. These new, flexible work schedules provide increased complexities for career building. Organizations no longer promise job security, or value professionalism and life long employment in return to loyalty. These changes are rapid in the developed countries. However, parts of the world where the traditional career concepts still exist are not changing at that speed. This situation creates more complexities for individuals when moving from an environment where they had secure careers to an environment no longer promising security. If so, how can this situat ion be addressed? Whose career is it anyway? What does career management mean? Arnold’s (199 7, p.16) definition of career and his explanation provide new directions in this context. He emphasizes that his definition has some implications and justifies ho w it differs from the traditional definitions of career. The first aspect to be noticed and which could reveal today’s trend is “treating career as personal”. It is in this sense a possession of a person. He says “it is not simply an occupation; you or I might have a career which involves work in law or hairdressing, but the career is ours”. Thus, it leads to identifying careers as belonging to individuals. All these experts emphasize and re- emphasize the changes that are taking place in the contemporary world and point out the warning signs, both to organizations and individuals. Greenhaus et al. (2000, pp.4- 6) identify this situation as the ‘changing landscape of work’ where organizations adopt a global perspective to survive and flourish, technological advances affect every phase of organizational operations, organizations have experienced dramatic changes in their structure, the nature of work has become more flexible, and changes are produced by a more culturally diverse workforce and an increase d imbalance in family- work life. What were not covered in these studies were the changes individuals face and their implications when they migrate to another country. This is a specific issue to be addressed since the transition covers many issues including culture and career. 37 It is true that these changes are realizable and visible. If so, what does career management mean and whose responsibility is it in terms of these migrants? Arnold (1997, p.1) interprets that career management consists of attempt s to influence the way the careers of one or more people develop. This can include managing one’s own career as well as the careers of others. So, in real terms, what reality does career management convey? Many researchers and authors (Arnold, 1999; Hal l, 1996; Greenhaus et al. 2000; Dessler, 2000; Inkson & Arthur, 2001) emphasise that the career should be treated as an individual’s property and that individuals need to look after their own careers in the contemporary world. Nabi (1999, p.213) also emphasizes the idea that employees should learn to play an active rather than passive role in the management of their own careers by engaging in strategic career behaviours that improves career prospects, rather than relying entirely on organizational career systems that are unlikely to meet their needs and expectations. Robbins (1982, p.263), although he is in favour of organizational careers and hierarchies, reveals that individual career development requires people to become knowledgeable of their own needs, values, and personal goals where he accepts the need for individuals’ interest. Various career experts emphasize the individuals’ responsibility of their own careers in a number of ways. Orpen (1994, p.35) shows that employees who systematically plan their careers tend to be more successful and feel more positive towards their careers than those who do not. Also his research supported the argument that individuals should not only take responsibility for their own careers, but that they should stand to benefit from so doing, even if their plans sometimes fail to be realized and their tactics do not always work. Further, his findings revealed the fact that individuals are likely to be more successful in their careers when their employers provide the necessary “infrastructure” which is typically beyond their control. Inkson and Arthur (2001 , p.50- 51) also propose six important views in this context: 1) we can gain new insights from thinking about people’s career as key energizing and organization process es of economic life; 2) careers are personal property; 3) we are energized more by self - interest (including non economic self - interest) relating to our own careers than by our companies’ interests relating to their survival and growth; 4) individuals can best serve their own interests through accumulating “career capital”; 38 5) the key career capital is knowledge and 6) to be successful individuals should follow certain principles that can be observed in the career of successful people. Inkson and Arthur name such individuals “career capitalists”. In another circumstance, Inkson (1997, p.1) calls them career actors. Thus, the need for individuals’ to take responsibility for their own careers seems to be a current phenomenon. Greenhaus et al. (2000, p.xi) describe that for most individuals, work is a defining aspect of life. Indeed, our happiness and fulfilment can hinge on how well we are able to control the course of our work lives, and manage the effects of our work on our family and personal life. Ye t many people enter their careers with a lack of insight and purpose, drifting to and from jobs or lamenting unwise career choices. For others, the task of career management, because of the risks of not making personally correct decisions is frightening and full of anxiety. Greenhaus and his associates believe that individuals at any age need to approach career management with care and attention and must have an appropriate decision making framework in order to achieve personal success and satisfaction. They emphasize that these beliefs are relevant in the 21 st century. Adamson’s (19 99) study of graduates’ career also brings out the idea of career as the sole property of self, i.e. the individual. Viewed collectively, it is noticeable that career management is an individual not an organizational activity. This is a core concept behind this study to provide a template for migrants’ career self - management. Greenhaus et al. (2000, p.11) emphasize that individuals need to take responsibility for understanding the type of career they wish to pursue and for making career decisions that are consistent with those preferences. They predict that the culturally diverse workforce, which is the present trend, will challenge employees to understand different cultures and to work cooperatively with others who may hold different values and perspectives. Career success may well depend on an individual’s ability to thrive in a different cultural environment when they migrate to another country. In Whymark and Ellis’s (1999, p.117) words, it is clear that future career prospects will depend increasingly on a willingness and ability, both to learn and unlearn, develop and change. The important thing is that, as Bennett (1998, p.68) states, whatever happens, the individual will need to be clear about what he/she wants to happen. From a personal point of view, it is worth taking time to sort out the person’s own feelings so he or she does not transfer to a job or industry he/she will not like. 39 In any case, simply from t he professional angle, he/she will need to focus his/her objectives carefully if he/she is to succeed in a competitive market and this means being confident in their own skills, achievement and motivation. This is seen as “self - management of career”. So, w here do we to start? Arnold (1997, p.37) answers this question as follows: for individuals, career management will start from the question “what competencies do I need to acquire and how can I do this?” rather than “what job would I like to get if I could? ” This is a major issue for migrants who leaving their favoured careers in their homeland and need to reposition themselves in the workforce in a new environment. It is like replanting a mature tree in a new soil, which experiences with a totally different climate. To state it comprehensively, the career becomes more clearly the property and responsibility of the individual. Yet it is harder to conceive as a career. The objective career defined in terms of formal roles, salary progression, and organizat ional and social status becomes more ambiguous. The subjective career, defined in terms of personal meanings and aspirations, takes on a new character. With fewer and weaker external structures creating career paths for the individual, the individual inc reasingly has to create his or her own career (Parker & Inkson, 20 00, p.4). This is also true in the case of migrants who have decided to move into a new environment and restart their working life. The new careers are demonstrably more improvisational than planned and personally rather than organizationally controlled (Arthur, Inkson and Pringle, 1999 ). Migration and Careers Now let us consider the phenomenon of migration in relation to the developing concepts of career management as outlined above. Along with the changes in the world of work discussed above, international transition is yet another destabilising element in today’s careers. Migration, for whatever reason, pushes individuals away from their career boundaries and into a new environment where they need to re- assess their career in terms of that environment. Boundaryless careers in this sense can also include careers of individuals crossing national and cultural boundaries. Migrants’ employment failures are a human resource waste, as most of these individuals, especially those who migrate under a skill based entry system, have good work records prior to their migration. Failure can also be a heavy blow to the migrants’ self - esteem 40 and ego. When it comes to collectivist people, failure is more intensively felt due to the specific characteristic of collectivism; that of ‘losing of face’ (Dunung, 1995). The inability of individuals to adjust to an unfamiliar foreign culture is often blamed for these failures. Individuals experience great trauma from the failure of not obtaining the expected employment, which can lead to financial difficulties, changes of career direction, modification of career goals, or a decline in their standard of living and quality of life. Hofstede (1991, pp.222- 223) says that the number of people in today’s world who have left their native country and moved to a completely different environment is larger than ever before in human history. The ‘great people’s migration’ of the early centuries involved far smaller numbers of people than the present waves. The reasons are wars and other political upheavals as well as poverty in the original location versus presumed riches in the target environment. The reasons stated by Hofstede are some of the many that push individuals away from their native home. The reasons, in a broader view, also include cultural, family and career factors (Carr, Inkson & Thorn, 2004). The effect in all cases is that people and entire families travel into cultural environments vastly different from the ones in which they were mentally programmed, often without any preparation (Hofstede, 1991). As discussed previously, migration leads to a realisation of differences in environments and this environmental distance can vary greatly and depends wholly on an individual’s comfort zones. Everyone who moves to a different territory experiences some form of differences in life from that of his or her homeland. Acceptance and adaptation depend on the person’s ability to adjust. A new country introduces new people, new language (or at least a different accent in the same language), new systems, new habits and customs etc. A migrant individual entering into that situation sees many differences. According to the cultural dimensions discussed earlier, the ga ps between individualism Vs collectivism, masculinity Vs femininity, uncertainty avoidance (strong Vs weak) etc. and the adaptation problems in these cases are specific to the pair of cultures involved. In general, migrants experience these differences in their work place, public places and schools. According to Hofstede (1991, p.222), migrants are marginal people between two worlds. They alternate daily between one and the other, and the effect of this 41 marginality is different for different family members and between families even from the same culture. However, restarting their work life in that environment becomes an essential and immediate task to support their survival. And according to Reardon and his associates (2000, p.5) the quality of career l ife is important because increases in unemployment have been directly related to increases in individual health problems, domestic violence and crime. Thus, a migrant who is able to develop his or her career avoids other characteristic migrant problems. Cultural sensitivity, interpersonal skills, adaptability and flexibility are the most important attributes for a migrant in the world of work. Theories of career choice and development in a general context offer various conceptualizations of how people ma ke career choices, adjust to those choices and manage work relative to other life roles. Many of these constructs may lack utility for understanding individual career development and vocational behaviour in culturally diverse contexts (Arbona, 1995; Leon g & Hartung, 2000). Empirical studies of the influence of specific cultural variables, such as acculturation level and value orientation, on career development and vocational behaviour represent a major trend in multicultural career research (Leong & Hartu ng, 2000, p. 219). Bennett (1998, p.69) states that to manage change well, an individual needs to be flexible, positive and proactive. Bearing this in mind, he /she may consider his/her options under four headings: • What is important for him/her now? • Wh at will be the effect of his / her career change on family and friends? • What is happening in the job market? • What are his / her skills and achievements? Bennett (1998) emphasizes that whether the change has already happened or is imminent, the individual has an opportunity to think about what is important for him/her at this point in his/her life and career. These questions are equally important to migrants experiencing a major change in their life including career. 42 Immigration and Careers in New Zealand. New Zealand is a country of choice for many individuals and families, especially those from Asian countries. Government policies are in favour of migrant flows. The concept of “New Zealand: The right Choice” attracts people from many countries for various reasons. Winkelmann & Winkelmann (1998, p.4) define immigration status solely by place of birth. A New Zealand immigrant is someone who lives in New Zealand but was born outside of New Zealand. An immigrant may or may not be a New Zealand citizen o r permanent resident and may or may not have been born to New Zealand parents. In particular, foreigners on student or work permits may be included in the immigrant population as long as they gave a New Zealand address as their usual place of residence. However, for the purpose of this study, immigrants are treated as those who entered into New Zealand under one of many categories listed by immigration service for residency purposes and are living permanently in New Zealand. Immigrants enter New Zealand primarily through one of six main official categories accepted policy wise for residency: General skills category, Investor category, Entrepreneur category, Employees of businesses relocating to New Zealand, Family Category and Humanitarian category. New Zealand’s present immigration policy is non- discriminatory in that persons from any country can apply for residency and they are granted residency if they fulfil the requirements specified by the New Zealand Immigration Service (NZIS ) for particular visa t ypes. To be granted residence under the General skills category, the person must score enough points to meet the pass mark that applies at the time of application and meet all other requirements. Since the study is about the migrants who were already liv ing in New Zealand when the data were collected in 2003, the new system introduced in December 2003 is not considered here. The facts presented represent the system previously in existence. Furthermore, it is emphasized that the principal applicant in th e General Skills category must meet a minimum standard of English, and that residence will be declined if the principal applicant does not meet that minimum standard. 43 However, the principal applicant may instead pre - purchase ESO L tuition and be approved if they: • Have been working lawfully in New Zealand for the 12 months prior to the date the residence application is lodged; and • Meet all other residence requirements for approval. In both cases, it is ensured that the immigrant meets a minimum standard of English. Moreover, the applicant and the accompanying family members must be of good character and should provide police certificates from their country of citizenship. Applicants who do not score points for qualifications and at least one point for work experience will not be approved. The objective of the General Skills category is to select migrants who will • Increase New Zealand’s levels of human capability and • Foster international links, which are the factors expected to play an important role in the country’s economy. A sense of security is provided to the applicants regarding their future career after migration by the term ‘ employability factors’ (NZIS , n.d.). The Investor category is also based on a points system. Applicants score points for factors such as investment funds, business experience and age. The Entrepreneur category is available to those applicants who have successfully established a business in New Zealand and whose business is benefiting New Zealand in some way. The category of ‘E mployees of businesses relocating to New Zealand’ is available to those applicants who do not qualify for residence under any other categories. However, they must demonstrate that they are key employees of a business relocating to New Zealand. The ‘Famil y category’ benefits those applicants who are in a genuine, stable marriage or de facto relationship (whether heterosexual or same sex) with a New Zealand citizen or resident; or have immediate family members who are New Zealand citizens or residents and w ho live in New Zealand (NZIS , n.d.). 44 The Humanitarian category considers applicants in situations where • Serious humanitarian circumstances exist and • There is a close family connection with New Zealand. The New Zealand Immigration Service regularly reviews its immigration policy to determine if it is meeting its objectives. According to the General skills and business categories, immigrants with the ability to contribute to New Zealand’s social and economic development are specifically targeted. But, as McNaughton (2001) says if skilled migrants are under - employed or unemployed and their skills are not utilized, this poses serious implications for New Zealand’s society and economy. What is the real picture of immigrants’ living conditions, career and their socialization in New Zealand? This is a question of vital importance to the success of the New Zealand’s immigration policy. A number of studies, researches and publications (Department of Internal Affairs, 1996, Basnayake, 1999; New Zealand Immig ration Service, 2003) discuss immigrants’ careers, and are critical of the present trend of arrivals and unemployment situation (Dearnaley, 1999; Barber, 2000 ). Migrants’ unemployment has been high in recent years (Oliver, 2000; De Silva, 2001; McNaughton , 2001). Immigrants’ knowledge and skills are potential resources to a host country’s prosperity and not utilising this available pool of resources is denoting a waste of talent, a term discussed by many people (Carr, Inkson & Thorn, 2004; New Zealand Immi gration service, 200 3). The study of the New Zealand Immigration Service (2003) shows that this sort of talent waste and underemployment with lower income levels are much more significant among new migrants especially from non- English speaking countries. An empirical report by Oliver (2000 ) says that migrants face difficulties in finding a suitable occupation and in many cases they sustain their job search energy often for years with few acknowledgements of applications or interviews. McNaughton (2001, p.8) confirms that despite their high qualifications and substantial work experience, new migrants still find it difficult to find jobs that apply those skills and knowledge. Most find employment in jobs such as cleaning, takeaway restaurants, and routine official works. 45 On the other hand, the study of New Zealand Immigration Service (20 03) found that migrants have difficulties fitting into the work place culture in New Zealand. Reasons for this include not understanding New Zealand culture in general, the nuances of colloquial language, relationship issues with colleagues, time/punctuality (if it is not important in their home culture), and cultural differences of other migrant colleagues. However, at one point, Oliver’s (2000, p. 31) study shows that tale nt waste is directly related to prospective employers’ attitude who may feel intimidated by migrants’ qualifications, and are afraid that the migrant would show them up or compete for their job. Thus, it becomes obvious that there are two opposite views a s in all cases. There were many criticisms (Dearnaley, 1999; Bingham, 1999; Barber, 2000; Shaw, 2001) in the media about the present government’s announcement that New Zealand is to boost immigration by up to 10,000 per year. However, a policy change came into effect in December 200 3 addressing the well - being of migrants and the nation. Also much concern has been expressed about the “brain drain” from New Zealand. The criticism is that unemployment among immigrants is not the fault of immigrants but of poor policies for socialisation and integration, prejudice by employers, and restrictive practices by professional groups. Friesen et.al (1997, p.1) say that immigration and migration is an area of vital national and local importance, which attracts widesprea d interest. The debate about which migrants should be permitted entry, and how many, has been politicized at regular intervals in New Zealand history. The arrival of significantly more East Asians since 1990 has attracted opposition and a new period of anti - Asian sentiments. De Silva (2001, p.12) states ‘the unemployment rates vary markedly among the ethnic groups’. However, there were two opposite aspects regarding employment observed in the case of Sri Lankans in New Zealand. According to the 2001 ce nsus (Statistics New Zealand, 2001, p.15), people born overseas and in the workforce were more likely than those born in New Zealand to be employed as legislators, administrators and managers; professionals; or technicians and associate professionals. The most common occupational group was professionals (19.1%) and the individual source country contributing mostly to this category was Sri Lanka (35.6%). On the other hand, Sri Lankans were one of twenty ethnic groups experiencing unemployment at a higher rate (15.8 %). 46 There are several arguments and discussions with regard to the factors that could be relevant to the situation of unemployment and underemployment of migrants. It is also important to see to what extent the culture has had an impact on immigr ants’ careers. Predictors of Career Success and Satisfaction of Migrants: A cross- cultural point of view According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary (Pearsall, 1999), success means getting a favourable outcome, accomplishment of what was aimed at or attai nment of wealth or fame or position. Satisfaction is defined as ‘satisfying or being satisfied in regard to desire or want or thing that satisfies desire or gratifies feeling. These two definitions show that both success and satisfaction are interconnected. We act towards certain expected outcomes or fulfilment of a desire and if we accomplish them then it becomes our success. This accomplishment brings a feeling of satisfaction. This could be equally applied to a career. Therefore, it becomes necessary to understand what is meant by career success and satisfaction before looking for the factors that may influence them. Career success and Career Satisfaction Success with respect to career is personal standard of achievement and satisfaction, an individual matter that has much to do with life satisfaction. It is based more on internal factors and one’s state of mind rather than external factors over which one may have little control, and it involves tradeoffs among personal values (Reardon et.al, 2000, p.355). On the other hand, career provides status in the society, earnings and progression, which are observable and judged by others (Judge et al., 1995). Career success is a way for individuals to fulfil their needs for achievement and power. Because i t improves people’s quality of life, the study of who get s ahead and why is of interest and value (Kilduff & Day 1994). Thus, career success is defined as the positive psychological outcomes or achievements one has accumulated as a result of experiences over the span of a working life. Whatever is meant by ‘success’ is subjective, but how one could look at it? What are the contents and contexts of a career success phenomenon? Researchers have used different terms, different profiles and different predic tors. Their traditional focus was on either objective or subjective career success. 47 Nabi (1999, p.212 ) quotes several researchers’ ideas where objective career success has been measured in terms of society’s evaluation of achievement with reference to ex trinsic measures, such as salary and managerial level. In contrast, subjective career success has been measured in terms of an individual’s feelings of success with reference to intrinsic indices, such as perceptions of career accomplishments, and has bee n defined as a conceptually distinct construct referring to an individual’s judgement of their own success evaluated against personal standards, age, aspirations and views of significant others. Thus, individuals with high subjective career success feel happier and more successful about their careers related to their own internal standards. However, Nabi (1999 ) argues that a few researchers have concentrated simultaneously on both of these views; objective and subjective career success. An example is Orpe n’s (1994) study of effects of organizational and individual career management on career success. Schein (1995, p.80) says that people are placing less value on work or career as a total life concern and on promotion or hierarchical movement within the organization as the sole measure of “success”: More value is being placed on leading a balanced life in which work, career, family and self - development all receive their fair share of attention, and success is increasingly defined in terms of the full use of all of one’s talent and in contributing not only to one’s work organisation but also to one’s family, community and self. Some other researchers (O’ Neil, Bilimoria & Saatcioglu, 2003; Sturges, 1999) also agree that the answer to the question of ‘what is success in terms of career?” varies with individuals. Woodd (2000, p.73) says that the definition of success, progress or advancement will very much depend on an individual’s view of success, his/her beliefs and values, which may not be based on power or pay. Careers are built on different career anchors. The measure of success and advancement varies with whether one is oriented around the managerial, technical/functional, security, autonomy, entrepreneurial, service, pure challenge or lifestyle anchor (Schein, 1995, p.80). Schein (1995, p.82) emphasizes that the work ethic of young employees are changing. They question arbitrary authority, meaningless work, organizational loyalty, restrictive personal policies and fundamental corporate goals and prerogatives. 48 This trend has begun to question the traditional success ethic, and that the new generation is more ready to refuse promotions or relocations, willing to ‘retire on the job’ while pursuing family activities or off - the- job hobbies. They are like ly to resign from high potential careers to pursue “second careers” that are perceived to be more challenging and or rewarding by criteria other than formal hierarchical position or salary (Schein, 1995). This contemporary phenomenon challenging those people wants to define career success in a structured manner. However, according to the career literature in general (Orpen, 1994; Sturges, 1999; Judge et al., 1995; Lau & Shaffer, 1999), a person’s career success is viewed in terms of its objective and subjective nature. A person assesses objective career success by some extrinsic measures such as job title, salary, promotion etc. On the other hand, subjective career success refers to one’s own appraisal of career attainment. However, each person’s perce ption on his/her success depends on the value given to the achievements and to the extent a particular aspect gives a feeling of achievement. Career satisfaction on the other hand has been variously defined by several researchers (Aryee & Chay, 1994; Igba ria & Baroudi, 1993 ; Keng - Howe & Liao, 1999). While some researchers have considered career satisfaction and subjective career success similar to each other, Orpen (1994) used the term ‘career effectiveness’ to describe the career outcomes of individuals and included two measures in assessing the experiential aspect of career effectiveness. One is “how well the individuals had done in their career so far?” and the second is “how satisfied the individuals are about their career prospects in the future?” These variables created their view on subjective career success although the ultimate idea includes future perspectives as well. Another situation observed from literature shows the primary concern of the definition of career satisfaction is on long- term based work- related well- being of the individuals (Igbaria, Parasuraman & Badawy, 1994; Seybolt, 1980). Viewed collectively, these studies provide definitions of career success constituting tangible and intangible components. Judge et al. (1995) conceptual izes career satisfaction as “the satisfaction individuals derive from intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of their careers, including pay, advancement and developmental opportunities. In this case, the concept covers all related aspects of the career of an individual. 49 This definition seems to be the most appropriate one since a person’s career includes all work related experiences. Therefore, overall satisfaction with any career could include both objective and subjective components of career and represent the mental feeling of individuals about their career in relation to various issues including pay, advancement and other opportunities. This is an issue to be explored in the study. Factors influencing career success and career satisfaction of migrants Res earchers (Orpen, 19 94; Guthrie, Coate & Schwoerer, 1998; Arron, 1994) have considered different terms such as career management and career strategies to examine the means of pursuing career effectiveness, career success and career satisfaction. However, s imilar ideas have been the focus in other studies. Hall (1996, p.8) describes 21 st century careers, as those that are driven by the person, not the organisation, and that will be re- invented by the person from time to time as the person and his/her environment change. He emphasizes the need for increased self - knowledge and adaptability. Despite the increased focus on individuals’ ability and responsibility (Guthrie, Coate & Schwoerer, 1998; Hall, 1996, Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000; Nabi, 1999), relatively little empirical research has investigated the determinants of career success and career satisfaction. The literature provides the general background on many issues that have an impact on an individual’s career success and satisfaction. Howeve r, there is little evidence of the factors that have an impact on migrant’s careers. It is not easy for those who choose expatriation as a good move for their career, as they find themselves in a new and different environment. Expatriation often, gives a career direction for those who are sent overseas by their working organisations on fixed term assignments. But, self - expatriation/migration generates special needs. It is important to look at self - expatriation and career success as a special issue in th is regard. Thus, relevant factors identified from the literature are discussed below. 50 Acculturation Strategies The reviewed literature provides ideas on many issues related to migrants’ career in a new cultural environment. The cultural distance between the home and host environment of many immigrants demands adjustment and adaptation in related issues as required by the circumstances. Thus acculturation as discussed previously could be a predictor of career success and satisfaction of these migrants. In analysing the acculturation of immigrants, Selvarajah (1996, p.6) says that when the expatriate has positive experiences, such as job satisfaction and good relationships with work colleagues, and then these experiences work as positive factors in th e adjustment to the new host environment. However, this study considers that an immigrant first faces the differences in the general environment before he/she restarts his /her career and that adjustment to the new environment may affect employment patte rns, success and satisfaction. Motivation to migrate Another factor that could relate to this situation is the reason for migration (motivation to migrate). There was no specific literature on such motivations in relation to career success or satisfaction; instead some studies (e.g. Nesdale & Mak, 2000; Calleja, 2000) discussed the reasons for migration whilst studying various related issues. Economic factors (Martin, 1998; Fisher, 1968), family reunification (Economist, 2002b) and asylum seeking (Economi st, 2002a) have been discussed as motivations. As Pries (1999, p.2) says, there are many factors that cause an increase in international migratory movements. Among these factors are violent ethnic conflicts, ongoing disintegration of traditional rural social environments, environmental factors such as land erosion and drought, and ubiquitous projections and visions of living conditions and standards based on the “islands of affluence” in the world. Further, mass communication, faster and cheaper mass transportation and global communications technology serve to highlight opportunities for migration and this can pull immigrants, particularly skilled immigrants to particular countries. Furthermore, migration flows can exhibit a snowball pattern through the relationships of settled friends and relatives. There were few researchers (Carr, Inkson & Thorn, 2004; Richardson & McKenna, 2002) who discuss a set of reasons for migration. Carr, Inkson and Thorn (2004) identify five main factors motivating migration in their study of talent flow and global 51 careers. These include economic factors (higher wages, standard of living etc), political factors (political instability, lack of political freedom and civil wars), career factors (excellent career opportunities), cu ltural factors (perceived cultural integration at home, similar culture) and family factors (e.g. for improvement of the lives of family members). Richardson and McKenna’s study (20 02, p.67) explains similar reasons for expatriation of academics. All the se studies collectively provide a platform for the idea. As suggested by Richardson and McKenna (2002, p.69) it is considered a useful example of self - selecting expatriates in this study. Motivation to migrate in this context means, “Why people choose migration as their option?” However, no studies were found on the issue of how the ‘ motivation to migrate’ affects career success and satisfaction of migrant individuals. The different make - up of reasons along with other factors may influence the process of career development and success of immigrants and their adjustment to the host country environment. The main reasons for the decision to migrate include economic, political, cultural, family related and career related aspects. The major reasons discussed in the literature are summarised below for the purpose of analysis in this study. The typology used includes terms used by Richardson and McKenna (2002 ) and terms identified as appropriate by the researcher. As Richardson and McKenna (2002, p.70) s tate the ‘motivation to migrate’ for many of the academic expatriates they studied , were reasons common to many migrants. There are people who enjoy living in different countries and their ‘motivation to migrate’ is driven by the desire to explore. In this cas e, the desire is not to enhance the career opportunities but to explore more of the world and the expatriate is seen as an ‘explorer’. The second group of individuals looking for career enhancement, choose expatriation/migration as their best option in their career as they have achieved as much as is possible at home and feel there will be few chances for new and exciting challenges for them should they remain. Thus, these individuals look for ways to develop their career in a challenging environment and so choose migration. This motivation is termed ‘career building’. 52 ‘Financial betterment’; a term substituted for ‘mercenary’ from Richardson and McKenna (2002: 71) is the motivation for another group of migrants who are driven by money. These individuals’ expatriation/migration is purely related to financial gain and they may have moved between different countries in order to achieve their goals. The fourth group of people are those who have migrated from different countries, including the community to be studied, in order to escape from civil wars, ethnic conflicts and poverty. This is also a common category of migrants and their ‘motivation to migrate’ may have been to escape. These people are ‘refugees’/‘escapers’ and the career orientation may have not been an important motive at the time of their expatriation. The fifth group of people are those who wish to build a good quality life for their family and especially wish to obtain high quality education for their children. These people usually want to source that education in a developed country, where they also enjoy a higher quality of life. If an improvement in the quality of life is their objective of expatriation then they often bring the extended family to the host country. Other factors important to this group are preserving family ties (people who migrate to the countries where their friends and relatives are already living), career prospects and political freedom for children. This motivation can be viewed as ‘family building’. The last group consists of people who view their expatriation to a particular country as a temporary move and a developmental base for their future career progression back in their home country. This group is termed “learners”. These people would actively involve in learning new aspects of their home country career in the host country, with the intention of returning home at some stage. They may not be interested in mixing with the people of host country but rather concentrate on learning the host country’s knowledge base, in order to subsequently repatriate it to their home country. The reason of “why do individuals migrate?” is expected to have an effect on their career moves and outcomes based on the fact that the push/pull factors will first influence in individual decision making when they start their lives in the new environment. 53 Mode of Adjustment to Career In the case of migrants, a simultaneous change is needed in an individual migrant’s career to assure his/her career expectations are achieved in the new environment. Migrants’ transition in the world of work could be viewed with the help of Nicholson’s (1984) model. In Nicholson’s (1984) theory of work role transitions, such transitions are defined as any change in employment status and any major change i n job content, including all instances of “status passages”, forms of intra and inter - organizational mobility and other changes in employment status (e.g. unemployment, retirement, re - employment). These concepts and phases are similar to those in the accu lturation theory. A study of culture and career transitions should concentrate not only on the mobility of individuals across cultural territories, but in the case of a change in cultural norms and values, also on the outcomes of career moves and personal adjustments. Therefore, this study tried to establish a theoretical base for the argument that cultural considerations play a role in career development of individuals and the interaction of the level of acculturation or the ability and willingness to understand, accept and adopt the norms of a strange culture in an individuals’ career progression. At the same time, it paid attention to various adjustments individuals can make in their career alone in relation to their new environment. Cultural assumptions can both enable and constrain what an individual is able to do in the environment in which he or she lives. Some cultural assumptions will assist change and some will hinder the process. Keeping these facts in mind and referring to the cultural dimensions that differ from society to society, an attempt was made to identify the patterns of transitional behaviour and outcomes in the new cultural environment with regard to migrants’ careers. With regard to career changes, Nicholson’s (19 84) theory of wor k role transitions addresses two important questions: (1) how are change and stability interrelated, and (2) how does the interaction between individuals and social systems affect both? Though the theory is based solely on career moves in the personal and organisational environment, it is equally important in career moves taking place across cultures. The most important term ‘adjustment’ is very common and the basic need of any transition involved in human life. Nicholson focuses on individuals and the i ndividual differences in the characteristics of people and the transitions they undergo which affect the relationships of change Vs stability and individual Vs situational adjustment. 54 Prior occupational Socialization Organizational induction Role Requirements and Socialization Processes Motivational orientation Replication Absorption Determination Exploration Figure 2.5: Schematic summary showing relationships of determinants in the theory of work role transitions , Adopted from Nicholson (1984) According to his model (Nicholson, 1984, pp.172- 173), predictor variables are (1) the requirements of the roles between which the person is moving; (2) the psychological dispositions and motives of the person, i.e. “motivational orientations”; (3) the character of the person’s past socialization into previous work roles, i.e. prior occupational socialization; and (4) the form of any current organizational induction or socializat ion practices that shape the person’s adjustment to the new role, i.e. the induction – socialization process. These predictor variables could be used to formulate a model of individuals’ adjustment to career moves in a culturally transitional environment where the following assumptions are important: (1) immigrant individuals have to move from their previous, experienced, familiar and settled career to a completely new or nearly new career environment; (2 ) this creates problems because of the interact ion between their inherited/experienced and newly introduced customs and habits; (3) their previous work place culture and the period they have spent within it may be relevant to the new environment; and (4) the form of socialization practices and the atte mpts made to enhance their employability in the new or host culture could enhance or inhibit their 55 adjustment and career outcomes. Nicholson (1984) deals with the occupational and organisational socialisation process, which is becoming less important in the contemporary world, where boundaries have dissolved and therefore socialisation needs to be reconceptualised to include broader cultural socialisation. The outcomes of Nicholson’s theory relate to personal development in absorbing new demands and role development to redesign situational demands. The modes of adjustment: replication, absorption, determination, and exploration could be transformed in a different manner considering the context of the present study. Nicholson (1984, p.178) used two char acteristics of roles (discretion and novelty) to identify the adjustment modes. Discretion constitutes the incumbent’s opportunities to alter role components and relationships. The capacity to choose goals, the means of achieving them, the timing of mean s- ends relationships and the pattern of interpersonal communications, influence and evaluation surrounding them are the typical dimensions of discretion explained by Nicholson. Novelty of job demands is the degree to which the role permits the exercise o f prior knowledge, practiced skills and established habits (Nicholson, 1984, p.178). In such circumstances, the extremes of discretion and novelty predict the range of outcomes of these dimensions as follows: Low discretion + Low novelty => Replication Lo w discretion + high novelty => Absorption High discretion + low novelty => Determination High discretion + high novelty => Exploration Thus, a migrant’s career behaviour in the new environment could be a product of one of four adjustment modes. However, the modes need to be defined in a different manner to match with immigrants’ adjustment in a completely different environment and thus “mode of adjustment to career” is defined as “the state of individuals’ adjustment to the new work environment with res pect to their previous experiences and expertise”. This is likely to be influenced by 1) the extent of effort made by the person to enter and prosper in the host society workforce and 2) the usefulness of prior knowledge, practiced skills and habits of the individuals in the new work environment. Based on these realities of migrants’ career and their career transition, the adjustment modes are defined as follows: 56 1. Replication (The mode where an individual must be dependent on other things rather than him/herself for prospering in the career but replicating his/her attempts for prosperity). 2. Absorption (The mode where an individual can use his knowledge and skills easily - but he/she has to wait till opportunities appear. E.g. an engineer who has a knowledge and skill set matching the requirements of New Zealand employers in construction projects may have to wait until there is a boom in the construction industry.) 3. Determination (The mode where the individual can move towards his/her career goals but is hampered by having a non- useful skill set. E.g. A language teacher who taught the Tamil language in Sri Lanka cannot hope to get a similar post in New Zealand and thus has no chance to exercise his prior knowledge and skills but has created high level of opportunities to get into the New Zealand workforce). 4. Exploration (The mode where an individual can easily explore paths towards his/her career goals. E.g. a doctor with a high level of acquired knowledge and skills from his/her previous employment(s) can create opportunities to be a practitioner in New Zealand.) These modes are clearly shown in the following figure. High HHHigh Low Exploration Absorption Determination Replication Figure 2.6: Modes of adjustment to career Effort made towards career Use fu ln es s of p ri or kn ow le dg e, ski ll s an d ha bi ts Low 57 Social support Social support has also taken the attention of researchers (Iso- Ahola & Park, 1996; Lopez, Ehly & Garcia - Vazquez, 2002; Leung, 2001; Noonan et.al., 2004) under different contexts. Conceptualizations of social support have been classified broadly as being either objective or subjective in nature (Barrera, 1986 cited in Iso- Ahola & Park, 1996) where it takes the forms of tangible assistance or intangible moral support. Lopez, Ehly and Garcia- Vazquez (2002) studied the influence of social support and acculturation on academic success among Mexican American high school students and found that social support has a significant correlation with academic achievements. Noonan et.al (2004, p.75), in their qualitative study of highly achieving women with physical and sensory disabilities, reported that most of their sample emphasized social support as critical to their survival and success. Leung (2001, p.18), in his study of the sociocultural and psychological adaptation of Chinese migrant adolescents in Australia and Canada, points to the importance of social support in the adaptation of migrant adolescents. Sanders, Nee and Sernau (2002) also studied the social ties of Asian immigrants and found that immigrants move into low- end jobs because of their he avy reliance on interpersonal ties to find jobs and because immigrants’ initial social networks tend to be densely co - ethnic. However, they failed to to look at the other side of social support, which is the support from the host society. Since there were no specific studies found in the area of career success and social support, a gap is identified. This could be an aspect for research in relation to migrant careers. Language ability Many researchers (Bellente & Kogut, 1998; Leslie & Lindley, 2001; Kossoudji, 1988) have studied the impact of immigrants’ language ability in a new environment where the domestic language is different from their own. Difficulties in immigrants’ ability to communicate in the domestic language may inhibit labour market adaptab ility in any country and studies have identified a positive correlation between language and several other success variables. Cross- cultural researchers (Zakaria, 2000; Berry, 1997; Fitzgerald, 1997; Bird, 1999) have found that it is important to be fluent in the host language for survival and success. 58 Culture and communication are inextricably linked (Scott, 1999, p.140) and the ability to understand the linguistic systems and fluency in the language are essential components to a newcomer. As in any field language ability has become an important factor in research on immigrants. Career Strategies A new environment requires the career actor to move accordingly to the requirements in the employment market and thus career strategies in relation to migrants’ careers are important for a research of this nature. Career strategy then represents specific sequences of activities that one undertakes in attempting to achieve one’s career goals or objectives (Aryee & Debrah, 1993 ). Some previous studies ( Zheng and Kl einer, 2001; Orpen, 1994; Ball, 1998; Aryee & Chay, 1994; Whitely, Dougherty & Dreher, 1991; Lankau & Scandura, 20 02; Aryee & Debrah, 19 93) have identified different strategies including career planning, competency development, seeking mentoring, informati on seeking, flexibility and network building as determinants of career success. Aryee and Debrah (1993) look at career planning in a cross - cultural perspective while other studies considered career strategies in a more general perspective. Career planning Career planning has been identified by previous researchers (Dessler, 2000; Arnold, 1997; Zheng & Kleiner, 2001; Orpen, 1994) as an important variable determining career success and it is defined as the process of identifying what one wants from one’s ca reer, assessing one’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to these goals, and deciding what steps need to be taken to realize these goals in the light of one’s own strengths and weaknesses. Aryee and Debrah (1993) found that career planning was related to career satisfaction. Livingston (2003), in his study of black female career success, emphasises that individuals must develop a career plan if they are to survive and excel. Ransom (2002) also suggests that successful individuals begin their career planning with a specific career goal in mind. Planning is important because those who are not prepared to meet the marketplace with reality will be rejected. Guthrie, Coate and Schwoerer (1998) found career planning to be one of many career strategies of indi viduals that leads to career success. The identified gap is the study of career planning and migrants’ career success and satisfaction. 59 Competency Development Many experts have reported the need for competency development and being employable as the core requirement of 21 st century careers (Hall, 1996; Arnold, 1997; Grappo, 1998; Ball, 1998). Researchers emphasized the need for skills and competencies in many situations from an individual perspective rather an organizational one (Ball, 1998; Inkson, 2000). Individual competencies have been classified by researchers into three categories (Arthur, Inkson & Pringle, 1999; Ball, 19 98): knowing- how competence (i.e. job related knowledge), knowing- why competence which manifests itself in the way individuals understand their own motivation and are able to identify with their goals; and knowing-whom competence; having access to relevant networks of people and information. Ball (1998) has developed four competencies from the perspective of the individuals: optimiz ing the situation, using career - planning skills, engaging in personal development and balancing work and non- work. However, researchers have observed a pattern of interdependence or overlapping among the categories (Parker & Inkson, 2000; Ball, 1998). Fr om the ideas gathered from the literature, competencies are defined as “the behaviours and skills required by an individual in order to prosper in his/her career.” Eby, Butts and Lockwood’s study (2003 ) supports the idea that career competencies are important predictors of success in the boundaryless career and suggest that in order to maximise beliefs about external marketability individuals should invest in their own human capital and engage in continuous learning. The application of this idea in the context of migrants’ careers has not been attempted so far , and so requires attention. Information Seeking According to Mihal, Sorce and Comte (1984), career literature supports the claim that people make better career decisions when in possession of good c areer information and are thus more satisfied. The sources of information could be family and friends, job advertisements, community service organizations (e.g. Citizens Advice Bureau, WIN Z and their web pages), employment agencies etc. Information seekin g is defined as “the extent of searching for facts in relation to an individual’s career opportunities and moves in the new environment”. 60 Seibert, Kraimer and Liden (2001) found that access to information is positively associated with objective career s uccess and career satisfaction. Access to more information empowers individuals with respect to careers and this lead to higher satisfaction according to Seibert and his colleagues. However, no studies were found which highlighted migrants’ information se eking behaviour and their career success and/or satisfaction and this could be explored further. Mentoring Many researchers (Joiner, Bartram, & Garreffa, 2004; Willbur, 1987; Fagenson, 1989 ) have found that mentoring relationships are an important career building factor that is positively associated with career success. Previous studies (Aryee & Chay, 1994; Whitely, Dougherty & Dreher, 1991; Lankau & Scandura, 2002) described the concept of mentoring as an activity that organisations take care of and the mentors as the senior managers of individual employees. However, Willbur (1987) agrees that even though mentoring relationships often flourish in work settings, they can also evolve informally where friends, neighbours, and relatives can all act as mentors . In general, mentoring is considered to be a developmental relationship that enhances both an individual’s growth and advancement (Kram, 1985). Willbur’s (1987) study found that mentoring was a significant predictor of career success. He measured career success using seven criteria where all measurement components consisted of objective success measures. On the other hand, Joiner, Bartram and Garreffa (2004) found that mentoring is positively associated with perceived career success which translates as subjective career success. According to Peluchette and Jeanquart (2000) mentoring has a positive impact on both objective and subjective career success, although the degree of such impact can vary. There were no studies found in the area of mentoring relationships and migrants’ careers and thus it is an identified gap. In the context of this study, seeking mentoring is defined as “the individuals’ behaviour of seeking advice, guidance and sharing different viewpoints to progress in their career”. The i nterest in mentoring arises from its beneficial consequences to the individual in terms of his/her career success and mentoring could take place from any interpersonal/organisational relationship an individual may maintain. 61 Networking Networking has also b een identified as an important component in career strategies by many previous researchers (Guthrie, Coate & Schwoerer, 1998; Sullivan, 2001; Hall, 1996; Nabi, 1999). Liz (2003) says that developing and maintaining a base of contacts can offer valuable career benefits. Networking relationships and maintaining a contact management system can be the most important aspect of career management, according to Olson (1994). Also, Nabi’s (1999 ) findings indicated that those employees who frequently used informal ca reer networks reported more success in their careers than those who did not. It may be equally important to migrant individuals in a new environment. These connections and interactions may help an individual with information, support and advice about thei r career- related moves in the new environment. Networking here is defined as “the connections and interactions with other people and organisations”. Flexibility Being flexible is also reported as an important determinant of success in many cases due to the competition in today’s employment market. Guthrie et al. (1998) found maintaining career flexibility is a significant factor of career strategies in their study. Johnson (1995) says that today’s environment needs individuals to be flexible and able to present themselves as persons who can fill the employer’s needs. As Katz and Liu (1992) say, there is no perfect recipe for success and a certain amount of flexibility is necessary because the circumstances surrounding our decisions are shifting. Thus ‘ career flexibility’ is taken as a component of career strategies and it is defined as ‘the extent of flexibility an individual expresses’ in his or her career related activities and processes. Age Another important feature that demands attention in this study is the age of individuals who make a move. Theories related to ages and career stages (Super, 1957; Schein, 1978; Levinson (as cited by Super, Savickas & Super, 1996; Dalton, 1989) consider how work experiences change over time and how people change t he processes and criteria relating to how they make decisions regarding their career. However, the age related effects of simultaneous transitions in career and culture have not been explored by researchers and this could be an important aspect in developing a model for career- 62 culture transition and career success of individuals. The age of the individual may influence differing outcomes of career progression. This should also be a factor under consideration. Therefore, the age of the individual is also a relevant variable for the model of analysis. Education Previous researchers (Judge et.al., 1995; Nabi, 1999) identified a positive relationship between education and career success. Education could be a predictor of career success irrespective of individuals’ living environment. However, in the case of immigrants, it could be an important factor to identify whether educational qualifications gained before migration supported their career success in a new environment. Educational experience in the host country (New Zealand in this study) Apart from their previous educational experiences immigrants can study and so gain more qualifications in the host country. Some may have gained their host country qualifications at the basic level (for example: cert ificate, diploma or degree levels) while some others may have gained higher qualifications (graduate diplomas, postgraduate diplomas, masters etc.). It is also possible to see whether these host country qualifications have helped them to reach career succe ss and satisfaction and identify the difference they have made in the degree of success migrant individuals have achieved, if any. Overseas experience Expatriate literature (Hogan & Goodson, 1990 ) suggests that overseas experience is one of many factors contributing to success. The logic behind this conclusion is that individuals who migrate to a new cultural environment with previous overseas experience may have the advantage of having already been exposed to different cultural and career environments which may help them to adjust in their next new country. Self-efficacy Self - efficacy is another important issue highlighted by researchers in measuring individual success. The success of an individual depends on his/her own ability and beliefs on such ability to perform certain tasks. The term ‘self - efficacy’ has been studied extensively by many researchers (Chen, Gully & Eden, 2000; Ladany, Ellis & Friedlander, 1999; Maurer & Andrews, 2000; Renn & Fedor, 2001) under different 63 research settings and it has been found that self- efficacy predicts several important work related outcomes. According to social cognitive career theory (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2002, p.262), self - efficacy, outcome expectations and personal goals are building blocks of career development and the self- efficacy in this context involves a dynamic set of self- beliefs that are specific to particular performance domains. Lent et al. (2002) also state that self- efficacy and outcome expectations affect the goals that one selects and the effort expended in their pursuit. Thus, self - efficacy is identified as one of the most important factors to individual career outcomes. However, there are no researches that relate the self- efficacy issue to migrants’ career success and satisfaction. Thus, a gap is identified for further study. Gender Gender differences in the patterns of careers and career progress have been well documented (Evetts, 20 00). Many studies (Tsui & Gutek, 1984; Baroudi & Igbaria, 1994/ 95; Wood & Lindorff, 2001) found gender diff erences are related to performance, success and satisfaction. Eddleston, Baldridge and Veiga (2004 ) suggest that career success differs between men and women for several reasons. Valcour and Tolbert (2003) also found that gender shapes careers and there are significant differences in career mobility between men and women. This has distinctive effects on objective and subjective indicators of career success for both men and women. However, the studies were specific to a group of certain occupational level or profession. There were no studies found in relation to migrants’ careers and this gap was taken as an issue to be considered in this study. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is another factor that has been explored by many researchers. Researches on j ob satisfaction and its predictors and measures are enormous in number (Oshagbemi, 1999a; Chiu & Kosinski, Jr., 1999; Bhuian & Mengue, 2002). A particular job is an integral part of person’s career and the individuals’ satisfaction is important to the overall feeling of his/ her career. As Oshagbemi (1999a, p.388) states, the topic of job satisfaction is an important one because of its relevance to the physical and mental well - being of employees. However, the aspect of migration did not attract much attention of the researchers while discussing job satisfaction. Frequently an individual will be employed in a different job from that he/she had before migration. 64 It is assumed that individuals experience different levels of job satisfaction due to various reasons and thus the satisfaction of their job, apart from their life long career, is considered important as a factor of influence in career satisfaction. Because of the notion that employees who are happy with their jobs contribute in a more positive wa y towards society (Stanley, 2001, p.3), job satisfaction is also identified as key to this study of migrants. This is expected to have an impact on overall career satisfaction of individuals. Job satisfaction in this case refers to migrant individual’s job satisfaction of the last job he/she had before migration. Job satisfaction itself may have many predictors and some of the possible factors discussed in the literature capture the attention of this study. Gender has been analysed in relation to job sa tisfaction by many researchers (Eskildsen, Kristensen & Westlund, 2004; Sumner & Niederman, 2003/ 04; Oshagbemi, 2003; Sousa - Poza & Sousa - Poza, 2003; Donohue & Heywood, 2004). Some researchers (Sumner & Niederman, 2003/ 04; Oshagbemi, 2003; Donohue & Heywood, 2004) found that there were no significant differences in job satisfaction between men and women while others (Eskildsen, Kristensen & Westlund, 2004; Sousa - Poza & Sousa - Poza, 2003) found that a significant difference to exist. Self-efficacy has taken the attention of many researchers (Jimmieson, 2000; O’Neill & Mone, 1998; Bradley & Roberts, 2004; Staples, Hulland & Higgins, 1999) in their studies related to job satisfaction. The findings were inconsistent between various studies. Self - efficacy was found to have a significant and positive impact on job satisfaction in some studies (Bradley & Roberts, 2004; Staples, Hulland & Higgins, 1999) whereas Jimmieson (2000) suggests that self - efficacy plays a moderating role in predicting job satisfaction. The positive effects of self- efficacy on individual’s adjustment and perceived work control opportunities lead to a positive effect on job satisfaction, according to Jimmieson (2000). Nevertheless, O’Neill and Mone (1998) found that the relationship between self- efficacy and job satisfaction was not significant. Education as a predictor of job satisfaction has also taken the attention of many researchers in the past. The findings regarding the relationship between education and job satisfaction are again ve ry inconsistent. 65 Some researchers found that education has a negative effect on job satisfaction (Metle, 2001; Ward & Sloane, 2000; Eskildsen, Kristensen & Westlund, 2004; Lok & Crawford, 2004) whereas others suggest that education has a positive relationship with job satisfaction (Glenn & Weaver, 1982). But Johnson and Johnson (2000) present a different viewpoint in this regard. Johnson and Johnson (2000) state that perceived over qualification or an individual’s perceptions of the lack of opportunitie s for using skills, abilities, or education lead to a lower level of job satisfaction. Length of service as a predictor of job satisfaction has also taken the attention of many previous researchers (Sarker, Crossman & Chimeteepituck, 2003; Oshagbemi, 1999b; Oshagbemi, 2000; Oshagbemi, 2003). It refers to the number of years an individual has spent working (Oshagbemi, 2000). The findings of previous studies were contradictory between researches. Some researchers (Oshagbemi, 2003) found a negative impact on job satisfaction while others (Sarker, Crossman & Chimeteepituck, 2003; Oshagbemi, 1999b; Oshagbemi, 2000) found a positive impact. Length of service in this study is considered as the number of years a migrant individual has spent working with his las t organisation. This is due to the fact that the migration has taken place while the individual has been carrying the feelings of his/her organisation and job he/she had at the time of migration. On the other hand, length of service could also be a predic tor of employment status before migration. This is supported by the fact that seniority plays a major role in job promotions in Sri Lanka. There were no studies related to migrants’ job satisfaction or its predictors and their overall career satisfaction. Thus, it is an issue to be further explored. Conclusion To conclude, migration and new work environments are more prevalent today than ever before. New Zealand welcomes migrants of all categories, especially those who will assist the economic development of the country. However, people from various parts of the world bring new values, beliefs and dimensions that are very different from those of the indigenous people of New Zealand. It is important for migrants’ survival and welfare in the new environment to develop an understanding of the cultural features of that environment. Careers are important to each and every member of a society and 66 career satisfaction and success play an important role in their life journey. However, when they enter into a different territory cultural change may have an impact directly or indirectly on their career progression. Leong and Chou (1994 as cited in Fouad & Tang, 1997) argued that less acculturated individuals are more vulnerable to occupational stereotyping, segr egation, and discrimination; that they are less likely to choose career based on their interest and motivation; and they are more likely to have higher aspirations but lower expectations. Acculturation or learning and adapting to another culture is a process that helps individuals to ensure their successful future in the new environment. Willingness and readiness to learn will determine the level of their acculturation and this consists of number of important aspects. In this chapter, we have identified a number of variables which theory suggests have major impact on migrants’ careers. These are motivation for migration, social support, mode of adjustment to career, acculturation, language ability, career strategies, overseas experience, education, length of time in the host country, age, gender, self - efficacy of the individual, and job satisfaction. The study may reveal to what extent each of these factors has an impact on migrants’ careers. In this chapter, a comprehensive literature review provided the background knowledge needed for the study. The next chapter, with refined ideas and further exploration of the study’s environment, introduces the model developed for the purpose of this study. 67 Chapter 3 A model for immigrants’ Career Integration Introduction Cross- cultural research has increasingly investigated what happens to individuals who, having developed in one culture, attempt to re - establish their lives in another. The long- term psychological consequences of this process of acculturation are highly variable, depending on social and personal characteristics that reside in the society of origin, the society of settlement, and phenomena that both exist prior to, and arise during, the cours e of acculturation (Berry, 199 7, p.5). Yet, despite this, a common understanding of the impact of migration on the careers of individuals has not been reached. Facilitated by the process of globalisation, specifically in the countries of the Asia - Pacific region, the labour market has been reconfigured in significant ways by the inflows of migrants, overseas professionals on long- term assignments and the spread of multinational corporations. Countries have concerns about the effects of immigrant flows and associated problems in the labour market, as well as voicing concerns about brain- drain and talent waste (Carr, Inkson & Thorn, 2004) due to the non- utilisation of available resources (i.e. the new immigrants). This study sets out to explore career theor ies in the paradigms of changing contexts and new cultural environments, and attempts to identify useful patterns of cultural adaptation by members of a migrant community, which has different cultural norms and values developed from its own society. This might be the basis for studying other migrant communities, their lifestyle changes with regard to their careers and the patterns of career- culture interactions. The emphasis of the study was on developing an integrated model of cultural transition and adj ustment factors and career outcomes, which can help us to gain a new understanding of migrants’ careers and which can be utilized to support new migrants in future. The idea was to focus specifically on a model that explores cultural aspects of work and em ployment linked with migrants’ abilities and background experiences that could enhance their career success and satisfaction on the basis that effective acculturation and adjustment in work and employment combined with useful qualities have benefits in the migrants’ wider life. 68 Rationale and theoretical framework Many attempts have been made to identify the integral components of migrants’ careers and to determine factors contributing to migrants’ career outcomes. The process of adjustment in terms of culture and career has been recognised as important (Berry, 1997; Nicholson, 1984; Zakaria, 2000; Selvarajah, 199 6 & 1997; Liebkind & Jasinskaja- Lahti , 2000; Nesdale & Mak, 2000; Abouguendia & Noels, 2001; Lay & Safdar, 2003; Bhagat and London, 1999 ). Accordi ng to Hofstede (1991, p. 5) culture is the collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another. Culture, in this sense, includes systems of values; and values are one of the building blocks of culture. The definition above and the in- depth review of literature showed that culture is a man- made composition with certain values, beliefs, norms and practices which influences the behaviour of people in a particular group or society. Career behaviour is not an exception in this case. Super, Savickas and Super (1996, p.149) found that the general structure of life roles and values is remarkably similar in samples from industrializing nations, and that the particular values held, and the patterns of relationships between values and roles vary significantly among cultural groups. They also revealed that the meanings of work, home making, leisure, study and community service are specific to different cultural contexts, which colours the behavioural differences displayed by migrants from differing cultural backgrounds (Super, Savickas and Super, 1996, p.149). Immigrants’ transitions between cultures are unavoidable. Also it is unavoidable that immigrants have to deal with a different cultural setting in their daily life and their behavioural adjustments. These adjustments augmented with other qualities and characteristics that enhance the employability of migrants, lead to successful career outcomes as proposed in this study. The career outcomes in this context include career success and career satisfaction of migrant individuals. Career success have been conceptualised to have extrinsic and intrinsic components by many researchers (Judge, Kammeyer - Mueller & Bretz, 2004; Orpen, 199 4; Wayne, Liden, Kraimer & Graf, 1999 ) and the researches have indicated that intrinsic and extrinsic success 69 show intercorrelations (Judge et al, 1999; Judge, Kammeyer - Mueller & Bretz, 2004). The extrinsic part of career success has been named objective career success wh ile the intrinsic part has been named subjective career success. Objective career success comprises job title, pay, and ascendancy/promotion (Melamed, 1996; Judge et al., 1995; Lau & Shaffer, 1999; Orpen, 1994) while subjective career success consists of one’s own appraisal of career attainment (Judge et al., 1995; Lau & Shaffer, 1999 ). Previous researchers (Lau & Shaffer, 1999; Judge et al, 1995) have found that objective career success is a significant positive predictor of subjective career success. Career satisfaction is defined as the satisfaction individuals derive from intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of their careers (Judge et al, 1995) and presents the overall affective orientation of individuals towards their career. Therefore, consistent with previous researchers (Poole, Langan - Fox & Omoder, 1993 ), it has been suggested that objective and subjective measures of career success positively predict individual’s overall career satisfaction. From an empirical test using factor analysis, Erdogan, Krai mer and Liden (2002) found that job satisfaction and career satisfaction are two separate factors. A job is an integral part of one’s career (Aryee, 199 3) and job and career satisfaction are related but distinctly different in the psychological processes ( Judge et al., 1995). Thus, it has been thought that job satisfaction has its own predictors while job satisfaction itself is a predictor of career satisfaction. On the other hand, previous researches (Judge et al, 1995; Poole, Langan- Fox and Omoder, 1993; Judge & Bretz, 1994) support the idea that job satisfaction is also a predictor of subjective career success. In reality, migrants’ careers have different components as one has to consider their life before and after migration and it is important to include both in considering their career satisfaction. Therefore, career satisfaction in this study has been taken as the overall career satisfaction individuals feel. It was expected that career satisfaction of migrant individuals will be predicted by both their success before migration and success after migration. As 70 discussed previously, career success has extrinsic and intrinsic components and both of these will have an impact on career satisfaction. Predictors of career outcomes before migration In c onsidering migrants’ careers before migration, it was decided to include employment status before migration instead of objective success consisting of employment status and salary issues. This was due to the fact that an individual’s salary before migrati on is difficult to measure in terms of current value because of inflation, time difference of migration and other related issues that affect money value in terms of time. Migrants’ careers before migration may have been diverse, the pay system in each pr ofession varies and the changes over time are not only affected by inflation but by several other factors (trade union actions and political changes are examples in the Sri Lankan context). Therefore, career outcomes before migration have been conceptualis ed to consist of employment status before migration, job satisfaction of the last job before migration and subjective career success before migration. Reviewed literature provided several ideas on the predictors of job satisfaction (especially the effect of gender, self - efficacy, education and length of service), and predictors of career success. However, education and seniority determine employment status for many qualified individuals in the Sri Lankan context with gender and self - efficacy playing a role in determining success to some extent. Employment systems in Sri Lanka support this idea that a graduate is provided with public sector employment except for those individuals who volunteer for private sector employment and that promotions are mostly based on seniority rather than merit. A survey done among 1634 Sri Lankan graduates regarding their job preferences showed that a total of 84% of them preferred jobs in the public service (Nanayakkara, 1996). On the other hand, the majority of Sri Lankan m igrants’ in New Zealand are skilled migrants with tertiary qualifications who would have had public sector employment before migration. 71 As obvious predictors of employment status before migration, education and length of service were included in the model. In addition to these, gender and self - efficacy were also included. This was based on the rationale that self- efficacy is important to every individual and accepting a higher position depends on his/her belief on personal ability. On the other hand, Sr i Lanka is identified as a masculine country (refer to chapter 2 for comparison with New Zealand) and thus gender was expected to have a role in determining employment status. All the above factors are expected to impact on job satisfaction of individuals (job satisfaction before migration). As per the literature objective outcomes correlate with subjective success and therefore, it was predicted that employment status before migration and its attendant job satisfaction would have an impact on subjective c areer success before migration. A comprehensive version of these relationships has been shown in figure 3.1. Figure 3.1: A model of career outcomes before migration Self - Gender Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success before migration Employment status before migration Gender Self - efficacy Education Length of service 72 Career outcomes after migration The studies of migrants’ career success h ave not taken the attention of many researchers in the past except for expatriate careers and their adjustment problems (Arbona, 1995; Leong & Hartung, 2000). However, the reviewed literature provided many relevant issues that lead to success in terms of career and a harmonious life in a new environment for people who move between cultures. Several attributes appear to have attracted particular attention in expatriates’ adjustment in general and their harmonious life in a new country. These include acculturation (Selvarajah, 1996 & 1997 ; Berry, 1997; Webb & Wright, 1996; Selmer, 1999), language ability (Bellente & Kogut, 1998; Leslie & Lindley, 2001; Kossoudji, 1988), social support (Lopez, Ehly & Garcia - Vazquez, 2002; Leung, 2001) and overseas experience (Hogan & Goodson, 1990 ) etc. Some other researchers have discussed many issues relating to career success and satisfaction including career strategies (Aryee & Debrah, 1993; Zheng & Kleiner, 2001; Orpen, 1994; Aryee & Chay, 1994, Lankau & Scandura, 2002 ), self- efficacy (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002; Maurer & Andrews, 2000 ), education (Judge et al, 1995; Nabi, 1999), gender (Evetts, 2000; Tsui & Gutek, 1984; Wood & Lindorff, 2001) and age. Migrants’ career success is a complex phenomenon demanding attention in several ways. In general, compared to other individuals who live entirely in the same country or in a similar cultural environment, migrants have two different phases in their career: career before migration and career after migration. They accumulate education, skills and experiences in their life before migration including their cultural values and beliefs and cross those boundaries when they migrate to a new country with a different cultural environment. How were their careers before migration? How did they feel about their careers before migration? Why did they decide to migrate? After migration what attempts did they make to get into the host country workforce? And how do they feel about their careers in the host country? All these are questions influence a migrant’s career. There are two different issues to be considered in terms of their career in such a case. One is previous education, skills and other qualities they brought with them to the host country. 73 This may have an impact on their success after migration. Secondly, their adjustment in the new environment and other related factors that can have an impact on their career after migration. Both issues need to be addressed in assessing migrants’ success after migration. Reviewed literatu re provided several adjustment concepts (acculturation, mode of adjustment to career and career strategies) along with many other factors (motivation to migrate, social support, language ability, overseas experience, education in the host country, length of time in the host country and age) that can influence the career success of migrants in a new environment. On the other hand, a previous section in this chapter presented the details of factors influencing career success before migration. It has been conceptualised that both set of factors (factors especially related to the new environment and the factors related to migrants’ previous life) can have an impact on migrants’ career success after migration. The conceptualised model has been shown in figure 3.2. The expected outcomes after migration have been conceptualised to include objective career success after migration, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. The general feeling of satisfaction is also important in the case of migrants’ wider life since the ultimate feeling of success depends on it whether they are employed or not in the new country. 74 Figure 3.2: Model of determinants of career outcomes after migration Objective career success after migration Motivation to migrate Social support Mode of Adjustment to career Acculturation Strategies Language Ability Career Strategies Age Career satisfaction after migration Length of time in New Zealand Overseas experience Subjectiv e career success after migration Education in N ew Zealand Self - efficacy Gender Gender Self - efficacy Education 75 The proposed model of migrants’ career outcomes suggests that overall career satisfaction is the ultimate outcome in individual careers and the success achieved by individuals predict their overall career satisfaction. Previous researchers (Judge et al. , 1995; Lau & Shaffer, 1999) supported the idea that objective measures of success like pay, promotion and job title positively predicts career satisfaction. Especially, in the case of migrants, career outcomes include their success before migration and after migration. Thus, it is suggested that the outcomes conceptualised in the previous models (figure 3.1 and figure 3.2) are the predictors of overall career satisfaction of migrants. This conceptualisation has been shown in figure 3.3. Figure 3.3: Model of predictors of overall career satisfaction of migrants Objective career success after migration Job satisfaction before migration Career satisfaction after migration Subjective car eer success before migration Overall career satisfaction Subjective career success after migration Employment status before migration 76 An integrated model for migrants’ career outcomes The major theme of the present study is that adjustment (in both culture and career) of migrants to their new cultural environment, along with other supportive factors to a new environment and the personal qualities they brought with them will have a measurable impact on their career success and thus lead to different level of career satisfaction. Thus, the models discussed previously in this chapter explain the various part of migrants’ career outcome. Each independent model presented the outcomes and their predictors with the support of the ideas drawn from the literature. The proposed model of migrants’ career outcomes tested in the present project incorporates all these independent models (figure 3.1, figure 3.2 and figure 3.3) developed in three stages. The integrated model, which is shown as figure 3.4, was the model tested in the present study. The concepts and their detailed definitions and measures are dealt in chapter 4. * Insert figure 3.4 here (ref. Page 77) Conclusion Contemporary expatriate literature deals mostly with expatriates on short- term assignments. This is the major outcome of globalization. But, drawin g on an empirical study of Sri Lankan migrants, a better understanding of migration and individuals’ integration with the host culture is to be generated to show the impact on career outcomes for migrants. There are several factors which determine an individual’s life in a new environment. Experiences must be different from person to person. However, a common understanding is needed if future moves are to be encouraged. Migration has become a significant component of population distribution in New Zeala nd and there are many voices raised on the issues of migrants’ career. Therefore, the integration of possible factors in a model could be a foundation for researchers of other community groups and useful for future migrants in making informed decisions. 77 IV 1 IV2 DV Figure 3.4: An integrated model of determinants of migrants’ career outcomes Objective career success after migration Social support Mode of adjustment to career Acculturation Strategies Language ability Career strategies Age Career satisfaction after migration Length of time in New Zealand Overseas experience Subjective career success after migration Educational experience in NZ Self - efficacy Gender Gender Self - efficacy Education Length of Service in last organisation before migration Motivation to migrate Employment status before migration Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success before migration Overall career satisfaction 78 Chapter 4 Methodology Introduction Cross- cultural impacts on the careers of expatriates have been accepted, as a contemporary issue that needs more research. The literature has provided many ideas on this issue and the new direction of individuals’ careers in the 21 st century. This study, keeping in mind these ideas and directions, tries to identify the major factors that have had an impact on migrants’ career in a culturally new environment. As was noted in chapter 1, the scope of the study is limited to Sri Lankan migrants in New Zealand. This chapter describes the methodology used in the study. Particularly it deals with describing the conceptual model formulated in the previous chapter, operational definitions of concepts, hypotheses developed, data collection and analysis techniques used during the research process. Model Overview As was noted in the first chapter, the overall aim of this research was to examine the differential profile of factors related to career success and career satisfaction of migrant individuals. The model developed in chapter 3 (figure 3.4) incorporated three independent models that explained various parts of migrants’ careers. Those included career outcomes before migration, career outcomes after migration and overall career outcome (overall career satisfaction). This was based on the rationale that migrants had a career before their migration and continued it after migrating to New Zealand and therefore, the overall outcome of their careers depends on both. The final model formulated in this case (figure 3.4) depicted the links between different concepts/constructs (some represent a single variable while others represent multiple variables) and became the foundation for the research questions developed for the purpose of thi s study. 79 Research Questions The study tried to answer several questions in order to determine the important factors that influenced migrants’ success and satisfaction in a new country. To fulfil this purpose, the following questions were developed and ex amined in depth. 1) What factors predict career success of migrants? 2) To what extent do acculturation strategies and modes of adjustment to career influence Sri Lankan migrants’ career success in New Zealand? 3) Are those migrants who are successful in their careers satisfied? 4) To what extent do different factors influence Sri Lankans’ career satisfaction after migration? 5) To what extent do the employment status and subjective career success before migration influence the overall career satisfaction of Sri Lankan migrants in New Zealand? Operational Definitions As per the model developed and shown in figure 3.4 (ref. Page 77) overall career satisfaction was the dependent variable while objective career success after migration, employment status before migration, job satisfaction before migration, subjective career success before migration, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration were mediator or intervening variables. Independent variables included a number of variables (in s ome cases one concept constituted two or more variables). In this section all concepts tested have been defined. Independent Variables Independent variables in the model have been shown in two different sets. The first set (IV1) is related to the career after migration while the second set (IV 2) is related to both careers before migration and careers after migration. The following section discusses these variables in detail. 80 Motivation to migrate Consistent with Richardson and McKenna (2002) , this concept is defined as “the common set of reasons that induce people to migration or self- expatriation”. As per the typology identified in the literature (consistent with Richardson and McKenna in some cases and the researcher’s own ideas in others), this stud y identifies different reasons that prompted migration. The reasons were measured using items developed for the purpose of this study bearing in mind a set of reasons likely to reflect experiences of Sri Lankans. This was based on the personal experience of the researcher and the informal discussions with other Sri Lankan migrants in New Zealand. The reasons to migrate comprised 22 items and the respondents were asked to rate how much each of the 22 items contributed to their decision to migrate. Respondents rated on a scale from 1 (not contributed at all) to 5 (contributed to a greater extent). The items covered all possible reasons identified from the literature and started with ‘I enjoy seeing the world’, followed by ‘I wanted to give a peaceful life to my family’, ‘I wanted to have a greater political freedom’ etc. Item responses were factor analyzed and the factor scores were used for further analysis. Social support Social support has also been tested by previous researchers (Iso- Ahola & Park, 1996) in different contexts. Individuals’ community ties have been identified as important sources of socio- emotional and resources support (Martins, Eddleston & Veiga, 2002). Drawing the ideas from the literature, social support in this study was defined as “the general feeling of being adequately supported or cared for by the own community of migrants as well as the host society”. Measures covered both support from the migrant community as well as support from the host society. Respondents were asked to rate the support they received in settling down in New Zealand as a newcomer. The responses were on a 1 (no support) – 5 (highly supported) scale covering the support for settlement, employment, religious services, accommodation on arrival, resources, hea lth services and other migrant services. 81 Respondents were asked to circle the number on the scale that matches the extent of support they received in terms of each item. For example: In terms of: By Sri Lankans in NZ By NZ community Guidance and support f or settlement Guidance and support for employment 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Item scores were summed and averaged to reach the score on overall support received from each community. Four levels of support were possible in this context and the analysis tried to identify the level of support received by Sri Lankan migrants. 1. Support winning (High support received from both NZ community and Sri Lankan community) 2. High Local s upport (High support received from Sri Lankan community, low support from NZ community) 3. High host support (High support received from NZ community, low support from Sri Lankan community). 4. Poor support (Low support received from both communities). Support from NZ community High Low High 1 2 3 4 Low Figure 4.1: Dimensions of social support Sup po rt f ro m Sr i Lan kan C om m un it y 82 Mode of Adjustment to career Basically, the concept was adapted from Nicholson’s (1984) theory of work role transitions. However, the context of the stud y is different from Nicholson’s and the concept of mode of adjustment to career is defined as “the state of individuals’ adjustment to the new work environment with respect to their previous experiences and expertise”. This concept constituted two variables: 1) The extent of efforts made after migration by the person towards his/her career and 2) the usefulness of prior knowledge, practiced skills and habits of the individuals in the new work environment. The extent of effort made by the person was assess ed by a seven- item scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (to a great extent) developed for the purpose of this study. The items were: 1. I make job applications for all possible chances 2. I volunteer for community works 3. I attend employment seminars and/or workshops 4. I modify my CV according to the job applications 5. I try to build good employment networks 6. I work on improving my qualifications 7. I work on improving my English language skills On the other hand a three - item scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agre e) was used to measure the usefulness of previous knowledge, skills and habits. The items were: 1. My prior working knowledge is very relevant to overall work opportunities in New Zealand. 2. The skills I have learned in the past are very relevant to overall wor k opportunities in New Zealand 3. The work habits I developed previously are very relevant to overall work opportunities in New Zealand. The average of the items’ score on both variables was taken into consideration to reach the final score on each variable. Different modes of adjustment were identified during the analysis and the typology used to interpret these modes was consistent with Nicholson’s (1984) ideas but the interpretation differs as discussed in chapter 2. 83 Acculturation Strategies Several studies (Selmer, 1999; Webb & Wright, 1996; Sunoo, 1998; Hall, G., 1996) have emphasized that change and adjustment in newcomer is both necessary and important to survive in a new environment. Culturally sensitive behaviour and flexibility have been identified in a number of cases as characteristics supporting survival in the workplace (Fitzgerald, 1997; Bird, 1999). Cultural researchers utilize the widely accepted definition of acculturation presented by Berry et al. (1989, cited in Berry, 1997). In his view, acculturation strategies indicate the modes in which immigrants intend to interact with the host society, particularly a) the importance that immigrants ascribe to their own cultural identity (e.g. language, customs and habits of the home culture) and b) t heir relationships with the majority group in the host society. Developing a personal acculturation strategy would include aspects such as how the individual makes connections, becomes fluent in the language, finds friends, locates a cultural mentor and s o on (Bird, 1999; Scott, 1999). Following Berry (1997 ) in his definition of acculturation strategies, the extent of acculturation was assessed in terms of both adapting the host culture and maintaining the home culture. A nine- item proportional continuum ranging from 0 – 100 was used. Respondents were asked to indicate the proportion of usage in terms of the items concerned. They were guided with examples in this rating as below: Please circle the appropriate number to express how you stick to Sri Lankan culture or move towards New Zealand culture. Some examples: The person wears Sri Lankan traditional dress 30 percent of the time and New Zealand culture form of attire 70 percent of the time. He/she will mark as follows: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Another example: The person has no memberships at all in any community organization gives his /her response as follows. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Sri Lankan Traditional Dress New Zealand culture form of attire Memberships and activities in SL community based organizations Memberships & activities in NZ based community organizations 84 Scores from each side (Sri Lankan culture and the adaptation of New Zealand cultural aspects) were averaged to reach the final score on each variable. Language ability Language ability here was conceptualiz ed as “the ability and willingness to use the host country language without any hesitation and/or difficulties in all work and social situations”. The concept was defined to have two variables: ability to use the language and willingness to use the language. There was no single measure readily available in observed literature and many studies have utilized self - reported ability in their analyses. From the ideas acquired from the literature and the questionnaires used in previous study (Department of Inter nal Affairs, 1994), the scales chosen to measure this concept were self- report measures of ability and willingness thought to influence success in a new environment. Ability in English language was measured on a scale from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very high). The items were: 1. Your ability in using English for conversations 2. Your ability in written communication in English 3. Your ability to understand English when communicating with other communities living in New Zealand 4. Your ability to read and understand document s published in English 5. Your ability to understand the colloquial/informal English terms used in New Zealand. On the other hand, respondents’ willingness to use English language was measured using a three- item scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (always). The items were: 1. Using English at home 2. Using English for communication with friends and relatives 3. Using English with other people from Sri Lankan community The items’ scores were summed and averaged to yield the score of each variable. Both of these variables were measured with regard to the time since migration since competency in language would increase with the length of time spent in New Zealand. 85 Career Strategies Consistent with Gould and Penley (cited in Guthrie, Coate & Schwoerer, 1998) and in the contex t of this study, career strategies are conceptualized as “the behaviours which may be utilized by an individual to decrease the time required for and uncertainty surrounding the attainment of important career objectives in a culturally different environmen t”. The concept of career strategies seem to include a number of variables including career planning, seeking guidance and mentoring, networking, self - nomination or presentation, creating opportunities, extended work involvement and ingratiating behaviour (Guthrie, Coate & Schwoerer, 19 98; Grappo, 1997; Sullivan, 2001; Bird, 1999; Hall, D.T., 1996; Souerwine, 1978). Adapted from previous researches and by considering the context of this study, career strategies was conceptualised to include many variables and it was decided to perform a factor analysis on multiple item scale to identify the underlying variables. In order to identify the specific strategies used by respondents, measures used by Guthrie, Coate and Schwoerer (1998) with twenty - five items covering several aspects of the variables involved were utilised on a scale of 1 (not at all) – 5 (to a great extent). This was modified slightly to take account of the local context [see question f (1- 25) of part 3, section 1 in appendix 1]. The respondents were asked to indicate to what extent they have relied upon/ used the particular aspect in order to prosper in their career. The first item in this case was ‘keep career options open’ and the last item was ‘adapt to changes in ‘who you work with’ (e.g., w ork habits, social behaviour)'. Item scores were factor analysed and specific factors were named during the analysis. Overseas experience Overseas experience was identified as an independent variable that can have an influence on career outcomes after migration. Overseas experience in this case was defined as the employment experience a migrant individual had from another country apart from Sri Lanka before migrating to New Zealand. The respondents were asked to report how many years and months of overseas employment they had before migrating to New Zealand. 86 Educational experience in New Zealand From the literature, education in general was identified as a predictor of career success and satisfaction. However, bearing in mind that migrant individuals have an opportunity to gain education also after their migration it was decided to handle that as a separate variable. This variable was defined as “the highest formal educational qualification attained by the individual in New Zealand”. The highest qua lification attained in New Zealand (if any) by the individual was requested from the respondents. These qualifications were coded on an ordinal scale (developed by the researcher for the purpose of this study) as stated below: 1- Short courses 2- Certificate 3- Di ploma 4- Bachelors degree 5- Graduate Diploma 6- Postgraduate diploma/post professional qualifications 7- Masters degree 8- PhD 9- Postdoctoral fellowships Length of time in New Zealand Length of time in New Zealand was conceptualised as an independent variable based on t he rationale that the longer a period an individual spends in a new country the more the experience he/she will gain and this assist the migrant. The respondents were asked to report the actual time period they have been in New Zealand. Age In previous r esearches age has been explained as a factor that either directly or indirectly influences the career success of individuals (Nabi, 1999). The model developed in this study assumed a relationship between age and objective career success after migration, subjective success after migration as well as age and career satisfaction after migration. 87 Respondents were asked to indicate their age in one of four pre - coded age ranges (25 - 34, 35- 44, 45- 54 and 55 and over). These groupings are suggested by, and drawn f rom, previous age related career theories (Super, 1957; Schein, 1978). The age group below 25 was not included (even though some people of this age could be in the work force) as their work experience would be limited. Gender Several researchers (Melamed , 1996; Evetts, 2000; Guthrie, Coate & Schwoerer, 1998) have emphasized that the two sexes cannot be considered as one group when attempting to explain career success and that the reference groups should be gender specific. Factors such as unequal career development, personal career progress (Wood & Lindorff, 2001), have been supported by sex differences in previous studies and this could be due to the cultural dimensions where cultural belief systems influence and control behaviour, career decisions and choices (Evetts, 2000). Thus, gender was also considered as an important concept in the model. This was coded as 1 - Male and 2 - Female Self-efficacy Many previous researchers have studied the concept of self - efficacy (Ladany, Ellis & Friedlander, 1999; Chen, Gully & Eden, 2001; Maurer & Andrews; 2000; Lee, Locke & Phan, 1997; Renn & Fedor, 2001) and measures of self - efficacy have been presented, tested and validated at different times. The definition of self- efficacy seemed to include the beliefs on capability related to tasks and strengths. It is assumed that the accumulation of positive beliefs induces people to act appropriately and enhance the possibility for success and satisfaction. Thus this study defined self- efficacy as “the individual’s belief in his/her overall ability to act on and perform different jobs and situations” in terms of career and used the term ‘career self - efficacy’. 88 By reviewing various measures used in previous studies, a five - item scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always) was select ed consistent with Renn and Fedor (2001, p. 571). The items were: 1. How often, on average, do you feel confident about your ability to perform your job? 2. How often, on average, do you feel that you are on top of things concerning your job? 3. How often, on aver age, do you feel that at work things are going your way? 4. How often, on average, do you feel certain you can perform your job well? 5. How often, on average, do you feel certain you can overcome the difficulties in any situation? The respondents were advised that these questions were not specific to their present or past job but any job in general. These measures did not include a task - specific measure of self- efficacy strength and magnitude as discussed in several studies (Chen, Gully & Eden, 2000; Maurer & An drews, 20 00) since the respondents are from different occupations and the complexity of their nature. Education The extent of educational background of the individual was also taken as a predictor of career success and career satisfaction. Education was defined as “the formal educational qualification attained by the individual”. This would cover qualifications gained by the individuals before migrating to New Zealand. Educational qualifications were coded on an ordinal scale (developed by the researcher for the purpose of this study) as stated below: 1 No formal qualifications 2 Secondary School (G.C.E O/ L and/or G.C.E A/L) 3 Certificate or Diploma (Technical colleges/ Any other higher educational institute) 4 Bachelors degree 5 Postgraduate Diploma/degree 6 Other… . 89 The highest qualification attained by the individual was requested from the respondents. On the other hand, the specific area of their qualification also was requested for descriptive purposes and in case an area that was not stated in the possible responses was post coded. Length of Service For the purpose of this study, length of service is defined as “the number of years an individual has spent working in a particular organization”. Since the model develops a relationship between length of service and job satisfaction before migration, the definition was applied to the last organization served by the individual before migration. A pre- coded range of years was used to measure the variable (0 - 5, 6- 10, 1 1- 15, 16- 20 and 21 years or more). Respondents were asked to indicate their length of service in the last job they had before migration. Intervening and mediator variables Intervening and mediator variables in the model consisted of outcomes from migrants’ career before migration and career after migration that lead to overall career outcome; overall career satisfaction in this case. Each part (careers before and after migration) had its objective and subjective success concepts and satisfaction concept. These variables are outlined below. Career success Consistent with past researches (Judge et al., 1995; Orpen, 1994) career success was conceptualized as “the positive psychological or work related outcomes or achievements one has accumulated as a result of one’s work experiences”. It encompasses su bjective and objective aspects of achievement of an individual through an organisation or occupation (Judge et al., 1995; Lau & Shaffer, 1999; Nabi, 1999; Melamed, 1996). These studies have found that the variables that lead to objective career success of ten are quite different from those that lead to subjectively defined success. Objective career success has been said to be evaluated in terms of others’ perceptions rather than one’s own. On the other hand, subjective career success is denoted by an indi vidual’s self - feelings regarding their career 90 success. Thus the concept of career success is comprised of two variables: objective career success and subjective career success. These two variables have been shown separately for careers before and after migration in the model. Objective career success before and after migration In line with previous researchers objective career success was measured in terms of salary, and employment status. It was necessary to identify respondents’ job before migration and the job at the time of the survey. And as the salary is a sensitive issue in terms of culture (Sri Lankans do not like to openly reveal their earnings), it was necessary to ask questions about salary in a different way. Respondents were asked to state their job before migration, employment status at present (at the time of the survey) and their present salary in one of the range given in the questionnaire before migration (Rs.48, 000 or less, 48,001- 72,000, 72,001- 96,000, 96,001- 1 20,000, 120,000 and over) and at the time of the survey ($15,000 or less, 15,001- 25,000, 2 5,001- 35,000, 35,001- 45, 000, 45,001 and over). Since the salary figures are difficult to compare considering the effect of inflation and other factors in relation to the time differences between the time of earning such salaries and the time of reporting for this study, employment status instead of objective career success before migration was considered in the model. The actual occupation of each individual was coded using the classification based on education and training developed by Wash (1995/ 96). It was selected as the most suitable measure of coding occupations from those investigated (ISCO 88; Elley - Irving and Irving - Elley index of 1970s; Scoville, 1965) for this study. Wash (1995/ 96) developed a system to classify occupations by education and training based on three principles: 1. An occupation would be placed in the category that reflects the manner in which most workers become proficient in that occupation 2. Postsecondary institutional education requirements leading to degrees and certificates would be used to classify occupations in which completion of that 91 program is the most common way of entering the occupation, even though additional on- the- job experience is usually needed to become proficient in the occupation. 3. The length of time it generally takes an average worker to achieve proficiency through a combination of on- the- job training and experience would be used to classify occupations in which postsecondary training is generally not needed for entry. Wash’s analysis resulted in 11 categories of education, training and experience with clear distinctions between them and so all occupations can be placed in one of the categories. Categories were ordered but not ranked. For the purpose of this study, those categories were ranked from 1 to 11 with 1 having the least education, training and experience with lowest level. Occupation requires an associate degree as classified by Wash (1995/ 96) represents a qualification that is not in e xistence either in New Zealand or in Sri Lanka. However, the occupations classified in Wash’s study under this category were ranked in that order. The coding process was executed with three independent coders. The first coder was the researcher herself. The second coder was the chief supervisor who has extensive research experience and the third coder was the core supervisor of this study who has a similar level of research experience as the second coder. All cases were identified, coded, and compared to get an agreement. In coding the occupations, a coding agreed by all three coders was selected in the first instance. When there was no initial agreement between the coders, issues were discussed and the coding was selected either after all the coders reached agreement or where two coders finally agreed. Subjective career success before and after migration Subjective career success measures were in agreement with D.T. Hall’s definition (1996) of career success: “ the feeling of pride and accomplishment t hat comes from achieving one’s most important goals in life, be they achievement, family happiness, inner peace, or something else”. Respondents were asked to indicate their feeling of success with respect to 92 five issues related to the feeling of success. The items were developed for the purpose of this study incorporating the major themes of success indicated by D.T. Hall (1996) in his definition. The items used to measure subjective success before migration were: 1. I felt my career contributed to a good sta tus for me in the community 2. I felt my career contributed to a good and happy family life 3. I felt my career led me to achieve my goals in life 4. I felt I had good career prospects 5. I felt peace of mind through my career Scores on each comprehensive five - item scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (to a great extent) were summed and averaged to reach a score on the variable. Similar questions were asked to measure subjective success after migration with items starting from ‘I feel my career contributes to a good status for me in the community’ to ‘I feel peace of mind through my career’. The responses concerning success in Sri Lanka or any other country they previously inhabited may be affected by the experiences after migration. However the questionnaire was developed in a sequence that insisted on the time of the experience (before migration, immediately after the arrival, and after migration) in answering respective questions. Job Satisfaction before migration Job satisfaction has received various definitions from different theorists and researchers. The general view of definitions shows that it as an aspect of attitudes (Stanley, 2001; Oshagbemi, 1999a; Geyer & Daly, 1998; Elkin & Inkson, 2000) and in this case a number of dispositional and situational factors have been identified as determinants of job satisfaction (Robie, Ryan, Schmieder, Parra & Smith, 1998). An individual’s attitude towards his/her job could either be positive or negative. Thus this study, consistent with Elkin and Inkson (2000) define s job satisfaction as “the degree to which an individual’s attitude to his or her job is positive”. An individual may have performed one or many jobs in his/her career and the study concentrated only on the last job they had before migration. 93 Through a review of various measures (Oshagbemi, 1999a & 2000) and arguments on different measures (Oshagbemi, 1999a), a four - item scale was selected to measure the satisfaction on their job. The items were: 1) Which of the following indicates how much of the time you felt satisfied with your last job performed before migration? The possible options they had in this case range from 1 (never) to 5 (all of the time). 2) Which of the following statements best describes how you felt about your last job before migration? The options were from 1 (I hated it) to 5 (I loved it). 3) Which of the following statements best describes how you felt about changing your last job you performed before migration? The options were from 1 (I wanted to quit the job at once if I could) to 5 (I did not want to exchange my job for any other). 4) Which of the following statements best describes how you thought you compared with other people? The options were from 1 (no one disliked his/her job more than I disliked mine) to 5 (no one liked his/her job better than I liked mine). The respondents were asked to indicate the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction in terms of their last job they performed before migration. The average score of these items was then used in the analysis as the variable score. Career Satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration was defined as the level of satisfaction the individual migrant reached in New Zealand either as an employed person or an unemployed person. Employed migrants were asked to report on their satisfaction with their job at the time of the survey while unemployed migrants were asked to report on their level of satisfaction as an unemployed person. 94 The same types of questions, as used in measuring job satisfaction before migration with a four- item scale, were used to measure the satisfaction after migration (see questions 4 - 1k to 4- 1n and 4- 2d to 4- 2g in appendix 1). The item scores were summed and averaged to reach a final score on career satisfaction after migration. Dependent Variable (DV) The dependent variable in the model was overall career satisfaction. This was conceptualised based on the fact that a migrant’s career has two different situations; the before migration career and the after migration career and the overall outcome is comprised of both. Therefore, the ultimate outcome of migrants’ careers is the overall career satisfaction migrant individuals perceive from their career. Overall Career Satisfaction Some researchers have considered career satisfaction and career su ccess as being similar to each other (Igbaria & Baroudi, 1993; Aryee & Chay, 1994; Keng - Howe & Liao, 1999) and therefore the measures used in career satisfaction researches are similar to the career success measures. This study, consistent with Judge et al. (1995) and Greenhaus, Parasuraman and Wormley (1990 as cited in Judge et al. 1995) conceptualised career satisfaction as “the satisfaction individuals derive from intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of their careers, including pay, advancement and developm ental opportunities”. The variable here is the degree of satisfaction the individual expresses. The degree of career satisfaction was measured with a five- item scale from 1) very dissatisfied to 5) very satisfied utilised in earlier studies (Judge et al., 1995 ; Aryee & Chay, 1994). The items were: 1. I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career 2. I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my overall career goals 3. I am satisfied with the progress I have made for advancement 4. I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for the development of new skills. The average of the item scores was used as the variable score in this case. 95 Operational Hypotheses The major hypothesis of this study, as was stated in chapt er 1, is that ‘the adjustment process of migrants to their general career environment in a new country will closely relate to their success and satisfaction.’ To emphasize the profile of factors that are typically associated with career success and career satisfaction of individuals in a cross- cultural environment, the detailed hypotheses suggested by the model (shown in figure 3.4) and the research literature underpinning this model are shown in this section. Motivation to migrate. As per the literature, individuals migrate to different countries due to various reasons. This study assumed that there will be differences in success and satisfaction individuals experience based on their motivation to migrate. The key point here is that the extent to which the individual was induced by a particular reason will lead him/her to concentrate on achieving what was expected at the time of his/her migration (wealth, quality life, children’s education etc.) and therefore their enthusiasm toward the career goals will vary. This will have an impact on their career success and satisfaction. Motivation to migrate was assumed to impact on objective career success after migration (measured by employment status and present salary), subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. Thus, it can be hypothesised that: H 1 Employment status at present varies depending on the reason for migration. H 2 Present salary varies depending on the reason for migration. H 3 Subjective career success aft er migration varies depending on the reason for migration. H 4 career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the reason for migration. Since the measures of motivations were subject to a factor analysis, they needed to be confirmed during the analysis, and as no previous research confirming any directions in the relationship between different motivations and career outcomes were found, no directions or specific relationships were assumed in these hypotheses prior to analysis. Hypotheses H1 – H4 consisted of sub hypotheses based on respective motivation based on the results of factor analysis. These sub hypotheses have been stated in Chapter 5 under exploratory factor analysis. 96 Social support. Social support has been identified as a supportive fa ctor of achievement in previous studies (Lopez, Ehly & Garcia - Vazquez, 2002). A feeling of support is assumed to have a positive relationship with related outcomes since support helps individuals to overcome the difficulties they face and thus leads them to useful actions towards their goals. This could be true in the case of career goals as well. Social support in this study was conceptualized to have two variables: support from the Sri Lankan community (own community) and support from the New Zealand co mmunity (host community). Therefore, it can be hypothesized that: H 5 As support from own community increases, employment status at present increases. H 6 As support from own community increases, present salary increases. H 7 As support from own community increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 8 As support from own community increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. H 9 As support from host community increases, employment status at present increases. H 10 As support from host community increases, present salary increases. H 11 As support from host community increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 12 As support from host community increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. Mode of adjustment to career. Individuals’ adjustment with regard to their careers were conceptualised to have two variables; the efforts made towards career and the usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and work habits. Efforts are linked with better outc omes while usefulness of any aspect in a new environment helps individuals to move further without difficulties. 97 This could be assumed to be true in terms of career outcomes as well, suggesting: H 13 As efforts made increases, employment status at present increases. H 14 As effort made increases, present salary increases. H 15 As effort made increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 16 As effort made increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. H 17 As usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and work habits increases, employment status at present increases. H 18 As usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and work habits increases, present salary increases. H 19 As usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and work habits increase s, subjective career success after migration increases. H 20 As usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and work habits increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. Acculturation. Acculturation is a complex phenomenon, measured in this study by scales concerned with cultural maintenance (individuals trying to maintain their own culture) and cultural adaptation (adapting to the host culture). The level of maintenance and adaptation together form different acculturation strategies (Berry, 1997) and these strategies explain the distance between the individual and the host culture. This study, assumed that more closeness to the host culture results in increased level of success and thus satisfaction. Thus, it can be conceptualised that: H 21 As maintenance of own culture increases, employment status at present decreases. H 22 As maintenance of own culture increases, present salary decreases. H 23 As maintenance of own culture increases, subjective career success after migration decreases. H 24 As maintenance of own culture increases, career satisfaction after migration decreases. H 25 As cultural adaptation increases, employment status increases. H 26 As cultural adaptation increases, present salary increases. 98 H 27 As cultural adaptation increases, subjectiv e career success after migration increases. H 28 As cultural adaptation increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. Language ability. Language ability in the host country language facilitates adjustment into the new environment. Language a bility enhances clear communications and thus leads to better outcomes. Language ability in this study constituted the ability to use English language and the willingness to use it. Hence, it can be hypothesised that: H 29 As ability in English language increases, employment status at present increases. H 30 As ability in English language increases, present salary increases. H 31 As ability in English language increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 32 As ability in English language increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. H 33 As willingness to use English language increases, employment status at present increases. H 34 As willingness to use English language increases, present salary increases. H 35 As willingness to use English language increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 36 As willingness to use English language increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. Career strategies. The career strategies concept was assumed to include more than one strategy and the items were subject to a factor analysis. Previous researchers (Zheng & Kleiner, 2001; Orpen, 1994; Ball, 1998; Mihal, Sorce & Comte, 1984) have reported that career strategies are important aspects of career success. Strategies are expected to enhance the success and satisfaction in any case and thus it can be conceptualised that: H 37 Level of a career strategy increases employment status at present increases. H 38 Level of a career strategy increases present salary increases. 99 H 39 Level of a career strategy increases subjective career success after migration increases. H 40 Level of a career strategy increases career satisfaction after migration increases. Hypotheses H37 – H40 consisted of sub hypotheses related to respective career strategies based on the results of factor analysis. These sub hypotheses have been stated in chapter 5 under exploratory factor analysis. Overseas experience. This study assumed that individuals who had previous overseas experience at the time of their migration have better prospects in a new country. This is because, similar environments and previous cross - cultural experiences could enhance the adjustment of individuals to the new host country and assist career outcomes. Hence, it is hypothesised that: H 41 As overseas experience increases, employment status at present increases. H 42 As overseas experience increases, present salary increases. H 43 As overseas experience increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 44 As overseas experience increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. Educational experience in New Zealand. Educational experience in New Zealand was conceptualised as the level of educational qualification achieved by migrant individuals in New Zealand. It was assumed that the higher the qualifications, the higher the career outcomes. Thus, it can be hypothesised that: H 45 As the level of educational qualification gained in New Zealand increases, employment status at present increases. H 46 As the level of educational qualification gained in New Zealand increases, present salary increases. H 47 As the level of educational qualification gained in New Zealand increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 48 As the level of educational qualification gained in New Zealand increases, career satisfaction after migration increases. 100 Length of time in New Zealand. The longer a migrant has lived in a new country, the greater his/her learning of that environment will lead him/her to behave and adjust according to the expectations of that environment. Thus, it was assumed that length of time in New Zealand has a positive relationship to career outcomes. Hence, it can be hypothesised that: H 49 As length of time in New Zealand increases, employ ment status at present increases H 50 As length of time in New Zealand increases, present salary increases H 51 As length of time in New Zealand increases, subjective career success after migration increases. H 52 As length of time in New Zealand increases , career satisfaction after migration increases. Age. The physical age of the individual adds experience, knowledge and developed skills over time. Previous studies (Super, 1957; Schein, 1978) discussed age with individual career stages but the contemporary world differs from such situations. However, it has been accepted that age has an influence on individual career success (Nabi, 1999) though directions of these influences were not clear. Hence, it is hypothesised that: H 53 Age will explain a signi ficant portion of the variance in employment status at present. H 54 Age will explain a significant portion of the variance in present salary. H 55 Age will explain a significant portion of the variance in subjective career success after migration. H 56 Age will explain a significant portion of the variance in career satisfaction after migration. 101 Gender. Previous studies (Melamed, 1996; Guthrie, Coate & Schwoerer, 1998, Wood & Lindorff, 2001) suggested that explaining career success should be gender spec ific due to various reasons. No directions of influence could be assumed in this case, but variations can be looked for. Thus, it is hypothesised that: H 57 Gender will explain a variance in employment status at present. H 58 Gender will explain a variance in present salary. H 59 Gender will explain a variance in employment status before migration. H 60 Gender will explain a variance in job satisfaction before migration. H 61 Gender will explain a variance in subjective career success after migration. Self-efficacy. Self - efficacy or the positive beliefs of self leads individuals to act with confidence. This, in turn, brings better outcomes. In this study, self - efficacy has been conceptualised to have links with employment status before migration, job satisfac tion before migration, objective career success after migration (employment status and salary), and subjective career success after migration. Therefore, it is hypothesised that: H 62 As self- efficacy increases, employment status before migration increases . H 63 As self- efficacy increases, job satisfaction before migration increases. H 64 As self- efficacy increases, employment status at present increases. H 65 As self- efficacy increases, present salary increases. H 66 As self- efficacy increases, subjective career success after migration increases. Education. Educational qualification gained before migration has been conceptualised to have links with employment status before migration, job satisfaction before migration and objective career success after migrati on. In common sense, the better the qualification the greater the potential for high status employment and a higher salary and this in turn will result in a higher level of job satisfaction. Hence, it can be hypothesised that: H 67 As educational qualification before migration increases, employment status before migration increases. H 68 As educational qualification before migration increases, job satisfaction before migration increases. 102 H 69 As educational qualification before migration increases, employment status at present increases. H 70 As educational qualification before migration increases, present salary increases. H 71 As educational qualification before migration increases subjective career success after migration increases. Length of service. It ha s been conceptualised that the longer a period of service of an individual in an organisation leads to a greater attachment to the job and thus to higher satisfaction. Thus, it is hypothesised that: H 72 As length of service with the last organisation before migration increases, employment status before migration increases. H 73 As length of service with the last organisation before migration increases, job satisfaction before migration increases. Overall career satisfaction. According to the literature, su ccess leads to satisfaction and, in the case of migration, overall satisfaction with career includes career before and after migration. Career success was conceptualised to have objective and subjective components. In addition to the success phenomenon, a satisfaction component (job satisfaction before migration and career satisfaction after migration) was assumed to have links with overall career satisfaction of individuals. Hence, it can be conceptualised that: H 74 As employment status at present increases, overall career satisfaction increases. H 75 As present salary increases, overall career satisfaction increases. H 76 As employment status before migration increases, overall career satisfaction increases. H 77 As job satisfaction before migration incre ases, overall career satisfaction increases. H 78 As subjective career success before migration increases, overall career satisfaction increases. H 79 As subjective career success after migration increases, overall career satisfaction increases. 103 H 80 As career satisfaction after migration increases, overall career satisfaction increases. Testing of the above hypotheses derived from the conceptual model tried to answer the research questions formulated in this study. Sample and Procedure The data used in this study were collected through a questionnaire (appendix 1) designed solely for the purpose of this study to investigate the impact on career success and career satisfaction of different variables concerned in the model. The questionnaire was designed to incorporate measures utilized in previous studies as well as new measures developed where no simple and suitable measures were readily available. In many cases, item - scales with each item measured on a 1 - 5 scale were adapted. Demographic variables such as jo b title, length of time in New Zealand, migrant category, institution from which the qualifications were gained, were also included in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was then pilot tested with sixteen Sri Lankans who might be potential respondents. Pilot testing and reliability analysis The subjects of the pre - testing process were 16 Sri Lankan immigrants living in the Auckland region who are the potential participants for the study. Of this pre - test sample, 69 percent were male; 68 percent had university degrees or higher qualifications and none of them were without formal qualifications. To obtain meaningful reliability measures, these descriptive measures confirmed their potentiality to be in the study. This pre- testing process consisted of two stages. In the first stage, the questionnaire was mailed to all 16 participants with prior notice about the process and acceptance to participate. It was planned to establish test- retest measures of reliability and the participants were informed that they need to fill out the questionnaire for a second time. Answered questionnaires were returned directly to the researcher in pre- addressed envelopes. In the second stage, the same questionnaires were sent to the participants once the first questionnaire was returned. The same returning procedure with self- addressed envelopes was followed. 104 A test- retest reliability technique was utilised for this purpose. SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) was used to determine the reliability coefficients o f the two administrations. Scale reliability was determined for all cases where several items were used to measure a construct. The reliability scores are presented in table 4.1. Table 4.1: Reliability scores on pilot testing Variable Alpha test 1 Alpha test 2 Motivation to migrate (mean based reliability on all items) Social support from Sri Lankan community Social support from New Zealand community Efforts made toward career Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills Maintenance of own culture Adaptation of New Zealand culture Ability to use English language Willingness to use English language Career strategies (mean based reliability on all items) S elf- efficacy Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success before migration Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Overall career satisfaction .83 .61 .84 .85 .85 .81 .79 .93 .89 .93 .88 .57 .91 .87 .84 .91 .80 .66 .86 .84 .95 .83 .82 .92 .82 .89 .87 .81 .84 .92 .80 .94 A covariance method with correlation matrix (inter - item correlation) was used for these analyses except in two cases. In the case of the concepts of motivation to migrate and career strategies, it was planned originally to run a factor analysis with varimax rotation in the final process and more than twenty items were used in each case to measure the conceptualized variables. However, it was realised that running a factor analysis with a small (16) sample of participants would not be appropriate in these cases during the pre - testing process and a mean based reliability coefficient was determined to compare the test- retest measures. 105 Generally, it is said that the reliability of the instrument should be high (e.g. above .80) or at least marginally acceptable (above .60) when selecting an instrument (Gliner & Morgan, 2000, p.313). In many cases, the reliability coefficient was relatively high (above .80) and the questionnaire was taken as an acceptable instrument to be administered. With the items that have a marginally acceptable reliability index (above .60; social support from Sri Lankan community), it was expected that this would be overcome during the final process. Sample According to the available statistics (Statistics New Zealand, 2001), the total number of Sri Lankans living in N ew Zealand during the census period of 2001 was 604 2. However, the age composition of this population showed that a total of 3288 of these Sri Lankans fall between the ages of 25 and 64 which was the target age group of this study. Though the total number of Sri Lankans is above 6,000 , it cannot be assumed that they are proportionally distributed in all geographical regions. Statistics showed that a total of 5,529 Sri Lankans are living in North Island and of that of those 3,486 are in the Auckland region. Considering this, Auckland was selected as the location of the research participants. It was impossible to identify participants from publicly available resources (telephone book or electoral list) due to the difficulty in differentiating names from Indi an Tamils or similar names of other ethnicities. Based on the above facts, a selection of Sri Lankan community organisations was used to select as many respondents as possible for the study. Thus, a convenience sampling technique was used since other techniques could not be applied due to the difficulty of clearly identifying Sri Lankan migrants. It was not possible to avoid the concentration of one category of participants in the case of snowball sampling, and the non- availability of a complete list of S ri Lankans living in New Zealand made random selection impossible. A design effect of 2.00 (Page and Meyer, 2000, p.106) , the quantity used to measure the quality of sample design where the larger the design effect, the worse the design in terms of producing representative samples, is expected under this non- probability sampling technique. Though it is higher than for other sampling techniques, it seemed to be the most 106 appropriate technique considering the situation. It was planned to attempt a maximum of 1,000 participants with an expectation of 30% response rate resulting in 300 responses. The sample size for a population of 6,000 is 361 at 95% confidence level (Sekaran, 2000; Isaac & Michael, 1981). However, a close observation on the sample size for different population sizes recommended by these authors reveals that the differences between the sample sizes are much smaller when the population size increases. For example: recommended sample size for a population of 300 0 is 341, for 4000 is 351, for 6000 is 361. But in later cases the differences are smaller. A sample size of 367 is recommended for a population of 8000 and 370 for a population of 10,000. Hence, a sample size of 300 was considered reasonable. Questionnaires As a non interactive procedure (Page & Meyer, 2000, p.110), the questionnaire was issued to the participants and the sampling commenced from the ethnic organisations: United Sri Lanka Association, The New Zealand Thirumurugan Temple Society, International Movement for Tamil Culture NZ Inc., and the NZ Tamil Society. Since the ethnic organizations represent both ethnic groups, Sinhalese and Tamils, it was expected that the sample would be fairly representative of the Sri Lankan community. Initial contacts started from the respective organisations and the process flew through members and others directed by initial contacts. One organisation (The NZ Tamil society) mailed questionnaires to all of its members while others distributed the questionnaires whenever people had access to the organisation. Since this process needed more time with people accessing on an irregular basis, organisations spent a four - month period from July to October, 2003 running this distribution process. Though questionnaire administration was a time consuming procedure, it was the best method of data collection in the context of this study. In an attempt to increase the responses in order to get the maximum possible representative sample, community radios were used to spread the message and this resulted in individuals requesting questionnaires and so a snowball basis of questionnaire 107 distribution evolved. In addition, some questionnaires were sent to identifiable Sri Lankans from the Auckland telephone book. Data Analysis The data analysis procedure consisted of several stages from editing to analysis using different techniques. This section explains the initial procedure followed by detail techniques and procedures in the next chapter. Editing This process started from the data editing stage. Returned quest ionnaires were numbered for easy identification with later purposes. Incoming questionnaires were checked for any inconsistencies and incompleteness. It was planned that in the case of 25% or more incompleteness in a questionnaire, it would be separated and not be included in the set of questionnaires to be analyzed (Sekaran, 2000 ). However no such situation occurred. From the received questionnaires, 11 were separated from the rest as not useful since the respondents were not in the study’s target group (r etired persons, never employed individuals and full- time students). Coding and Entry A codebook was prepared with details for computer entry columns for each variable, the range of permissible values for each variable, and for the nominal and ordinal var iables the interpretations of the codes were entered. Responses from the returned questionnaires were entered in an appropriate manner. A post coding was performed whenever necessary. The analysis tool was SPSS in many cases and in the other case it was a database and therefore, the entries were on an SPSS data sheet. Thus the missing data appeared with a dot (.) or by a predetermined value in the cell. Then data checking was performed in order to detect any errors in the data collected. Analysis The data collected consisted of qualitative and quantitative components suggesting that different techniques need to be used during the analysis. They were analysed in several stages and their details have been presented in chapter 5. 108 Summary The present chapter outlined the research project and the development of research hypotheses. The selection of respondents was discussed. Hypotheses were presented along with the short description of the rationale for the particular hypotheses. A brief overview of the data collection technique and procedure used in this study were provided. The next chapter outlines the results obtained during the analysis along with the fuller descriptions of each technique used in the study. 109 Chapter 5 Data Analysis Introduction The results were analysed in eight stages. 1. Sample profile. The descriptive analysis was performed to get a general picture of the sample where the frequency distributions on demographic variables, and measures of central tendency such as mean, standard deviation, range and variance for other independent and dependent variables were utilized for this purpose. 2. Reliability analysis Reliability of the scales employed was established by using the widely used measu re of reliability coefficient, namely Cronbach’s alpha on all variables measured with more than three items. 3. Factor analysis A factor analysis of item responses was used to identify which dimensions emerged in the case of the concepts; motivation to mig rate and career strategies. This was to confirm the factorial validity of the data. 4. Cluster analysis A cluster analysis was performed on the concepts where two- dimensional typologies were developed during the study in order to provide a general picture of migrants’ adjustment in New Zealand. This included the concepts of acculturation, mode of adjustment to career, and social support. 5. Tests of Association In the first instance, bivariate tests of association were used to test the hypotheses developed during the study. 6. Multiple regression analysis Considering the complexity of the model, a multiple regression analysis was performed and the model was modified and simplified. 7. Structural equation modelling At the next stage structural equation mo delling was used to test simultaneously (Byrne, 2001) the multiple relationships assumed in the model. This was used to examine the inherent relationships between the underlying variables in the model derived after regression analysis. 110 8. Content analysis Finally, a content analysis was performed with open responses (the last item in appendix 1) to the general feeling of migration and careers in New Zealand. This chapter presents the results of each part of the analysis. Sample Profile A total of 221 (136 males, 84 females and 1 who did not report gender) respondents completed and returned the questionnaires. In the end, 210 of the 221 questionnaires were usable, yielding a final response rate of 26.25 %. Although the response rate was relatively low, it w as considered reasonable given the large sample size and given that respondents were required to complete a reasonably long questionnaire in a language that was not their first. This group of 210 respondents formed the sample used in this study. 37.1% 62.4% .5% Female Male Missing Figure 5. 1: Gender proportion of the sample Sample Composition The type of migrant categories can particularly explain the differences in age of the respondents. A vast majority of the respondents (73.3%) had entered New Zealand under the general skills catego ry. They had mainly qualified from educational institutions in their late twenties (due to the interruptions in education caused by war during the last three decades in Sri Lanka), waited to get work experience for at least two years (the minimum requireme nt for applying under the general skills category) and thus had qualified for migration in their thirties. Those in the age group 25- 34 consisted of migrants who had recently come into the country under this category, as well as the group of migrants who came as refugees and others who migrated with their parents (that is, parents were the main applicants for migration). 111 Respondents in the age range 25 to 34 years (n = 35) accounted for 16.7 % of the sample, from 35 to 44 (n = 80 ) accounted for 38.3 % which was the mode for this age composition and age range from 45 to 64 (n = 95) accounted for 45.0 % of the sample. A comparison with the actual population of Sri Lankans in New Zealand from the latest census information (Statistics New Zealand, 2001) revea ls that the sample will reasonably represent the population. Table 5.1: Relationship between population and sample frequencies A ge r an ge P op ul at io n % Obs er ve d Fre que nc ie s (O) Expe ct ed Fre que nc ie s (E) C hi -s qua re d va lu es (O – E) 2 / E 25 - 34 23.8 35 49.98 4.5 351 35 - 44 34.7 80 72.87 .6976 45 - 64 41.5 95 87.15 .7070 Total 100 210 = N 210 = N 5.9397 (round to 5.94) The age composition of the sample showed that it consisted of a greater number of older people than expected, which means that there is a significant difference in certain age groups. However, the sum of the computed chi- square values (5.94 ) is less than the chi - square table value of 5.99 (at 95% confidence level) (Page & Meyer, 2000) with two degrees of freedom (one less than the number of categor ies for the discrete variable) and this means that considering the total sample, there is no significant difference between observed and expected frequencies suggesting that the sample used is representative of the population. Gender representation of these samples has been shown in table 5.2. 112 Table 5.2: Gender distribution of the sample Gen de r P op ul at io n % Obs er ve d Fre que nc ie s (O) Expe ct ed Fre que nc ie s (E) C hi -s qua re d va lu es (O – E) 2 / E Male 51.2 131 107.52 5.1275 Female 48.8 79 102.48 5.3797 Total 100 210 = N 210 = N 10.7072 (round to 10.71) As shown in table 5.2, gender representation of the sample showed that there is a significant difference between the sample and the population. The computed chi- square value for this gender distribution of the sample was 10.7 and this was far greater than the table value of 3.84. This means that the gender proportion of the sample was not representative of the population with men being over- represented. However, not every Sri Lankan woman has a career as many opt to stay at home. In addition the labour force participation of women in Sri Lanka was 32% in 2003 according to Department of Census and Statistics data, and this would have had an impact on the gender distribution of the sample. The labour force participation rate for Sri Lankans in New Zealand was not available for comparison. Also the Sri Lankan cultural dominance of male in a household may have had an impact on women volunteering to participate in the study. Situation before Migration Of th e sample, 14.3% had a secondary school qualification at the time of migration, 14.8% had a certificate or diploma, 34.3% had a bachelor’s degree, 31.4% had either a postgraduate diploma or a postgraduate degree and 5.2% had other professional or vocational qualifications. This showed that the majority of the sample (65.7%) had a tertiary qualification at the time of their migration. Details of these percentages have been shown in table 5.3. 113 Table 5.3: Qualifications at the time of migration 30 14.3 14.3 14.3 31 14.8 14.8 29.0 72 34.3 34.3 63.3 66 31.4 31.4 94.8 11 5.2 5.2 100.0 210 100.0 100.0 Secondary school Certificate or diploma Bachelors degree Postgraduate diploma/degree Other Total Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent The main fields in which respondents held qualification are shown in figure 5.2. The largest percentage (22.4 %) of the sample had a qualification in engineering while business studies took the second place (18.1%) and physical science took third place (12.4%). O f those holding a tertiary qualification, 19.5% received their degrees from the University of Peradeniya, whilst the University of Colombo and University of Jaffna contributed 13.3% and 12.9% respectively. subject of the qualification Other Law Architecture Business Studies Physical Science Engineering Agricultual Science Bio Science veterinary science Dental surgery Medicine Arts Pe rc en t 30 20 10 0 Figure 5. 2: Subject of the qualification at the time of migration Employment status of the respondents was based on the occupational classifications of Wash (1995/ 96). Wash’s classifications were ranked in a descending order where a higher rank was given to the occupations needing higher qualifications and vice versa. This process was explained previously in chapter 4. Prior to migration 40.1% of the respondents were in an employment that required a bachelor’s degree and 39.2% required a higher qualification than a bachelor’s degree. This means that the majority of respondents (79.2%) had employment that required 114 tertiary qualifications before their migration. Related information has been presented in Table 5.4. Table 5.4 Employment status before migration 3 1.6 1.6 20 10.4 12.0 4 2.1 14.1 3 1.6 15.6 6 3.1 18.8 4 2.1 20.8 77 40.1 60.9 42 21.9 82.8 3 1.6 84.4 13 6.8 91.1 17 8.9 100.0 192 100.0 Wash's scale 1. Short-term on the job training required 2. Moderate length of on the job training required 3. Long-term on the job training required 4. Work experience required 5. Postsecondary vocational training required 6. Associate's degree required 7. Bachelor's degree required 8. Work expereience plus bachelor's or higher degree required 9. Master's degree required 10. Doctoral degree required 11. First professional degree required Total Total Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Among the respondents who had been employed before migration (n = 192) , 41.1% had a salary greater than rupees 120,000. Only 13% of them had a salary of rupees 48,000 or less. All other respondents had a salary between rupees 48,001 and 120,000. Table 5.5 shows these details. Table 5.5: Salary from the last job before migration 13.0 15.6 13.0 17.2 41.1 Rs.48,000 or less Rs.48,001- 72,000 Rs.72,001 - 96,000 Rs.96,001- 120,000 Rs.120,001 and over % salary from the last job before migration 115 The study showed that New Zealand was the first overseas place of residence for 61.9% of the respondents. 37.6% of the respondents indicated that they had worked in another country before migrating to New Zealand. For this group, average tenure of overseas experience was 6.347 years (SD = 4.429) and the range of this experience was from .91 to 17.5 years. The high value of the standard deviation resulted from small mean and a big range for this sample suggested that the better measure in this case was the median, which is the midpoint of the distribution (Cooper & Schindler, 2001). The median was 5.00 in this case. Table 5.6 shows the number of respondents who had previous overseas experience. Table 5.6: Overseas experience at the time of migration 79 37.8 37.8 130 62.2 100.0 209 100.0 1 210 Yes No Total Valid 0Missing Total Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent The majority of the respondents ( 73 %) were employed on a permanent full - time basis before their migration. At the other extreme, only 4% of the respondents were unemployed at the time of migration. The unemployed people were too young to start their career before migration or were female respondents who had opted to be housewives before migration and started their careers only after migration. Those who had never had a job were not included in this study and this was advised during the survey. The second biggest group of the respondents, accounting for 18% , were employed full- time on a fixed term contract. A small number (2.9%) were in part - time employment on fixed term contracts while 2.1% were on part - time permanent contracts. These figures showed that the larger portion of the respondents (91% ) had been in full - time employment when they migrated to New Zealand. Figure 5.3 shows these percentages clearly. 116 full-time permanent full-time fixed permanent part-time part-time fixed-ter unemployed P er ce nt 80 60 40 20 0 73 18 4 Figure 5. 3: Employment Situation before migration Background variables: Migration and thereafter Of the total number of respondents, the vast majority (73.3%) reported that they migrated to New Zealand under the general skills category or the points system. The next 12.9% reported that they gained r esidency under the refugee category. 3.8% gained residency under the humanitarian category while the remaining 10.0% reported ‘other’ as their category of residency. Marriage and family reunion took equal share (2.86% ) as a source of gaining residency for these migrants while 2% (4 respondents) reported that they had gained Australian Citizenship before they migrated to New Zealand. Less than 1% (2 respondents) reported that they first visited on a work permit and after living in NZ for a certain period of time gained residency. Another two respondents reported “finance” as the source of their migration. As this is not a valid immigration category; it is not known what their true status was. One of the respondents reported that his/her residence category was “visitor visa”, but this is also not a valid category. Therefore, it was not clear in these latter three cases under which category these respondents received their residency in New Zealand. Figure 5.4 shows these percentages. 117 otherhumanitarianrefugeegeneral skills Pe rc en t 80 60 40 20 0 Figure 5.4: Residence category of Sri Lankan Immigrants Respondents’ (N = 210) length of time in New Zealand ranged from .33 to 30 years (mean = 6.16 years, median = 5.49 years). However, there are many outliers in the data (variance = 21.52 ) and the following figure shows the distribution of length of time in New Zealand. length of time in New Zealand (years) 17.25 14.50 9.83 8.75 8.08 7.41 6.50 6.08 5.50 5.00 4.42 3.83 3.33 2.75 1.75 1.16 .33 P er ce nt 5 4 3 2 1 0 Figure 5. 5: Respondents’ length of time in New Zealand. 52.4 % of the respondents reported that they had gained a qualification in New Zealand after their migration. These qualifications ranged from c ertificates, diplomas, degrees, and postgraduate diplomas to Masters, doctorates and other fellowships. The largest number of the respondents who reported that they had gained a New Zealand qualification had obtained diplomas (17.6%) while 8.6% had gaine d bachelor degrees. 118 Another 7.1% had gained doctorates after migrating to New Zealand. Figure 5.6 explains the details of qualifications obtained in New Zealand with percentages. Other PhD Masters degree Postgraduate diploma Graduate diploma Degree Diploma Certificate Pe rc en t 20 10 0 Figure 5.6 Qualification obtained in New Zealand As shown in figure 5.7, among the respondents, 60.1% reported that they were in full - time permanent employment at the time of the survey. 9.6% were in full- time employment on a fixed- term contract. 9.1% performed permanent part - time employment while 6.3% had part - time employment on fixed- term contracts. 14.9% of the respondents reported that they were unemployed. unemployed part-time fixed term permanent part-time full - time fixed term full-time permanent 0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% pe rce nta ge Figure 5.7: Current employment situation 119 Again using the Wash’s (1994/ 95) system, just over half of the respondents (50.6%) had an occupation that required a qualification lower than a bachelor’s degree. 26.4% of the respondents had occupations that required a bachelor’s degree while the remaining 23 percent had an occupation that requires a higher qualification than a bachelor’s degree. Table 5.7 presents this information. Table 5.7: Present employment status 43 24.2 24.2 26 14.6 38.8 2 1.1 39.9 14 7.9 47.8 3 1.7 49.4 2 1.1 50.6 47 26.4 77.0 18 10.1 87.1 2 1.1 88.2 7 3.9 92.1 14 7.9 100.0 178 100.0 32 210 1.Short-term on the job training required 2. Moderate length of on the job training required 3. Long-term on the job training required 4. Work experience required 5. Postsecondary vocational training required 6. Associate's degree required 7. Bachelor's degree required 8. Work expereience plus bachelor's or higher degree required 9. Master's degree required 10.Doctoral degree required 11.First professional degree required Total 0Missing Total Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent A comparison between the respondents’ occupations before migration and current occupation could present a clear picture of the differences or similarities of occupational status. Table 5.8 shows the percentage of occupational status of the respondents before migration and at present. Among the respondents who reported about their job, 47.7% said that their current job was their first job in New Zealand. Over a third of the respondents (35 %) includi ng those people who reported their current job as their first job, had a first job in New Zealand that required only short - term on the job training. 11.9% had a first job that required a moderate length of on- the- job training. 120 Table 5.8 Occupational status before and after migration 1.6 35.0 24.2 10.4 11.9 14.6 2.1 .6 1.1 1.6 5.1 7.9 3.1 .6 1.7 2.1 1.7 1.1 40.1 28.2 26.4 21.9 5.6 10.1 1.6 .6 1.1 6.8 3.4 3.9 8.9 7.3 7.9 1. Short-term on the job training required 2. Moderate length of on the job training required 3. Long-term on the job training required 4. Work experience required 5. Postsecondary vocational training required 6. Associate's degree required 7. Bachelor's degree required 8. Work expereience plus bachelor's or higher degree required 9. Master's degree required 10. Doctoral degree required 11. First professional degree required % employment status before migration (n = 192) % actual first job in NZ (n = 177) % employment status at present (n = 180) The table above (table 5.8) shows the differences between employment status before migration, status of first job in New Zealand and status at present. From the data it is clearly shown that the majority of the respondents (79.3%) had an occupation that required a tertiary qualification before migration. But employment status for these migrants had reduced after migration showing that only 45.1% had an occupation for the first time in New Zealand at their pre - migration level and only 49.4% had an occupation that required similar qualifications at the time of the survey. The unemployment period before getting the first job in New Zealand ranged from .08 years to 3.48 years. Mean value for this period was .92 years, with a standard deviation of 0.91 years and a median of 0.50 years. 121 Of the valid responses, 45.3% reported that they were performing a job in line with their qualifications while 24.6% reported their job as below their qualification level and 30.1% said thei r job was far below their qualifications. 39.1% of the respondents saw their job as a means to earn money, 49.2% said it is not just a job to earn money while 11.7% were not sure. However, the majority of the working respondents (57.4%) felt that they could learn new skills in their current job which in turn lead to better employment in the future. Among the unemployed people (n = 30), the reported unemployment period ranged from .33 years to 7.5 years. Table 5.9 presents the statistics on unemployment. Table 5.9: Statistics on unemployment period (unemployed respondents). 30 3.0953 2.9150 3.00 7.17 .33 7.50 N Mean Median Mode Range Minimum Maximum Fourteen of 31 respondents who were unemployed said that they had been employed before. The main source of income for these unemployed respondents varied, with nearly half (45.2%) depending on the support of their family members. 38.7% got benefits from Work and Income, New Zealand and the remaining 16.1% (n = 5) were financially independent and using their savings for survival. 122 Reliability Analysis As discussed previously, reliability analysis on item- scales was performed using SPSS. Cronbach’s alpha as suggested by many experts (Cooper & Schindler, 2001; Page & Meyer, 2000; Hair et al., 1998) was calculated for each variable with item - scales. Results have been presented in table 5.10. Table 5.10: Scale Reliability Concept/variable Cronbach’s alpha Motivation to migrate (mean based reliability on all items) Social support from Sri Lankan community Social support from New Zealand community Efforts made toward career Usef ulness of prior knowledge and skills Maintenance of own culture Adaptation to New Zealand culture Ability to use English language Willingness to use English language Career Strategies (mean based reliability on all items) Career self- efficacy Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success before migration Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Overall career satisfaction .89 .88 .86 .85 .93 .70 .70 .93 .80 .91 .84 .79 .89 .93 .91 .94 As stated previously the reliability should be high (e.g. above .80) or at least marginally acceptable (above .60) (Gliner & Morgan, 2000 , p.313) and in this study out of the sixteen measures used thirteen were above .80, one was .79 and other two were .70, which demonstrates a moderate reliability. Therefore, overall the measures were generally reliable. Two concepts from the model (motivation to migrate & career strategies) were subject to a factor analysis and their reliability was calculated using all items and the mean based reliabilities have been presented in the table above. Reliability of those underlying factors in these two concepts had been calculated after factor analysis. 123 Factor analysis As was discussed in chapter 4, two of the constructs were subject to a factor analysis in order to determine the underlying structure of the variables constituting the constructs. Factor analysis can be utilized to examine the underlying patterns or relationships for a large number of variables and to determine whether or not the information can be condensed or summarized in a smaller set of factors or components (Hair et al., 1995). Motivation to migrate A principal components analysis for motivation to migrate was performed in this case. To determine whether a factor analysis procedure was appropriate the Bartlett’s test of sphericity and the Kaiser - Meyer - Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (MSA) (Coakes & Steed, 2003) were used. Both of these tests can be used to determine the factorability of the matrix as a whole. If Bartlett’s test of sphericity is large and significant, and if the Kaiser - Meyer - Olkin measure is greater than .6, then factorability is assumed. For this scale an MSA value of .85 and a large value of Bartlett’s test of sphericity ( 2659.414 and df = 231) at a high level of significance (p < .005) indicated that a principal component analysis would be useful. The five factor solution suggested by the eigenvalues greater than one criterion explained 71.16% of the variance in the data to again confirm that the factor analysis is valid. All items loaded highly, with communalities of .49 or higher. After being varimax rotated to obtain a simple structure the five - factor solution gave a clear factor structure. Table 5.11 shows the results of the principal com ponents analysis. Factor loadings of ±.50 or greater were considered significant (Hair et al., 1995) and thus the larger the absolute size of the factor loading, the more important the loading in interpreting the factor matrix. 124 Table 5.11: Five-factor solution loadings for the principal components analysis of “motivation to migrate”. F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Comm. Enjoy seeing the world Love to visit different places Like to see new things Enjoy living in different countries Needed an exciting environme nt to face Wanted something different Needed new challenges Felt could learn more Difficulties due to political situation To escape from the ethnic conflict I am a victim of war To have a greater political freedom To give children a better life To give high quality education to children Give a high quality life to the family To give a peaceful life to family Poor financial position To build up wealth To earn more for the family To learn to take back and progress Achieved maximum in home country To learn to upgrade home career Eigenvalues Percentage variance accounted for Cumulative variance explained (%) Cronbach’s alpha .887 .882 .873 .831 .807 .656 .645 .554 7.46 33.89 33.89 0.92 .866 .812 .789 .789 3.33 15.12 49.01 0.85 .880 .810 .743 .728 2.41 10.96 59.97 0.81 .815 .810 .799 1.44 6.56 66.53 0.85 .698 .618 .602 1.02 4.63 71.16 0.74 .808 .826 .794 .710 .750 .579 .632 .607 .799 .673 .673 .661 .822 .777 .727 .667 .715 .806 .807 .701 .631 .491 71.16 The first rotated factor, which was defined by eight items, was labelled as ‘exploration’, and accounted for the largest amount of variance (33.89% ) suggesting that a predominant factor exists in this context. The items constituting the factor explained to what degree the desire for exploring the world and the enjoy ment of living in different countries have contributed to the respondents’ decision to migrate . The second factor explaining 15.12% of the var iance consisted of four items (each with loadings of more than .5 on the factor) and was named ‘escaping’. This reflected the degree to which war and civil unrest in Sri Lanka contributed to the decision of respondents to migrate to New Zealand. The third factor explaining 10.96 % of the variance consisted of four items and was named ‘family building’ reflecting the extent of the influence of family orientation in the decision for migration. The fourth factor, accounting for 6.53% of the variance, concerned the degree to which the migrant individuals expected migration to be a path to improve their financial position and was named ‘financial betterment’. 125 Finally, the fifth factor, which consisted of three items and accounted for 4.63% of the variance, was n amed ‘career building’. This reflected the degree to which migrant individuals have seen migration as a means to build their careers. The internal consistency of the items used to measure each factor was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha, which is the pr ocedure of choice for investigating the internal consistency of items using a Likert - type scale (Walsh & Betz, 1995). Cronbach’s alpha for each factor; factor 1, factor 2, factor 3, factor 4 and factor 5 was 0.92, 0.85, 0.81, 0.85 and 0.74 respectively which suggests that of the items measured the first four factors had a high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha greater than 0.80 ) and the fifth factor has moderate internal consistency. Therefore the results of reliability analysis confirmed that consistency is at an acceptable level for each factor. The resultant factors led to expand the hypotheses ( H 1 - H 4 ) with sub hypotheses for each factor. Thus, the following sub hypotheses were developed. H1a Employment status at present varies depending on the level of intention to explore as a motivation to migrate. H1b Employment status at present varies depending on the level of intention to escape as a motivation to migrate. H1c Employment status at present varies depending on the level of intention to family building as a motivation to migrate. H1d Employment status at present varies depending on the level of intention to financial betterment as a motivation to migrate. H1e Employment status at present varies depending on the level of intention to ca reer building as a motivation to migrate. H2a Present salary varies depending on the level of intention to explore as a motivation to migrate. H2b Present salary varies depending on the level of intention to escape as a motivation to migrate. H2c Present salary varies depending on the level of intention to family building as a motivation to migrate. H2d Present salary varies depending on the level of intention to financial betterment as a motivation to migrate. 126 H2e Present salary varies depending on the level of intention to career building as a motivation to migrate. H3a Subjective career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to explore as a motivation to migrate. H3b Subjective career satisfaction after migrat ion varies depending on the level of intention to escape as a motivation to migrate. H3c Subjective career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to family building as a motivation to migrate. H3d Subjective career sati sfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to financial betterment as a motivation to migrate. H3e Subjective career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to career building as a motivation to migrate. H4a Career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to explore as a motivation to migrate. H4b Career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to escape as a motivation to migrate. H4c Career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to family building as a motivation to migrate. H4d Career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to financial betterment as a motivation to migrate. H4e Career satisfaction after migration varies depending on the level of intention to career building as a motivation to migrate. Career Strategies A principal component analysis on the responses to the ways in which immigrant individuals act towards succeeding in their career found an MSA of 0.86 with a high value of Bartlett’s test of sphericity (2264.847 ) at a highly significant level (p < .005 ), indicating that a factor analysis is possible. In other words, the ratings of these 25 items (question number 2f in appendix 1) are strongly correlated, suggesting that only a few underlying aspects constitute the concept. Eigenvalues (>1 ) suggested that there were six factors to explain a sizable variation contained in the data. 127 Six factors had eigenvalues greater than one, which together explained 65.4% of the variance. All six factors were reliable with alpha values of 0. 75 or higher (0.85 is the maximum for factor 1). Item 24 (attend training programmes to acquire s kills) loaded onto the first factor in this case had a comparatively lower loading (.419). However it is not much lower than acceptable loading level of .5 and the researcher has confidence that the item is important in making successful career steps in a culturally different environment. Therefore the item was included in the factor structure. Table 5.12 shows factor loadings with their communalities. Table 5.12: Six-factor solution loadings for the principal components analysis for “career strategies”. F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 Comm . Think of self strengths and weaknesses Develop skills needed in future Think of acquired experiences Set goals for different periods Volunteer to acquire skills Attend training programmes to acquire skills Connections with employers Connections with professional associations Connections with members of the same occupation Connections with people outside Sri Lankan comm. Contact community service organisations Get information from friends and relatives in NZ Contacts with working fr iends and neighbours Access job advertisements through media Attend seminars by migrant centres Get guidance from experienced people in orgn. Get guidance from professional organisations Spend time on volunteer work Present as a person who get things done Work hard when supervisors see the results Adapt to changes in who he/she works with Keep career options open Make employers aware of your aspirations Take work home Spend time thinking about job Eigenvalues Percentage variance accounted for Cumulative variance Cronbach’s alpha .824 .823 .788 .780 .506 .419 8.37 33.5 33.5 0.85 .807 .768 .764 .708 2.43 9.70 43.2 0.83 .752 .729 .664 .607 1.88 7.50 50.7 0.76 .753 .667 .660 .629 1.39 5.60 56.3 0.79 .702 .672 .641 .598 .498 1.20 4.80 61.1 0.76 .816 .797 1.06 4.30 65.4 0.75 .784 .775 .726 .721 .546 .420 .742 .727 .655 .593 .672 .634 .722 .537 .719 .637 .662 .584 .578 .650 .570 .609 .529 .768 .781 65.4 The first rotated factor, namely ‘career planning,’ accounted for the largest amount of variance (33.5%) suggesting that it is a predominant factor in this context. This reflects the degree to which migrant individuals have consciously planned their approach to their career. Factor 2, named ‘network building’, accounted for 9.7% of the variance and consisted of four items with significant loadings. The items constituting this factor explain to what extent these respondents have bec ome involved in making contacts and 128 building up a network as a means to succeed in their careers. The third factor explained 7.5% of the variance and consisted of four items each with a loading greater than .6 and was named ‘information seeking’ reflecting the extent of information seeking behaviour as a means to career achievements. The fourth factor, which accounted for 5.6% of the variance and was defined by four items, was named ‘seeking mentoring’. This reflected the degree to which migrant individuals had been interested in getting guidance and advice from experienced people. Factor five explained 4.80% of the variance and consisted of five items. This was named ‘career flexibility’ reflecting the extent to which the respondents had shown flexibility i n their career behaviours. The last factor, which accounted for 4.25% of the variance and consisted of only two items, was named ‘extended time involvement’. Items in this factor explained the extent of the involvement of migrant individuals in their jobs even after their usual working hours. Almost all of the scales had reliable underlying dimensions that could be used with confidence in further analysis and thus the factor scores in the above cases were saved as variables for further analysis. The identified factors were used in developing sub hypotheses as stated previously in chapter 4. Thus the hypotheses are: H37a As career planning increases, employment status at present increases H37b As network building increases, employment status at prese nt increases H37c As information seeking increases, employment status at present increases H37d As mentoring seeking increases, employment status at present increases H37e As career flexibility increases, employment status at present increases H37f As extended time involvement increases, employment status at present increases H38a As career planning increases, present salary increases H38b As network building increases, present salary increases H38c As information seeking increases, present s alary increases H38d As mentoring seeking increases, present salary increases H38e As career flexibility increases, present salary increases H38f As extended time involvement increases, present salary increases H39a As career planning increases, s ubjective career success after migration increases H39b As network building increases, subjective career success after migration increases 129 H39c As information seeking increases, subjective career success after migration increases H39d As mentoring seeking increases, subjective career success after migration increases H39e As career flexibility increases, subjective career success after migration increases H39f As extended time involvement increases, subjective career success after migration increases H40a As career planning increases, career satisfaction after migration increases H40b As network building increases, career satisfaction after migration increases H40c As information seeking increases, career satisfaction after migration increases H40d As mentoring seeking increases, career satisfaction after migration increases H40e As career flexibility increases, career satisfaction after migration increases H40f As extended time involvement increases, career satisfactio n after migration increases Cluster Analysis As noted in the previous chapter, one of the purposes of this study was to show the real picture of immigrants’ experiences and adjustments in the host country environment. These start from the time of their arrival in the new environment. These experiences and adjustments were analysed in terms of the support offered from their own community and from the host society after their arrival, the immigrants’ own cultural adjustment during their life in the new environment (in other words, acculturation) and their adjustment in terms of their career. Social Support To identify the extent of social support received by these immigrants, a simple classification process was performed using k - means cluster analysis. Clustering enables the researcher to segment a population. This approach assigns each data record to a group or segment. The assignment process is performed automatically by clustering algorithms that identify the similar characteristics in the data set and then partition them into groups often referred to as the nearest neighbours. Clustering is often used as the first step in data mining (Cooper & Schindler, 2001). The scale to measure social support (see question 2- 1 in appendix 1) in terms of Sri Lankans living in New Zealand 130 as well as the New Zealand community itself was developed by the researcher. It is specific to this research but based on ideas drawn from the literature and considering the context of this study. The reliability score (Cronbach’s alpha) for those items demonstrating support from Sri Lankans living in New Zealand was .88 and those items measuring support from the New Zealand community was .86 (refer table 5.10). Using the scores on both variables, a k- means cluster analysis was performed in 100 iterations to result in 4 cluster centres. Table 5.13 presents the scores of each cluster. Table 5.13: Cluster centres on Social support: mean scores for different forms of support 1.58 3.81 1.79 3.44 3.51 1.35 1.55 3.09 Support from Sri Lankan community in NZ Support from NZ community 1 2 3 4 Cluster Cluster 1, which represents a low score on support from the Sri Lankan community and higher support from the New Zealand community, consisted of 28 cases (14.74%). Cluster 2 (high support from the Sri Lankan community and low support from the New Zealand community) consisted of 32 cases (16.84%). Cluster 3 (low support from both communities) contained the largest group, 92 cases (48.42% ), while cluster 4 (high support from both communities) consisted of 38 cases (20% ). 131 1 2 3 4 54321 5 4 3 2 1 Social support from NZ community co m m un ity in N Z S oc ia l s up po rt fr om S L Cluster Figure 5.8: Cluster centres for social support received Figure 5.8 shows the spread of cases and the obvious concentration on the ‘low support’ segment where support from both communities was low. Only 20% of the individuals in the sample (n = 190, as the other 20 cases had some items of the variable not commented and therefore were not included in analysis) reported that they received high support from both the New Zealand community and the Sri Lankan community in New Zealand. This segment of people was named ‘support winning’. Another 14.74 % of the sample reported that they received higher support from the New Zealand community. This segment was named ‘high host support’. 16.84% reported that they received higher support from Sri Lankans living in New Zealand. This segment was named ‘high Sri Lankan support’. The major proportion of the sample (48.42%) reported the support received by them was at a lower level both in terms of New Zealanders and Sri Lankans living in New Zealand. This segment was named ‘low social support’. The impa ct of the level of social support on their careers has been dealt within the final stage of the data analysis. 132 Acculturation The expatriate literature has explored the issue of acculturation and its importance in expatriates’ life in a cross - cultural environment. This research tried to classify the different segments of immigrants based on their acculturation strategies identified from the responses. The scale to measure acculturation (see question 3 - 1g in appendix 1) had been developed by the researcher based on the idea and typology drawn from Berry (1997). From the total number of responses (n = 210) received for the multiple item scale that measured the variables, namely the extent of maintaining Sri Lankan culture and the extent of adaptatio n to the New Zealand culture, average scores of items concerned were received as the variable score in the first instance. The reliability scores (Cronbach’s alpha) on those items was .70. Using the variables scores, a k- means cluster analysis was performed in 100 iterations to result in 4 - cluster centres in accordance with the typology identified from the literature. Table 5.14 shows the results of cluster analysis. Table 5.14: Acculturation cluster centres: mean scores for different forms of acculturation 46.10 30.40 69.23 58.11 29.30 51.82 27.67 47.33 Maintaining Sri Lankan culture in New Zealand Adapting to New Zealand cultural aspects 1 2 3 4 Cluster The following graph shows a clear picture of these cluster centres. Each cluster centre with its respective cases explains the type of acculturation of the respective respondents. Figure 5.9 shows the spread of cases across different clusters. 133 1 2 3 4 80706050403020100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Adapting New Zealand culture M ai nt ai ni ng S L C ul tu re Cluster Figure 5.9: Acculturation clusters All cluster centres except cluster 2 included 59 to 69 participants. Cluster 2 representing higher adaptation and lower maintenance consisted of 22 cases (10.48%). This represents the ‘assimilation’ type of acculturation. 28.57% of the respondents fall into cluster 4 where cultural adaptation and cultural maintenance were relatively high representing the ‘integration’ type of acculturation. 32.86% fall into cluster 3 representing the ‘separation’ type of acculturation where adaptation of New Zealand culture was low and maintaining Sri Lankan culture was high. The remaining 28.09% represented the ‘marginalisation’ type of acculturation where they seemed to be interested in neither maintaining Sri Lankan culture nor adapting to New Zealand culture. On the other hand, the correlation between the two variables of cultural maintenance and cultural adaptation was negative (the correlation coefficient was - .317, at the 99% confidence level) indicating that those who were more interested in maintaining their own culture were reluctant to adapt to New Zealand culture and vice versa. This analysis identified the range of acculturation found in Sri Lankan immigrants in New Zealand. The impact of acculturation on career outcomes has been addressed in the latter stages of the data analysis and the variable scores have been used for this purpose. 134 Mode of Adjustment to Career The third concept to be explored through a cluster analysis was ‘mode of adjustment to career’. As explained in chapter 2 of this thesis, a modified model of mode of adjustment to career had been formulated based on Nicholson’s (1984 ) theory of work role transitions. In order to identify the employability of immigrants in the new environment, two variables, personal efforts made towards career in the new environment and the usefulness of their prior knowledge, skills and work habits, were explored through k- means cluster analysis. The scale to measure these variables was developed by the researcher specifically for this study based on the ideas drawn from the literature and the context of this study. The reliability score on the items measuring the variable, personal efforts made towards career was .85 and the reliability sco re on the items measuring the variable, usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and habits was .93. In both cases a high reliability was confirmed by the values of Cronbach’s alpha. Table 5.15 presents the cluster centres. Table 5.15: Mean scores by cluster centres of mode of adjustment to career 3.48 2.09 1.99 3.90 2.89 1.88 4.34 4.55 Efforts made towards career Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills 1 2 3 4 Cluster Cluster 1 include respondents with a high score on efforts and low score on usefulness, representing the ‘determination mode’ as defined in chapter 2. This cluster consisted of 49 cases (24.26 %, n = 202) i ndicating that these individuals had determined to get into the New Zealand workforce by their efforts, even though their previous knowledge and experiences were not totally in sync with their new environment. Cluster 2 consisted of 36 cases (17.82%) r epresenting the ‘replication’ mode of adjustment to career as discussed in chapter 2. This means that these individuals had not made substantial efforts towards their career while their previous knowledge and experiences also were not useful in the new en vironment. 135 Cluster 3 consisted of 40 cases representing the ‘absorption’ mode. This cluster explains that 19.80% of the sample of respondents had valuable knowledge, skills and habits that matched the New Zealand working environment but a lower level of personal effort had been made. Cluster 4 consisted of the largest proportion of the sample (77 cases, 38.12%) representing the ‘exploration’ mode of adjustment to career. This mode explains that these individuals had brought useful knowledge, skills and habits with them and had made higher efforts towards their career. Figure 5.10 clearly shows the spread of cases across different clusters. 1 2 3 4 54321 5 4 3 2 1 Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills E ffo rt s m ad e to w ar ds c ar ee r cluster Figure 5.10: Clusters of mode of adjustment to career The general picture of ‘mode of adjustment to career’ of Sri Lankan migrants in New Zealand showed that the sample is spread over various modes. However the majority represents the ‘exploration’ mode where efforts towards career and the usefulness of knowledge and skills were high. The extent of the impact of these efforts and usefulness on individuals’ career outcomes are described at the latter stages of the analysis. 136 Tests of Association It may be remembered that there were 116 hypotheses developed previously (in chapte r 4 and 5 of the thesis) for this study. It was decided to perform a step- by- step process to analyse the data starting from simple and proceeding to sophisticated techniques to test those hypotheses and the conceptual connections hypothesised in the integrated model (figure 3.4). The hypotheses were based on the relationships between two variables and thus it was decided to perform appropriate tests of association in the first instance in order to examine them based on the data of this study. Bivariate tes ts of association facilitated the process of identifying relationships between two set of variables. The relationships are determined by their coefficient estimate along with its sign (plus Vs minus) and the significance of such estimates. Different type s of bivariate tests have been suggested by experts (Cooper & Schindler, 2001; Walsh & Betz, 1995) depending on the type of variable (nominal, ordinal or interval). These include correlation analysis (Spearman and Pearson where appropriate) and the Krusk al- Wallis test. In the case of correlation analysis, coefficient estimate explains the degree of association between the two variables concerned while the sign explains the direction of such association. The Kruskal - Wallis test produces a chi - square stati stic with a significance level for an association between those two variables. Correlation as a measure of relationship describes the degree of association between two or more set of scores. When the relationship between two sets of scores are analysed , the analysis takes the form of bivariate measures of relationships (Walsh & Betz, 1995). Pearson correlation is suggested as the appropriate measure of relationship between two variables where the independent and dependent variables are continuous and parametric assumptions are considered. On the other hand, if no parametric assumptions exist, the Spearman correlation is taken as the appropriate measure of relationship (Page & Meyer, 2000; Cooper & Schindler, 2001; Walsh & Betz, 1995) In terms of the m agnitude or strength of relationship, the larger the absolute value of the correlation coefficient ( r , up to a maximum of +1) the stronger the relationship. In other words, values of r at or near zero indicate that the two variables are not linearly relat ed to each other. An r value of ± 1.0 indicates a perfect relationship between the variables concerned where ±.50 is said to express a moderate relationship (Walsh & Betz, 1995). This magnitude along with its p value (significance) is considered in mak ing inferences 137 about the relationships. In order to generalise the result to the entire population, only magnitudes that have p value of less than 5 percent (p < .05) are considered significant (Page & Meyer, 2000; D. Meyer, Personal communication, 05/10/ 2004). The Kruskal - Wallis test is used to test for the significance of relationships between variables when the data are collected on an ordinal scale or interval data that do not meet the parametric assumptions (Page & Meyer, 2000; Cooper & Schindler, 2001) and for discrete independent variables (e.g. gender). In both cases, correlation and Kruskal - Wallis, the significance of the magnitudes decides the importance of association between the variables concerned. If magnitudes suggest non - significance in any case, the association is assumed to be rejected. This section presents the results of different tests of association and discusses respective associations. Motivation to migrate and career outcomes after migration Previous stages of the analysis showed that there were five underlying factors in the construct, motivation to migrate and each individual factor was used to evaluate the models. A correlation analysis was performed to test the association assumed between respective variables. Table 5.16: Correlation between different motivations to migrate and Objective success after migration variables .054 .105 .497 .191 159 157 -.067 -.141 .403 .077 159 157 -.180* -.151 .023 .060 159 157 -.113 -.049 .155 .541 159 157 -.112 -.071 .160 .380 159 157 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Exploration Escaping Family building Financial betterment Career building Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).*. 138 Table 5.16 presents the correlation between different motivations to migrate and objective success variables. There was no literature suggesting a direction in relationships between these variables and therefore, no direction was assumed in the hypotheses related to different motivations to migrate. Thus a 2- tailed significance was considered. The correlation coefficients in the table above show that only family building as a motivation to migrate has a significant negative correlation to employment status. This relationship is small/weak. Howev er, the significant association support the link assumed in the model. Table 5.17: Correlation between different motivations to migrate and career satisfaction after migration and subjective career success after migration .202** .178* .006 .015 183 185 -.018 -.079 .810 .287 183 185 -.230** -.187* .002 .011 183 185 .066 .117 .377 .113 183 185 .009 .011 .905 .885 183 185 Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Exploration Escaping Family building Financial betterment Career building Career satisfaction after migration Subjective career success after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).*. On the other hand, table 5.17 shows that the Pearson correlation coefficient explained a significant positive association between exploration as a motivation to migrate and career satisfaction after migration and also subjective career success after migration. The association between family building as a motivation to migrate and the two outcome variables, career satisfaction after migration and subjective career success after migration were also significant but a negative association was found. This suggests that 139 those migrants who had a higher intention of family building as their motivation to migrate have a lower level of career satisfaction and subjective career success after migration. The magnitudes were small and non- significant in all other cases. Given that performing a number of post hoc tests is likely to result in a Type 1 error (erroneously rejecting the null hypothesis) the Bonfe rroni correction needs to be used. The Bonferroni correction means that you divide the cutoff alpha (significance level) by the number of tests being conducted. For the tests shown in Tables 5.16 and 5.17, the p.0.05 alpha level was divided by 5 (.05/5) which means that the level of significance is p>0.01. The results shown in table 5.16 demonstrate that there is no significant correlation between any of the motivations to migrate and the employment status or present salary. When Bonferroni corrections are applied to table 5.17 results, it is clear that the correlations are significant in two cases – both exploration and family building are related to career satisfaction after migration. However, given the number of post hoc tests performed these significant results should be treated with caution. Social support and career outcomes after migration Social support included two variables as stated previously and both were continuous. Career outcomes after migration had four different variables (two ordin al variables and two continuous) as shown in the previous section, and called for different measures of association. Thus, the Spearman correlation and the Pearson correlation were selected where they were appropriate. Table 5.18 and 5.19 show the result s of the analysis. 140 Table 5.18: Correlation between social support variables and objective career success after migration variables -.148* -.113 .027 .073 170 168 -.033 .042 .335 .299 165 163 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Support from Sri Lankan community in NZ Support from NZ community Spearman' s rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the .05 level (1-tailed).*. The Spearman correlation coefficient was significant only for the association between support from the Sri Lankan community in New Zealand and employment status at present. And the direction of this association was negative suggesting that the greater support received from a migrant’ s own community the lower the employment status. It may be that this represents a reverse causal direction, where migrants who have less career success respond by seeking more social support. This needs further stud y. Table 5.19: Correlation between social support variables and different career outcomes after migration -.081 -.030 .129 .339 199 197 .166* .150* .010 .019 194 191 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Support from Sri Lankan community in NZ Support from NZ community Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).*. As shown in table 5.19 , the Pearson correlation coefficient explained a significant positive association between the support received from the New Zealand community and related career outcomes; career satisfaction after migration and subjective career success after migration. However these associations were small/weak. The magnitudes were negligible and non- significant in all other cases. Again the relationship direction may be explained as a reverse causality in the case of support from the Sri Lankan community in Ne w Zealand. 141 Mode of adjustment to career and career outcomes after migration Like social support, mode of adjustment also had two variables that were treated separately during the previous analyses. Again, different measures of association were selected and the Tables 5.20 and 5.21 present the results of these analyses. Table 5.20: Correlation between mode of adjustment to career variables and objective career success after migration variables .160* .199** .018 .004 173 171 .475** .383** .000 .000 177 175 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Efforts made towards career Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (1-tailed).*. The Spearman correlation explained a positive and significant relationship in all cases and the coefficient was greater than .300 for the association between usefulness of prior knowledge and skills and the two variables, namely, employment status at present and present salary. Table 5.21: Correlation between mode of adjustment to career variables and different career outcomes after migration .094 .145* .092 .019 200 203 .165** .275** .009 .000 204 206 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Efforts made towards career Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills Career satisfaction after migration Subjective career success after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).*. 142 The Pearson correlation coefficients explained a significant positive association in three of four cases and in the fourth case although it did not reach significance, t here was a strong trend demonstrating for efforts towards career and career satisfaction after migration. Efforts made towards career had a positive association with subjective career success after migration. Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills had a positive association with both subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. Acculturation variables and career outcomes after migration Acculturation was also considered to have two variables and they were dealt with separately in analyses. The same measures as used in the previous sections of correlation analysis were selected in testing for the association between acculturation variables and career outcomes after migration. Tables 5.22 and 5.23 show the results of the analyses. Table 5.22: Correlation between acculturation variables and objective career success after migration variables -.052 -.018 .246 .408 178 176 .337** .263** .000 .000 178 176 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Maintaining Sri Lankan culture in New Zealand Adapting to New Zealand culture Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. The Spearman correlation coefficient measures showed that adapting to New Zealand culture had a positive association with employment status at present and present salary based on the data of this study. The association between maintaining Sri Lankan culture in New Zealand and these two outcome variables were small and non - significant. The Pearson correlation was used to assess the association between these acculturation variables and two other career outcomes after migration; career satisfaction after migration and subjective career success after migration. 143 Table 5.23 Correlation between acculturation variables and different career outcomes after migration .104 -.017 .067 .403 208 206 .307** .435** .000 .000 208 206 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Maintaining Sri Lankan culture in New Zealand Adapting to New Zealand culture Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. The Pearson correlation also showed that adapting to New Zealand culture has a significant positive association with both subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. The correlation coefficients were greater than .300 in both cases. Maintaining Sri Lankan culture did not have a significant association with any of the career outcomes after migration. However in the case of subjective career success after migration there was a strong trend even though it was non- significant (p.067). Thus, correlation analyses above suggest that cultural adaptation is associated with positive career outcomes after migration while cultural maintenance is not. Language ability and career outcomes after migration Language ability also included two variables; the ability to speak the English language and the willingness to use the English language as stated previously. The appropriate measures of relationship were selected based on the type of variables. Tables 5.24 and 5.25 present results of these analyses. Table 5.24: Correlation between language ability variables and objective career success after migration variables .467** .389** .000 .000 178 176 .330** .254** .000 .000 178 176 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Ability in using English language Willingness to use English language Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. 144 The Spearman correlation showed that both language ability variables had a signific ant positive association with employment status at present and present salary. Three of four associations in this case were greater than .300 and all four associations were highly significant ( p <.000). Table 5.25 Correlation between language ability variables and different career outcomes after migration .271** .212** .000 .001 208 206 .138* .260** .024 .000 208 206 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Ability in using English language Willingness to use English language Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).*. The Pearson correlation coefficients were also significant and positive in all cases where an association was tested. Thus, it was identified that all associations assumed between language ability variables and different career outcomes after migration were positive and significant. Career strategies and career outcomes after migration Different career strategies were identified during the factor analysis and the relationship between different career strategies and different career outcomes after migration were subject to a correlation analysis. Different measures were selected based on their appropriateness. Table 5.26 presents the results of the Spearman correlation. 145 Table 5.26: Correlation between different career strategies and objective career success after migration variables .397** .446** .000 .000 155 153 .166* .159* .020 .025 155 153 -.342** -.270** .000 .000 155 153 -.059 -.003 .234 .487 155 153 .073 .051 .184 .267 155 153 .150* .131 .032 .053 155 153 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Career planning Network building Information seeking Seeking mentoring Flexibility Extended time involvement Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (1-tailed).*. There were several significant associations between different career strategies and objective career success variables after migration. Career planning and net work building had a positive association with both employment status at present and present salary. Information seeking had a significant negative association with both outcome variables. This could be a reverse causality where migrants who have a low employment status and low salary level seek more information. Extended time involvement also had a significant positive association with employment status at present. All other relationships assumed did not explain a significant association. 146 The Pearson correlation was utilised in relation to two other career outcomes; subjective career success and career satisfaction after migration. Table 5.27 shows the results in this regard. Table 5.27: Correlation between different career strategies and different career outcomes after migration .269** .321** .000 .000 182 179 .119 .060 .055 .214 182 179 -.238** -.233** .001 .001 182 179 .091 .083 .110 .136 182 179 .123* .086 .049 .126 182 179 -.019 -.028 .400 .354 182 179 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Career planning Network building Information seeking Seeking mentoring Flexibility Extended time involvement Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).*. Again, the Pearson correlation showed a significant positive association between career planning and the two outcome variables. Just like the objective success variables, information seeking showed a significant negative association. F lexibility also showed a significant but small positive association with subjective career success after migration. All other associations were not significant. Overseas experience and career outcomes after migration In the initial model overseas experience was assumed to have a relationship with all four career outcomes after migration. Thus it was decided to do a correlation analysis to examine the related hypotheses. Tables 5.28 and 5.29 present the results of the analysis. 147 Table 5.28: Correlation between overseas experience and objective career success after migration variables .334** .393** .000 .000 178 176 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Overseas experience in years Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. The Spearman correlation showed that overseas experience had a significant positive association with employment status at present and present salary. The Pearson correlation showed again a significant positive association to overseas experience with the other two career outcomes after migration; career satisfaction and subjective career success. Table 5.29: Correlation between overseas experience and different career outcomes after migration .241** .190** .000 .003 208 206 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Overseas experience in years Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. Education in New Zealand and career outcomes after migration A Spearman correlation test was performed to test the association between educational qualification s gained in New Zealand and the career outcomes conceptu alised to have a link. The p - value was less than .05 in all cases, indicating educational qualification gained in New Zealand has a significant association with related outcomes. Table 5.30 presents the results of the analysis. 148 Table 5.30: Correlation between education in New Zealand and different career outcomes after migration .624** .523** .294** .335** .000 .000 .001 .000 100 100 109 109 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Education in New Zealand Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Career satisfaction after migration Subjective career success after migration Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. Length of time in New Zealand and related career outcomes Length of time in New Zealand as a continuous independent variable needed different tests of association with different dependent variables according to their nature. Therefore, a Spearman correlation analysis was performed to test the association with employment status at present and present salary. Table 5.31 presents the results. Table 5.31: Correlation between length of time in New Zealand and objective career success after migration .493** .451** .000 .000 178 176 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Length of time in New Zealand Spearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. The Pearson correlation was used to test the association with subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. In all cases, length of time in New Zealand had a significant positive correlation and the magnitude was greater than .300. These results have been shown in table 5.32. Table 5.32: Correlation between length of time in New Zealand and different career outcomes after migration .324** .357** .000 .000 206 208 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Length of time in New Zealand Career satisfaction after migration Subjective career success after migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. 149 Age of the individuals and career outcomes after migration Migrants’ age at present was conceptualised to have relationships with their career outcomes after migration. Age was on an ordinal scale and thus the Spearman correlation was selected as the appropriate measure. Related results have been presented in table 5.33. Table 5.33: Correlation between age and related career outcomes .225** .192* .045 .080 .003 .011 .523 .252 177 175 205 207 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N AgeSpearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Career satisfaction after migration Subjective career success after migration Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).*. Correlation measures showed that age has a significant positive relationship with objective career success variables, namely employment status at present and present salary while the relationship with other variables was non- significant. Gender and related career outcomes Gender as a nominal variable and unequal sample sizes of male and female (guaranteeing independent samples ) suggested the Kruskal - Wallis test as an appropriate test of association with all related variables. Table 5.34 presents the chi - square values with respective significance values. Table 5.34: Kruskal- Wallis Test Statistics for gender and related variables .465 2.151 7.776 3.803 2.562 1 1 1 1 1 .495 .142 .005 .051 .109 Chi-Square df Asymp. Sig. Employment status before migration Employment status at present Present salary Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success after migration 150 P value is more than 5 percent (p > .05 ) in three of five cases. Only present salary and job satisfaction before migration proved to be significantly different between men and women. Table 5.35 shows how present salary differs between male and fe male respondents. Table 5.35: Differing present salary between genders 10.0 23.7 17.5 20.3 10.8 8.5 16.7 15.3 45.0 32.2 $15,000 or less $15,001-25,000 $25,001- 35,000 $35,001 - 45,000 $ 45,001 and over % Present salary (Male) % Present salary (Female) On the other hand, mean scores for job satisfaction before migration for females was 3.80 (SD = .695) and for males was 3.97 (SD = .635). Self-efficacy and related career outcomes S elf- efficacy as a continuous independent variable needed different tests of association depending on the relationships assumed with other variables. Thus, a Spearman correlation was used to test the association with employment status at present, present salary, and employment status before migration. Table 5.36 presents the related results. Table 5.36: Correlation between self-efficacy and related career outcomes .153* .162* .135* .022 .017 .033 173 171 188 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Self-efficacySpearman's rho Employment status at present Present salary Employment status before migration Correlation is significant at the .05 level (1-tailed).*. 151 The Pearson correlation was used to test the relationship of self- efficacy to subj ective career success after migration, job satisfaction before migration and career satisfaction after migration. The results of both analyses showed that five of six relationships had a significant positive relationship as assumed. Only the relationship with subjective career success after migration was non- significant. Table 5.37 shows these results. Table 5.37: Pearson correlation for self-efficacy and related career outcomes .093 .422** .093 .000 204 185 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Self-efficacy Subjective career success after migration Job satisfaction before migration Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. Qualifications gained before migration and related career outcomes Quali fications gained before migration (denoted by education in the model) were assumed to have association with different career outcomes before and after migration. Since education was measured on an ordinal scale, it was decided to use the Spearman correlation to test the association between the related variables. Table 5.38 shows the results of the analysis. Table 5.38: Correlation between qualifications gained before migration and related career outcomes .456** .339** .315** .171** .032 .000 .000 .000 .009 .323 192 178 176 189 208 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Qualification gained before migration Spearman' s rho Employment status before migration Employ ment status at present Present salary Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success after migration Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. 152 Correlation coefficients showed that qualific ations gained before migration had a significant positive association with career outcomes before migration (employment status, job satisfaction) and objective success after migration variables. However, there was no significant association with subjective career success after migration. Length of service in last organisation and related outcome variables The length of time migrant individuals spent with their last organisation before migration was hypothesised to have an influence on job satisfaction before migration and employment status before migration. This length of time was measured on an ordinal scale and thus a Spearman correlation analysis was performed. The results are presented in table 5.39. Table 5.39: Length of service and related career outcomes .207** .150* .002 .020 192 189 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Length of service in last organisation Spearman's rho Employment status before migration Job satisfaction before migration Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (1-tailed).*. The results of correlation analysis showed that correlation estimates were significant in both cases and proved the hypothesised relationships. Overall career satisfaction and its predictors Overall career satisfaction as the continuous depende nt variable was conceptualised to have links with different intervening/mediator variables measured using different scales. Therefore, different tests of association were needed and thus the Spearman correlation was selected to test the association between employment status at present, present salary, and employment status before migration. The results showed that all relationships assumed were significant. Table 5.40 presents the results of this analysis. 153 Table 5.40: Correlation between objective success variables after migration, employment status before migration and overall career satisfaction .544** .000 177 .608** .000 175 .178** .007 192 Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (1-tailed) N Employment status at present Present salary Employment status before migration Spearman's rho Career satisfaction- overall Correlation is significant at the .01 level (1-tailed).**. Pearson correlations were used to test the association between job satisfaction before migration, subjective career success before migration and career sati sfaction after migration. This showed that the association between subjective career success before migration and overall career satisfaction was non- significant and other two were significant. Table 5.41 presents the results of this analysis. Table 5.41: Correlation between subjective success before and after migration, job satisfaction before migration, career satisfaction after migration and overall career satisfaction .108 .067 193 .189** .005 189 .727** .000 205 .752** .000 208 Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Subjective career success before migration Job satisfaction before migration Career satisfaction after migration Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction- overall Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).**. 154 This section dealt with testing the association between variables as hypothesised in the initial model (figure 3.4). Table 5.42 presents the summary results of hypotheses testing based on these tests of association. This analysis showed that 68 of 116 hypotheses were accepted and the remaining 48 were rejected. Correlation and other types of bivariate tests consider the association between only two variables. It is important to note that the overall outcome ha s different degrees of effect from various predictor and/or intervening variables as hypothesised. S uggesting an appropriate model to represent a particular context (for example, factor influencing career outcomes of migrant individuals in this study) needs attention of all possible factors that can have an impact on the dependent variable (for example the intercorrelation between different predictors). The overall effect on the dependent variable is a combination of various predictors and it is necessary to evaluate different degrees of effect from those predictors in making inferences. Therefore, it is important to test those links assumed in the model using more sophisticated techniques. Multivariate analyses look for the contribution made by each variable to an outcome variable and remove those variables or links that are not significant. Bearing these facts in mind different techniques were used. These techniques and results are discussed below. 155 Table 5.42: Summary results of hypotheses testing Hypo. number Independent variable Dependent variable One tailed/two tailed? coefficient p Hypothesis accepted? Yes/No 1a 1b 1c 1d 1e 2a 2b 2c 2d 2e 3a 3b 3c 3d 3e 4a 4b 4c 4d 4e 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Explo ration as a motivation to migrate Escaping as a motivation to migrate Family building as a motivation to migrate Financial betterment as a motivation to migrate Career building as a motivation to migrate Exploration as a motivation to migrate Escaping as a motivation to migrate Family building as a motivation to migrate Financial betterment as a motivation to migrate Career building as a motivation to migrate Exploration as a motivation to migrate Escaping as a motivation to migrate Family building as a mot ivation to migrate Financial betterment as a motivation to migrate Career building as a motivation to migrate Exploration as a motivation to migrate Escaping as a motivation to migrate Family building as a motivation to migrate Financial betterment as a mo tivation to migrate Career building as a motivation to migrate Support from own community Support from own community Support from own community Support from own community Support from host community Support from host community Support from host community S upport from host community Employment status at present Employment status at present Employment status at present Employment status at present Employment status at present Present salary Present salary Present salary Present salary Present salary Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employme nt status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .054 - .067 - .180 - .113 - .112 .105 - .141 - .151 - .049 - .071 .178 - .079 - .187 .117 .011 .202 - .018 - .230 .066 .009 - .148 - .113 - .081 - .030 - .033 .042 .166 .150 p>.05 p>.05 p<.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p<.05 p>.05 p<.05 p>.05 p>.05 p<.01 p>.05 p<.01 p>.05 p>.05 p<.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p<.05 p<.05 No No Yes No No No No No No No Yes No Yes No No Yes No Yes No No Yes No No No No No Yes Yes 156 Hypo. number Independent variable Dependent variable One tailed/two tailed? coefficient p Hypothesis accepted? Yes/No 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37a 37b 37c 37d 37e 37f Efforts made towards career Efforts made towards career Efforts made towards career Efforts made towards career Usefulness of prior knowledge, skills & habits Usefulness of prior knowledge, skills & habits Usefulness o f prior knowledge, skills & habits Usefulness of prior knowledge, skills & habits Maintenance of own culture Maintenance of own culture Maintenance of own culture Maintenance of own culture Cultural adaptation (adapting NZ culture) Cultural adaptation (ad apting NZ culture) Cultural adaptation (adapting NZ culture) Cultural adaptation (adapting NZ culture) Ability in English language Ability in English language Ability in English language Ability in English language Willingness to use English language Willingness to use English language Willingness to use English language Willingness to use English language Career planning Network building Information seeking Seeking mentoring Career flexibility Extended time involvement Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subje ctive career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Employment status at present Employment status at present Employment status at present Employment status at present Employment status at present 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .160 .199 .145 .094 .475 .383 .275 .165 - .052 .018 .104 - .017 .337 .263 .307 .435 .467 .389 .271 .212 .330 .254 .138 .260 .397 .166 - .342 - .059 .073 .150 p<.05 p<.01 p<.05 p>.05 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.01 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.01 p<.00 p<.00 p<.05 p<.00 p<.00 p<.05 p<.00 p>.05 p>.05 p<.05 Yes Yes Yes No Y es Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No Yes 157 Hypo. number Independent variable Dependent variable One tailed/two tailed? coefficient p Hypothesis accepted? Yes/No 38a 38b 38c 38d 38e 38f 39a 39b 39c 39d 39e 39f 40a 40b 40c 40d 40e 40f 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Career planning Network building Information seeking Seeking mentoring Career flexibility Extended time involvement Career planning Network building Information seeking Seeking mentoring Career flexibility Extended time involvement Career planning Network building Information seeking Seeking mentoring Career flexibility Extended time involvement Overseas experience Overseas experience Overseas experience Overseas experience Educational experience in New Zealand Educational experience in New Zealand Educational experience in New Zealand Educational experience in New Zealand Length of time in New Zealand Length of time in New Zealand Length of time in New Zealand Length of time in New Zealan d Present salary Present salary Present salary Present salary Present salary Present salary Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migratio n Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .446 .159 - .270 - .003 .051 .131 .269 .119 - .238 .091 .123 - .019 .321 .060 - .233 .083 .086 - .028 .334 .393 .241 .190 .624 .523 .294 .334 .493 .451 .357 .324 p<.00 p<.05 p<.00 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p<.00 p>.05 p<.01 p>.05 p<.05 p>.05 p<.00 p>.05 p<.01 p>.05 p>.05 p>.05 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.01 p< .00 p<.00 p<.01 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 p<.00 Yes Yes Yes No No No Yes No No No Yes No Yes No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 158 Hypo. Number Independent variable Dependent variable One tailed/two tailed? Coefficient p Hypothesis accepted? Yes/No 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Age Age Age Age Gender Gender Gender Gender Gender Self - efficacy Self - efficacy Self - efficacy Self - efficacy Self - efficacy Educational qualification befo re migration Educational qualification before migration Educational qualification before migration Educational qualification before migration Educational qualification before migration Length of service Length of service Employment status at present Present salary Employment status before migration Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success before migration Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Present salary Employment status before migration Job satisfaction before migration Subjective career success after migration Employment status before migration J ob satisfaction before migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career success after migration Employment status before migration Job satisfaction before migration Employment status at present Present salary Subjective career succes s after migration Employment status before migration Job satisfaction before migration Overall career satisfaction Overall career satisfaction Overall career satisfaction Overall career satisfaction Overall career satisfaction Overall career satisfaction Overall career satisfaction 2 2 2 2 * * * * * 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .225 .192 .045 .080 .465* 2.151* 7.776* 3.803* 2.562* .135 .422 .153 .162 .093 .456 .171 .339 .315 .032 .207 .150 .544 .608 .178 .189 .108 .752 .727 p<.01 p<.05 p>.05 p>.0 5 p>.05 p>.05 p<.01 p<.05 p>.05 p<.05 p<.00 p<.05 p<.05 p>.05 p<.00 p<.01 p<.00 p<.00 p>.05 p<.01 p<.05 p<.00 p<.00 p<.01 p<.01 p>.05 p<.00 p<.00 Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes * S ince gender is a nominal variable, Kruskal - Wallis test was performed in this case and the coefficients represent chi - square values. The tests of association used to show these results here did not consider any corrections for type I error and therefore these results should be treated with cautions. 159 Multiple Regression Analysis Multiple regression is used as a descriptive tool in three types of situations. Firstly, it is used to develop a self- weighting estimating equation with which to predict values for a dependent variable from the values for several independent or predictor variables. Secondly, a descriptive application of multiple regression calls for controlling of confounding variables to better evaluate the contribution of the variables concerned. Thirdly, multiple regression analysis is u sed to test and explain causal theories (Cooper & Schindler, 2001). The fundamental purpose of multiple regression is to predict levels of the dependent variable by using a set of independent variables. In doing so, multiple regression fulfils the objective of identifying the predictive power of independent variables. This linear combination of independent variables is deemed to be the optimal predictor of the dependent measure. Multiple regression can also meet a second objective by comparing two or mor e sets of independent variables to ascertain the predictive power of each variate (Hair et al., 1995). To test hypotheses about a population regression line, it must be assumed that the relationship between the dependent and the independent variables is linear and that for each combination of values of the independent variables, the distribution of the dependent variable is normal with a constant variance (Norušis, 2002). Also, there are many other assumptions that underpin the use of regression. The first one is the ratio of cases to independent variables. In this case, the minimum requirement is to have at least five times more cases than independent variables (Coakes & Steed, 20 03) where the assumption relates to research design. And this assumption was satisfied by the data in this study (by having 210 cases for 27 variables in total equivalent to 7 cases per variable) in all places where regression analysis was applied. Outliers, multicollinearity and singularity, normality, linearity, homoscedasticit y and independence of residuals are other assumptions of multiple regression analysis (Coakes & Steed, 2003). These assumptions are now examined with regard to the data. Outliers have considerable impact on the regression solution and should be deleted during the data screening (Coakes & Steed, 2003). In this study, two cases consisted of outliers (overseas experience and length of time in New Zealand) where it indicated that the data did not meet this criterion. Multicollinearity refers to high correl ations among independent variables, where as singularity occurs when perfect correlations among independent variables exist in which case most computer programmes have default 160 values for multicollinearity and will not admit variables that are a problem (Co akes & Steed, 2003). That is, most computer programmes do not admit the independent variables that are highly correlated. The last three assumptions are usually assessed through regression analysis using the residuals and the predicted values. The normal plot of residuals suggesting a straight line confirms that residuals are normally distributed and the regression assumptions are valid (Page & Meyer, 200 0). This was utilised in the following analysis in this study. Researchers can build many different mo dels from the same set of independent variables using forward selection, backward selection or stepwise selection of variables. Forward selection starts with a model that contains only the constant term (i.e. the intercept) of the regression line. In contrast, in backward selection the researcher starts with a regression model that contains all the independent variables. Stepwise variable selection is a combination of forward and backward methods (Norušis, 20 02; Coakes & Steed, 2003). The choice of technique largely depends on the researcher’s goals (Coakes & Steed, 2003). However, the enter and stepwise methods are sufficient for many purposes (Norušis, 200 2) and stepwise estimation is perhaps the most popular sequential approach to variable selection ( Hair et al., 1998). Therefore, a stepwise selection of variables was used in this study. When looking at how well the model fits the data and finding the most appropriate predictors of a dependent variable, researchers and analysts use several measures. The commonly used measures are R, R square (coefficient of determination), F ratio, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the t statistic. R is the correlation coefficient between the observed value of the dependent variable and the predicted value based on the regression model. A value of 1 indicates that the dependent variable can be perfectly predicted from the independent variables. A value close to 0 shows that the independent variables are not linearly related to the dependent variable (Norušis, 2002). R 2 (Coefficient of determination) is the measure of proportion of the variance of dependent variable about its mean that is explained by the independent, or predictor, variables (Hair et al, 1998). Simply stated, it demonstrates the variability in depe ndent variable explained by the variance in independent variables (Norušis, 2002). The coefficient can vary between 0 and 1. If the regression model is properly applied and estimated, the researcher can assume that the higher the value of R 2 , the greater the 161 explanatory power of the regression equation, and therefore the better the prediction of the dependent variable (Hair et al,. 1998). To test the hypothesis that the amount of variation explained by the regression model is more than the variation expl ained by the average (i.e., that R 2 is greater than zero), the F ratio is used (Hair et al., 1998). F is the ratio of the regression mean square to the residual mean square (Norušis, 20 02). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to test several equiv alent null hypotheses: namely that there is no linear relationship in the population between the dependent variable and the independent variables, that all of the population partial regression coefficients are 0, and that the population value for multiple R 2 is 0 (Norušis, 2002). Adjusted R 2 is an estimate of how well the model would fit another data set from the same population. Since the slope and intercept in the regression equation are based on the values in the data set, the model fits the data somew hat better than it would another sample of cases. The value of adjusted R 2 is always smaller than the value of R 2 (Norušis, 2002). This statistic is quite useful for comparison between equations with different numbers of independent variables, differing sample sizes, or both (Hair et al, 1998). We can test the null hypothesis that the population partial regression coefficient for a variable is 0 using the t statistic and its observed significance level (Norušis, 2002). The t test assesses the statistical significance of the difference between two independent sample means. The t statistic is the ratio of the difference between the sample means to their standard error. The standard error is an estimate of the difference between means to be expected becaus e of sampling error, rather than real differences between means. Absolute values of the t statistic that exceed the critical value (t crit ) lead to a rejection of the null hypothesis of no difference (Hair et al., 1995 & 1998). In using SPSS, the output produced provides a t statistic with its observed significance level and therefore it becomes easier to handle in testing the hypotheses. Bearing in mind the above issues and explanations of statistics and values, multiple regression analysis was performed in four cases where the model 3.4 in chapter 3 had multiple independent variables in predicting a single dependent variable. This process started backward from the model since the dependent variable (overall career satisfaction in this case) is the ultimate outcome in the model and any predictors should be determined based on the dependent variable. 162 Predictors of Overall career satisfaction The backward selection of the model suggested that predictors of overall career satisfaction as suggested by model 3 .3 should be analysed first if the purpose is to reduce the complexity of the overall model. The initial model in figure 3.3 constituted a dependent variable (overall career satisfaction), and several independent variables (job satisfaction before migration, employment status before migration, subjective career success before migration, subjective career success after migration, objective career success after migration comprising employment status at present and present salary, and career satisfaction after migration). A stepwise variable selection was used in the regression analysis and the table 5.43 provides the summary measures of the models. Table 5.43: Predictors of Overall career satisfaction-Model Summary .778 .605 .602 .57338 .805 .649 .644 .54236 .815 .665 .658 .53179 .821 .675 .666 .52550 Model 1 2 3 4 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Predictors in model 4: subjective career success after migration, career satisfaction after migration, job sa tisfaction before migration and employment status at present The specification of the four variables (subjective career success after migration, career satisfaction after migration, job satisfaction before migration and employment status at present) in m odel 4, when compared to the other three models (model 1 specified subjective career success after migration, model 2 specified two variables subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration while model 3 specified job sati sfaction before migration in addition to the previous two variables), revealed an increased ability to predict overall career satisfaction (R 2 = .67 5) as against lower R 2 values in other models. In model 4, an R 2 value of .675 denotes that 67.5% of the observed variability in overall career satisfaction can be explained by the differences in all four independent variables namely subjective career success after migration, career satisfaction after migration, job satisfaction before migration and employment status at present. The remaining 32.5% is not explained. In this model, the value of an adjusted R 2 is .666, slightly less than the value of .675. 163 The independent variables in model 4 explain 67.5% of the variance, and are highly significant, as indica ted by the F - value (F= 76.70 6 and p < .0001). An examination of the model summary in conjunction with ANOVA indicates that even though all models present an F value at highly significance levels, the model 4 explains the most possible combination of predictor variables that could contribute to the relationship with the dependent variable. Because the F ratio is highly significant, we reject the hypothesis that the reduction in error we obtained, by using those independent variables to predict overall career satisfaction, was a chance occurrence. Statistical significance testing for estimated coefficients in regression analysis is appropriate and necessary when the analysis is based on a sample of population rather than a census (Hair et al, 1998). Table 5.44 demonstrates the importance of each independent variable in predicting the dependent variable. Table 5.44: Predictors of Overall career satisfaction -Coefficients .292 .299 .976 .331 .447 .068 .494 6.617 .000 .286 .075 .272 3.796 .000 .153 .066 .111 2.314 .022 3.415E-02 .016 .123 2.142 .034 (Constant) Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Job satisfaction before migration Employment status at present Model 4 B Std. Error Unstandardized Coefficients Beta Standardized Coefficients t Sig. In model 4, t values are significant for all independent variables (sig. < .05) and therefore we can reject the null hypothesis that the coefficients for employment status at present, job satisfaction before migration, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration are 0. The significance level explains that we can be sure with a higher degree of certainty (greater than 96% in all cases) that the coefficients should be included in the regression equation. All of the variables have a positive coefficient, which means that career satisfaction increases with increasing status of employment at present and increasing values of job satisfaction before migration, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. That makes sense. The research theme expects that high levels of job status, career satisfaction after migration, subjective success after migration, and job satisfaction before migration would be associated with higher level of overall career 164 satisfaction. All of these variables are indicators of migrants’ success and satisfaction in a new country. The predictability analysis resulted in removing the variables ‘employment status before migration’, ‘subjective career success before migration’ and ‘present salary’ from the model. Table 5.45 shows the excluded variables from the model with their t values and significance level. Table 5.45: Excluded Variables for overall career satisfactione -.932 .353 -.580 .562 .811 .419 Subjective career success before migration Employment status before migration Present salary Model 4 t Sig. Dependent Variable: career satisfaction- overalle. A normal plot of residuals obtained from the regression analysis (close to a straight line) in this case explains that the residuals are well behaved, in the sense that they are independently and normally distributed with the same standard deviation. Hence the regression assumptions are valid (Page & Meyer, 2000). Normal P-P Plot career satisfaction- overall Observed Cum Prob 1.00.75.50.250.00 Ex pe cte d C um P ro b 1.00 .75 .50 .25 0.00 Figure 5.11: Normal Probability Plot for regression standardised residuals – overall career satisfaction 165 In the second stage of the regression analysis predictors of variables identified in model 4 discussed previously were assessed. This included employment status at present, job satisfaction before migration, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. Predictors of employment status at present Analysis of figure 3.3 in the previous section resulted in removing present salary (a component of objective career success after migration) as a predictor of overall career satisfaction. This led to remove the variable from the model and thus ‘employment status at present’ became the intervening variable in the final model to be analysed. Assessment of predictors of employment status at present included several variables derived from the initially developed concepts. There were five variables identified through factor analysis within the concept of motivation to migrate and another six variables were identified within the concept of career strategies. All other concepts constituted either a single variable (continuous or ordinal and measured directly or using ordinal scales) or an item - scale measure. Few concepts constituted two variables (social support, acculturation strategies, language ability, and mode of adjustment to career) and the underlying variables were dealt with separately in the analysis. Table 5.46: Predictors of employment status at present - Model Summary .698 .487 .480 2.214 .746 .556 .544 2.073 .780 .608 .592 1.960 .805 .648 .629 1.870 .823 .677 .655 1.803 .838 .703 .678 1.743 Model 1 2 3 4 5 6 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Predictors in model 6: (constant), education in New Zealand, usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, length of time in New Zealand, efforts made towards career, information seeking, network building. As shown in table 5.46, the specification of all variabl es in model 6, when compared to the other five models, reveals an increased ability to predict employment status at present (R 2 = .703 ) as against lower R 2 values in other models. In model 6, an R 2 value of .703 denotes that 70.3% of the observed variabil ity in employment status at present can be explained by the differences in all six independent variables. 166 Those variables are education in New Zealand, usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, length of time in New Zealand, efforts made towards career, i nformation seeking and network building. The remaining 29.7% is not explained. In this model, the value of the adjusted R 2 is .678, slightly less than the value of .703. The independent variables in model 6 explain 70.3% of the variance, and are highl y significant, as indicated by the F - value (F = 27.985, p < .0001). An examination of the model summary in conjunction with ANOVA indicates that even though all models present an F value at highly significance levels, model 6 explains the best possible combination of predictor variables that influence the dependent variable. Table 5.47 demonstrates the importance of each independent variable in predicting the dependent variable. Table 5.47: Coefficients for predictors of employment status at present -2.726 1.218 -2.237 .028 .431 .092 .370 4.662 .000 .815 .199 .295 4.101 .000 .193 .049 .306 3.950 .000 .938 .234 .317 4.009 .000 -.942 .269 -.305 -3.500 .001 .600 .244 .191 2.463 .016 (Constant) Education in New Zealand Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills Length of time in New Zealand Efforts made towards career Information seeking Network building Model 6 B Std. Error Unstandardized Coefficients Beta Standardized Coefficients t Sig. In model 6, t values are significant for all independent variables (sig. < .05) and therefore we can reject the null hypothesis that the coefficients for education in New Zealand , usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, length of time in New Zealand, efforts made towards career, information seeking and network building are 0. And we can be sure with a higher degree of certainty (>99.9 % in the case of all variables except network building, >98 %) that all coefficients should be included in the regression equation. All of the variables except information seeking have positive coefficients, which mean that employment status increases with increasing values of educational qualification gained in New Zealand, usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, and efforts made towards career and network building. As per the research theme it is expected that a high level of employment status will result from higher levels of predictor variables. 167 Information seeking has a negative coefficient that means that information seeking leads to a lower level of job status. Tests of association done previously in this chapter also confirmed a negative relationship between information seeking and employment status at present. This could be interpreted as a reverse causality where individuals who are unemployed or have lower level jobs seek more inform ation. All of these variables; education in New Zealand, usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, length of time in New Zealand, efforts made towards career, information seeking and network building are indicators of immigrants’ life and adjustment in a n ew country. The regression analysis resulted in the exclusion of many variables as indicated in table 5.48. The t values have a p value greater than .05 explaining that these variables are not significant predictors of the dependent variable and thus are removed from the model. 168 Table 5.48: Model for predictors of employment status at present - Excluded Variablesg -.147 .884 -.300 .765 .095 .925 -1.166 .247 .208 .836 .188 .851 -.273 .786 .771 .443 .654 .515 .118 .906 .891 .376 -.228 .820 -1.663 .101 .490 .625 -1.844 .069 .931 .355 1.242 .218 -.083 .934 .937 .352 -.248 .805 Exploring the world as a motivation to migrate Escaping as motivation to migrate Family building as motivation to migrate Financial betterment as a motivation to migrate Career building as a motivation to migrate Support from Sri Lankan community in NZ Support from NZ community Ability in using English language Willingness to use English language Maintaining Sri Lankan culture in New Zealand Adapting to New Zealand cultural aspects Career planning Seeking mentoring Flexibility Extended time involvement Overseas experience in years Age Gender Qualification Self-efficacy Model 6 t Sig. Dependent Variable: Employment status at presentg. The normal probability plot for standardised regression residuals did not suggest a straight line in this case. However, the deviation was mild from a linearity point of view and was not viewed as serious (Coakes & Ste ed, 2003). 169 Normal P-P Plot Dependent Variable: current job Observed Cum Prob 1.00.75.50.250.00 E xp ec te d C um P ro b 1.00 .75 .50 .25 0.00 Figure 5.12: Normal Probability Plot for regression standardised residuals – employment status at present Predictors of Job Satisfaction before migration Job satisfaction was identified as one of the predictors of overall career satisfacti on and it was an intervening variable in model 3.4. Therefore, it is important to identify the predictors of job satisfaction to formulate a clear model. Job satisfaction as a dependent variable was modelled with four predictor variables (figure 3.1): ge nder, self - efficacy, education (qualification gained before migration) and length of service in the last organisation served before migration. The stepwise regression analysis showed two predictor variables, qualification and self - efficacy, as valid and excluded gender and length of service. Table 5.49 shows the variance explained by these predictor variables. Table 5.49: Model Summary - Predictors of Job satisfaction before migration .424a .180 .175 .57891 .457b .209 .200 .57019 Model 1 2 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Predictors: (Constant), self-efficacya. Predictors: (Constant), self-efficacy, educationb. Model 2 shows that the two predictor variables explain 20.9% (R 2 = .209) of the variance in job satisfaction which means that the remaining 7 9.1 percent of the variance in job satisfaction before migration is related to other variables not depicted in the model. It may be argued that a variable that is not explained with a significant variance is not useful in the model, however, job satisfact ion before migration is only a potential 170 intervening variable in the complete proposed model and its importance to immigrants’ career in a new country could be minimal. However, considering the predictability of job satisfaction in overall career satisfaction of immigrant individuals, it is necessary to include it in the model. F statistic is highly significant in both models (sig. < .0001 and F = 39.852 for model 1 and F = 23.842 for model 2) however; model 2 explains a combination of variables with a higher level of variance. In model 2, t values are significant for all independent variables (sig. < .05) as shown in table 5.50 and therefore we can reject the null hypothesis that the coefficients for qualification and self - efficacy are 0. And we can be sure with a high degree of certainty (>98% ) that these coefficients should be included in the regression equation. Both variables have positive coefficients, which mean that job satisfaction increases with increasing values of career self- efficacy and levels of qualification of the individual. Table 5.50: Coefficients for predictors of job satisfaction before migration 1.673 .326 5.135 .000 .436 .072 .402 6.031 .000 .104 .040 .171 2.570 .011 (Constant) Self-efficacy Education Model 2 B Std. Error Unstandardized Coefficients Beta Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Two variables with higher p values were excluded from the model and they have been shown in table 5.51. Table 5.51 : Excluded Variables from the model - Job satisfaction before migration c -.906 .366 1.900 .059 Gender Length of service in last organisation Model 2 t Sig. Dependent Variable: job satisfaction before migrationc. The low value of R squared already explained that there are other variables not depicted in the model that have an impact on job satisfaction and the normal probability plot of residuals confirms this. Again the normal probability plot of standardised regression residuals did not show an exact straight line in this case however the deviation was small. 171 Normal P-P Plot Dependent Variable: job satisfaction Observed Cum Prob 1.00.75.50.250.00 E xp ec te d C um P ro b 1.00 .75 .50 .25 0.00 Figure 5.13: Normal Probability Plot of regression standardised residuals – job satisfaction before migration Predictors of Subjective Career Success after migration Subjective career success after migration was also identified as a predictor of overall career satisfaction. This was an intervening variable according to the model in figure 3.4 and thus a regression analysis was required in order to determine its predictors. Subjective career success after migration was initially conceptualised with 26 pr edictor variables. A stepwise selection of variables in regression analysis resulted in six models as given in table 5.52. Table 5.52: Predictors of subjective career success after migration - Model Summary .397 .158 .147 .91094 .472 .223 .203 .88060 .522 .273 .245 .85719 .576 .331 .297 .82713 .608 .370 .329 .80793 .637f .406 .359 .78993 Model 1 2 3 4 5 6 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Predictors: (Constant), education in New Zealand, escaping as motivation to migrate, flexibility, length of time in New Zealand, overseas experience , family building as motivation to migrate f. The coefficient of determination (R 2 ) improved with each model and the model 6 shows an R 2 value of .406, which means the predic tor variables included in the model explains 40.6 percent of the variance in subjective career success after migration. The remaining 59.4 percent is not explained by the model and can be attributed to other variables not considered in this research. 172 In model 6, R 2 of .406 denotes that 40.6% of the observed variability in subjective career success after migration can be explained by the differences in all six independent variables: education in New Zealand, escaping as a motivation to migrate, flexibility , length of time in New Zealand, overseas experience and family building as a motivation to migrate. In this model, the value of adjusted R 2 is .359, slightly less than the value of .406. This model explained less than half the variance and this is justified by the fact that the study looked at an individual’s perspective that had personal efforts, adjustments and feelings as the variables and did not include the perspective of outside influences. Bearing in mind the influence of subjective career succ ess after migration on overall career satisfaction and the practical importance over statistical needs that emphasise the inner feelings of individual about his/her career after migration would definitely influence his/her feelings about overall career and as a potential mediator variable, it was wise to continue the model as it was. The independent variables in model 6 explain 40.6% of the variance, and are highly significant, as indicated by the F - value (F = 8.64 6, p < .0001). An examination of the model summary in conjunction with ANOVA indicates that even though all models present F values at highly significance levels, the model 6 explains the best possible combination of predictor variables that could contribute to the relationship with the dependent variable. Table 5.53: Coefficients for predictors of subjective career success after migration 2.655 .733 3.620 .001 9.927E-02 .037 .262 2.703 .008 -.194 .071 -.247 -2.745 .008 .355 .126 .255 2.829 .006 5.378E-02 .020 .261 2.686 .009 5.887E-02 .023 .226 2.524 .014 -.179 .084 -.191 -2.133 .036 (Constant) Education in New Zealand Escaping as motivation to migrate Flexibility Length of time in New Zealand Overseas experience Family building as motivation to migrate Model 6 B Std. Error Unstandardized Coefficients Beta Standardized Coefficients t Sig. 173 As shown in table 5.53, statistical significance testing for model 6 (the model with the highest R 2 value) shows that t values are highly significant (sig. < .05) and therefore we can be sure that these coefficients for the variables in the model could be used with higher level of certainty (>95%) in the regression equation. All variables except those of escaping and family building as motivations for migration had positive coefficients. These motivations suggested that immigrants who migrated because of hardship in their home country or for building up their family do not feel that they are successful in their career after migration. Twenty of the 26 variables were eventually removed from the model suggesting that the best prediction of subjective career success after migration is represented in model 6. Table 5.54 shows the excluded variables with their respective t values and significance levels. Table 5.54: Excluded Variables from the model - subjective career success after migrationg 1.405 .164 .817 .416 1.145 .256 .354 .724 .438 .663 .115 .909 -1.255 .213 .286 .776 -.070 .944 -.030 .976 1.400 .166 -.242 .810 -.137 .891 -.543 .589 -.278 .782 -.714 .477 -1.116 .268 -.670 .505 -.786 .434 -.500 .619 Exploring the world as a motivation to migrate Financial betterment as a motivation to migrate Career building as a motivation to migrate Support from Sri Lankan community in NZ Support from NZ community Ability in using English language Willingness to use English language Efforts made towards career Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills Maintaining Sri Lankan culture in New Zealand Adapting to New Zealand cultural aspects Career planning Network building Information seeking Seeking mentoring Extended time involvement Age Gender Education Self-efficacy Model 6 t Sig. Dependent Variable: subjective career success after migrationg. 174 A normal probability plot of standardised regression residuals in this case suggested a straight line denoting that linear regression assumptions are valid. Figure 5.14 below demonstrates the linear relationship. Normal P-P Plot subjective career success after migra Observed Cum Prob 1.00.75.50.250.00 Ex pe ct ed C um P ro b 1.00 .75 .50 .25 0.00 Figure 5.14: Normal probability plot of regression standardised residuals – Subjective career success after migration Predictors of Career Satisfaction after migration Career satisfaction after migration was initially modelled with 26 variables. Stepwise selection of variables to regression analysis resulted in 6 predictor variables with an R 2 value of .383, which means that, 38.3% of the variance of the dependent variable, career satisfaction after migration, is explained by the model. The model does not explain the remaining 62.7% of the variance. Again the R 2 value is low and suggests that the model may not be useful for further analysis. However, career satisfaction after migration is a mediator variable to the proposed model and thus its inclusion becomes important to this study. In real life, overall satisfaction depends on the whole life an individual experiences, and in the case of migrants this include their career satisfaction before and after migration in relation to their overall career satisfaction. Therefore, even though it explained a low variance, the inclusion of career satisfaction after migration becomes important considering the practical consideration rather than statistical needs. 175 Table 5.55: Predictors of career satisfaction after migration - Model Summary .363 .132 .121 .73049 .453 .205 .185 .70333 .506 .256 .227 .68472 .562 .316 .280 .66103 .591 .350 .307 .64856 .619f .383 .334 .63569 Model 1 2 3 4 5 6 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Predictors: (Constant), ability in using english language, flexibility, adapting to New Zealand cultural aspects, family building as motivation to migrate, information seeking, escaping as motivation to migrate f. The F ratio for the selected model (model 6) was 7.774 and highly significant (p < .0001). Statistical significance testing for model 6 (the model with the highest R 2 value) s hows that t values are highly significant (sig. < .05) and therefore we can be sure that these coefficients for the variables in the model can be used with a higher level of certainty (>95% ) in the regression equation. All variables except escaping as motivation to migrate, information seeking, and family building had positive coefficients. Those motivations had a negative coefficient that suggested that immigrants who migrated because of hardship in their home country and for building up their family do not feel satisfied with their career after migration. Information seeking also seems to be negatively correlated with satisfaction after migration. This may be explained as a reverse causality where individuals with low satisfaction with their careers after migration seek more information as discussed previously. Table 5.56: Coefficients for predictors of career satisfaction after migrationa 2.516 .749 3.357 .001 .220 .096 .223 2.298 .024 .309 .106 .282 2.910 .005 1.744E-02 .007 .244 2.611 .011 -.193 .067 -.262 -2.862 .005 -.158 .077 -.197 -2.041 .045 -.119 .059 -.193 -2.027 .046 (Constant) Ability in using English language Flexibility Adapting to New Zealand cultural aspects Family building as motivation to migrate Information seeking Escaping as motivation to migrate Model 6 B Std. Error Unstandardized Coefficients Beta Standardized Coefficients t Sig. Dependent Variable: career satisfaction after migrationa. 176 The final model excluded 20 variables from the initial model. The excluded variables and their t values with respective significance level have been shown in table 5.57. Table 5.57: Excluded Variables from the model - Career satisfaction after migrationg .131 .896 .255 .800 -.258 .797 1.056 .294 -.015 .988 -.691 .492 -.015 .988 .932 .354 .254 .800 .048 .962 1.288 .202 .230 .819 -.852 .397 -.015 .988 1.643 .105 .364 .717 -.077 .938 -.929 .356 -1.155 .252 1.164 .248 Exploring the world as a motivation to migrate Financial betterment as a motivation to migrate Career building as a motivation to migrate Support from Sri Lankan community in NZ Support from NZ community Willingness to use English language Efforts made towards career Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills Maintaining Sri Lankan culture in New Zealand Career planning Network building Seeking mentoring Extended time involvement Overseas experience Education in New Zealand Length of time in New Zealand Age Gender Education Self-efficacy Model 6 t Sig. Dependent Variable: career satisfaction after migrationg. A normal probability plot for standardised regression residuals suggested that the residuals did not fit on a straight line and that the deviations were moderate. This supported the low R squared value in this case. However, it was decided to continue with the model bearing in mind the influence that career satisfaction after migration has on overall career satisfaction (the ultimate outcome) in the model. Again this is justified by the real life situations over statistical needs where overall satisfaction depends on what an individual had before migration and what he/she experienced after migration. 177 Normal P-P Plot of Regression Stand career satisfaction after migration Observed Cum Prob 1.00.75.50.250.00 Ex pe cte d C um Pr ob 1.00 .75 .50 .25 0.00 Figure 5.15: Normal probability plot of regression standardised residuals – career satisfaction after migration All individual models tested were combined to formulate a complete model explaining the research theory. In the section below, this model was further analysed through structural equation modelling technique using AMOS (analysis of moment structures). Structural Equation Modelling The Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) approach to multivariate analysis was used to confirm the relationships between the underlying variables of the model constructed after multiple regression analysis. SEM provides simultaneous estimations of a series of relationships between independent and dependent variables (Jarratt, 2000). It provides a statistically appropriate way of using information obtained through measurement to examine relationships thought to exist between underlying (latent) variables. In reality we cannot measure many of the concepts we use in behavioural researches. However, on the basis of things we can measure, we attempt to make predictions of things we cannot measure (MacLean & Gray, 1998). These measurements are termed observed or manifest variables; within the context of SEM methodology, they serve as indicators of the underlying construct that they are presumed to represent (Byrne, 2001 ). A latent variable is part of a theory, while a manifest variable is the instrument of measurement on the operational level (Tacq, 1997). Thus, all SEM techniques are distinguished by two characteristics: (1) estimation of multiple and interrelated dependence relationships, and (2) the ability to represent unobserved concepts in these relationships and account for measurement error in the estimation process (Hair et al., 1998). 178 SEM recognises that latent variables (constructs measured through a series of manifest or observed variables) are measured with error . I t can allow for feedback effects in the model, and it recognises correlations between residuals (Jarratt, 2000). There are five steps characterising most applications of SEM. The first step, model specification, refers to the initial model that a researcher formulates prior to estimation. This model is formulated on the basis of one’s theory or past research in the area. Identification determines whether it is possible to find unique values for the specified parameters in the model. Once the model is identified, there are several estimation methods available. The selection of estimation techniques is often determined by the distributional properties of the variables being analysed. After the estimates are obtained, the researcher can test whether the model is consistent with the data. If consistency is obtained, the process can stop after the fourth step. More typically, the fit of the model is improved through respecification. Once respecified, steps 2 through 5 may be repeated, often many times (Bollen & Long, 1993; Byrne, 20 01) to achieve the fit. Technically, SEM estimates the unknown coefficients in a set of linear structural equations. Variable s in the equation system are usually directly observed variables, and unmeasured latent variables that are not observed but relate to observed variables. SEM assumes there is a causal structure among a set of latent variables, and that the observed variables are indicators of the latent variables. The latent variables may appear as linear combinations of observed variables, or they may be intervening variables in a causal chain (MacLean & Gray, 1998) SEM provides the researcher with the ability to accom modate multiple interrelated dependence relationships in a single model. Its closest analogy is multiple regression, which can estimate a single relationship (equation). But SEM provides practical benefits to a researcher since it can estimate many equat ions at once, and they can be interrelated, meaning that the dependent variable in one equation can be an independent variable in another (Hair et al, 1998). This facilitates the process of assessing models with intervening and mediator variables. Struct ural Equation Modelling takes a confirmatory (i.e. hypothesis testing) approach to the analysis of a structural theory. Typically, this theory represents ‘causal’ processes that generate observations on multiple variables (Bentler, 1988 cited in Byrne, 2001). 179 By contrast, multivariate procedures commonly used are essentially descriptive or exploratory in nature (e.g. principal components analysis, cluster analysis), so that hypothesis testing is difficult, if not impossible (MacLean & Gray, 1998 ). The term Structural Equation Modelling conveys two important aspects of the procedure: (a) that the causal processes under study are represented by a series of structural (i.e. regression) equations, and (b) that these structural relations can be modelled pictorially to enable a clearer conceptualisation of the theory under study. In other words, the conceptual framework developed in a study can be applied as a structural model and tested for assumed relationships. That is, the hypothesised model can be tested statistically in a simultaneous analysis of the entire system of variables to determine the extent to which it is consistent with the data. If the goodness of fit is adequate, the model argues for the plausibility of postulated relations among variables; if it is inadequate, the tenability of such relations is rejected (Byrne, 2001 ). Thus, SEM allows the researcher to specify a multivariate linear model and to test how well the data fit this model. When there is more than one model SEM allows the researche r to identify which model provides the most satisfactory description (Smith et al., 2001). This approach has been used in many academic contexts, including education, marketing, psychology, sociology, management, health, organisational behaviour, biology and genetics (Hair et al., 1998). The major advantages of using SEM instead of other alternative methods such as regression analysis are fivefold. Firstly, it allows the specification of a chain of causal links of variables, which is not possible under regression analysis. Secondly, it allows the specification of latent factors; this enables the modelling of cognitive constructs underpinning the model (Shaw and Shiu, 2002, pp. 288- 289). Thirdly, it takes a confirmatory, rather than an exploratory approa ch to data analysis, and, unlike other descriptive multivariate procedures such as exploratory factor analysis, it makes hypothesis testing possible. Fourthly, it provides explicit estimates of measurement error variance (Byrne, 20 01). Finally, and most i mportantly, there were no other widely and easily applied alternative methods for modelling multivariate relations found during this research. The core parameters in structural equation models are the regression coefficients, and the variances and covariances of the independent variables. When the focus extends to the analysis of mean structures, the means and intercepts also become central 180 parameters in the model (Byrne, 2001). The significance of regression coefficients and covariances are tested using t - values; where a numerical value for t is computed by all computer programmes based on the assumption of multivariate normality of variables (Bentler & Dudgeon, 199 6). Researchers (Bentler & Dudgeon, 1996) warn that incorrect conclusions about model adequacy are often obtained as a result of using the t - values based on the normality assumptions when data are not normal. However, according to Hu, Bentler and Kano, (1992 ) literature that appeared in statistical journals has shown that asymptotically correct standard errors can be obtained under normal- theory methods when the common factors are not normally distributed but the unique factors have a multivariate normal distribution. This means that the observed variables are also not normal. In estimatin g the models, the primary task is to determine the goodness of fit between the hypothesised model and the sample data. As such, the researcher imposes the structure of the hypothesised model on the sample data, and then tests how well the observed data fit this restricted structure (Byrne, 2001). Initially, researchers used chi - square and its associated p value to evaluate model fit, however they realised that the interpretation of the p value was confounded by sample size (Gerbing & Anderson, 1993) becaus e one can reject the null hypothesis simply by increasing the sample size (Tanaka, 1993). In theory, the chi - square statistic should not be significant if there is a good model fit (Hedges, 2003). The chi - square is an overall measure of how much the model implied and sample covariances differ, and exceeds zero when the model fit is not perfect. The more the implied and sample covariances differ, the bigger the chi - square statistic, and the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis of perfect fit ( Arbuckle & Wothke, 1999). However, reliance on the chi - square test as the sole measure of fit is not recommended because of its dependence on sample size (Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996). As a result of the effect of sample size on this chi - square measure, resear chers have introduced many other fitness measures. Researchers (Shaw & Shiu, 2002; Gerbing & Anderson, 1993; Browne & Cudeck, 1993) have reported that there is no one statistical test that can best assess the model fit. Rather, an assessment of fit can b e best achieved by using a combination of goodness- of- fit measures used to assess absolute fit, incremental fit, and parsimonious fit. 181 Bollen and Long (1993 ) also suggest the reporting of multiple fit indices and they examine the components of fit as wel l as the overall model fit estimating several plausible model structures as a means of determining the best fit. However, given the ambiguity that can arise from multiple fit measures, it is essential to develop some unifying set of principles for comparing fit indices. And it is clear from a review of literature on fit indices that different indices emphasise different aspects of model fit (Tanaka, 1993 ) and it is implausible that any statistical model that we use is anything more than an approximation of reality (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). However, fit indices should not be regarded as measures of usefulness of a model. They contain some information about the lack of fit of a model, but none about plausibility (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). And it is important t o note that global fit indices alone cannot possibly satisfy all that needs to be known about a model in order to judge the adequacy of its fit to the sample data (Byrne, 2001). Another widely used index is Goodness of fit index (GFI) which measures the relative amounts of variance and covariance in the sample covariance matrix explained by the hypothesised model (Byrne, 2001; Hair et al., 19 98; Bollen & Long, 199 3; Gerbing & Anderson, 1993). Comparative fit index (CFI) is another measure used by researc hers, which derived from an additional approach that is based on the comparison of the fit of a hypothesized model to the fit of a baseline model, such as the null model of modified independence, where the latter assumes that all variables are uncorrelated (Byrne, 2001; Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996). Values for this measure range from zero to 1.00 and a rough rule of thumb is that the CFI should be greater than or equal to 0.90 (Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996) however a revised cut - off value close to 0.95 has recently be en advised (Byrne, 2001). Browne & Cudeck (1993) have suggested the following measures of fit: ٭ CMIN (This is equivalent to the chi-square discussed previously) CMIN (Chi - square) is the minimum value, Ĉ , of the discrepancy (Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999). It is a measure of overall fit of the model to the data. It measures the distance (difference, discrepancy, deviance) between the sample covariance (correlation) matrix and the fitted covariance (correlation) matrix. Chi - square is a badness of fit measur e in the sense that a small chi- square corresponds to good fit and a large chi - square to bad fit (J öreskog, 1993 ). However, this measure is not appropriate for sample sizes bigger than 200 (Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999). 182 ٭ P It is the probability of getting as large a discrepancy as occurred with the present sample (under appropriate distributional assumptions and assuming a correctly specified model). That is, P is a “ p value” for testing hypothesis that the model fits perfectly in the population (Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999). ٭ CMIN/DF It is the minimum discrepancy, Ĉ , divided by its degrees of freedom. Several writers have suggested the use of this ratio as a measure of fit (Arbuckle, 1999). Many authors (Hair et al, 1998; Wheaton et al, 1977 as cited in Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999) suggest that a relative chi- square (χ2/ df) ratio of approximately five or less ‘as beginning to be reasonable’. However, Carmines and McIver (19 81 as cited by Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999) stat e that χ2 to degrees of freedom ratios in the range of 2 to 1 or 3 to 1 are indicative of an acceptable fit between the hypothetical model and the sample data. However, Hair et al (1998) have suggested an upper limit of 2.0/3.0 or 5.0 for this measure. ٭F0 F 0 is the unknown minimal population discrepancy function value where F 0 = 0 implies that the model fits perfectly and it measures the badness of fit of the model in the population (Browne & Du Toit, 1992). However, researchers (Browne & Du Toit, 1992; Byrne, 2001 ) have suggested RMSEA as a more suitable measure of discrepancy. ٭ RMSEA RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) is a measure of model fit based on the population discrepancy. The measure of RMSEA is relevant to the question, “how well would the model, with unknown, but optimally chosen, parameter values fit the population covariance matrix if it was available? (Browne & Cudeck, 1993)” It measures the discrepancy per degree of freedom, making it sensitive to the complexity of the model. Values of up to 0.05 indicate good fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993) and values ranging from .08 to .10 indicate mediocre fit, and those greater than .10 indicate poor fit (MacCallum et al., 1996 as cited in Byrne, 2001). However, researchers accept an RMSEA value under .08 as an indicator of good model fit (Hair et al, 19 98). 183 ٭ ECVI Cross validation has been in use for many years for investigating the predictive validity of a linear regression equation, and has been suggested for use in the analysis of covariance structures (Browne & Cudeck, 1983 as cited in Browne & Cudeck, 1993 ). The expected cross - validation index (ECVI) measures the discrepancy between the fitted covariance matrix in the analysed sample, and the expected covariance matrix that would be obtained in another sample of equivalent size. Application of the ECVI assumes a comparison of models whereby an ECVI index is computed for each model and then all ECVI values are placed in rank order; the model having the smallest ECVI value exhibits the greatest potential for replication (Byrne, 2001). There is no established range of acceptable values (Hair et al, 1998). Given the lower ECVI value for the hypothesised model, compared with both the independence and saturated models, it is concluded that it represents the best fit to the data and therefore, this measure is particularly useful when models are being compared (Byrne, 2001 ). In model respecification, ECVI values are compared for all respecified models and the model with the lowest ECVI value is considered the best among them. ٭ AIC Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) addresses the issue of parsimony in the assessment of model fit; as such, statistical goodness of fit and number of estimated parameters are taken into account (Byrne, 2001). Thus, AIC represents the penalty logic (all other things being equal, a heavily parameterised model will be penalised to a greater extent than a relatively simple model with fewer parameters) and encourages investigators to select the simplest from a range of alternative models (Tanaka, 1993). There is no established range of values and as Hair et al (1998) said, smaller values indicate parsimony and direct to choose simple models. This supports the idea that simple models are generally more replicable. The most direct application of structural equation modelling is a confirmatory modelling strategy (Hair et al, 1998 ) that means assessing the fit of a particular model and deciding whether to accept or reject. However, model modification has taken the attention of many researchers and authors in the past (Bollen & Long, 1993; Byrne, 2001; Tacq, 1997; Hair et al, 1998 ). The justification behind this process is that estimating several models permits researchers to explore plausible structures. This basis of comparison also allows us to determine the model with best fit, rather than attempt to assess a single model’s fit in some absolute sense (Bollen & Long, 1993). 184 In this process, after the mutual comparison of different models, it can be decided in a definitive step to remove a causal arrow from the original model (if the corresponding path coefficient is extremely low and non - significant), to add a causal arrow (if it can be suspected on the basis of the test equations that it was erroneously omitted), to eliminate a variable (if all direct and indirect effects of this variable are extremely small or no relationship assumed with this variable was left out in model respecification) and/or to add a new variable (if R 2 is too small) (Tacq, 1997 ). In this case, statistical significance of parameter estimates serves as a guide to accept or reject a hypothesis (that the estimate equals 0.0). The test statistic here is the critical ratio (c.r.), which represents the parameter estimate divided by its standard error; as such it operates, as a z - statistic in testing whether the estimate is statistically significant. Based on a level of .05, the test statistic needs to be > ±1.96 (±1.645 for a one - tailed test where hypotheses are directional) before the hypothesis can be rejected (Byrne, 2001; Hair et al., 1995). Non- significant parameters, with the exception of error variances, can be considered unimportant to the model; in the interest of scientific parsimony, they should be deleted from the model provided that the sample is big enough to give reasonable power. On the other hand, it is important to note that nonsignificant parameters can be indicative of a sample size that is too small (Byrne, 2001).The results of the changes in models would result in modified models together with new fit indices. A comparison of these changes could help to identify the best fitting model to the sampled data. Unidimensionality of constructs Measurement scales are either one - dimensional or multidimensional. Many researchers (Hair et al, 1998; Anderson & Gerbing, 1982 ) discussed Unidimensionality as a prerequisite to structural equation modelling. Unidimensionality is an assumption underlying the calculation of reliability and is demonstrated when the indicators of a construct have an acceptable fit on a single- factor (one - dimensional) model (Hair et al, 1998). It is defined here in reference to a latent construct (or set of items/composite measures) without reference to the latent construct’s relationship to other constructs in some theoretical model of interest (K umar & Dillon, 1987). It is suggested that unidimensionality tests are required before a structural model can be validated. 185 Testing of unidimensionality has taken the attention of many researchers (Kumar & Dillon, 1987; Bagozzi & Fornell, 1989; Bagozzi, Yi & Phillips, 1991 ; Gerbing & Anderson, 1988; Anderson & Gerbing, 1982; Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996; Bagozzi, Tybout, Craig & Sternthal, 1979) in confirming construct validity of multiple indicator constructs. That is when multiple indicators measure each construct and each indicator measures a single construct. In this study, there were two concepts that fitted this situation where multiple items were used to measure and identify different factors underlying a particular concept. This raised the need for ensuring validity and reliability of these concepts. Unidimensionality is an assumption underlying the calculation of reliability and is demonstrated when the indicators of a construct have an acceptable fit on a one- dimensional model (Hair et al, 1998). Construct validity, which is defined as the extent to which an instrument measures the concept it is supposed to measure (Bagozzi, Yi & Phillips, 1991; Page & Meyer, 2000; Hair et al, 1998) has four issues of focal concern in its assessment. These are int ernal consistency, convergent validity, discriminant validity and predictive validity (Bagozzi et al, 1979). Internal consistency means the homogeneity among the items and one of the most widely used internal consistency estimates is Cronbach’s coefficient alpha (Cooper & Schindler, 20 01). Convergent validity assesses the degree to which two measures of the same concept are correlated. High correlations indicate that the scale is measuring its intended concept (Hair et al, 1998 ). Discriminant validity is the degree to which measures of different concepts are distinct and when the concepts are unique the valid measures of each should not correlate too highly (Bagozzi, Yi & Phillips, 1991). Predictive validity (or criterion validity) reflects the success of measures used for prediction or estimation (Cooper & Schindler, 20 01). Predictive validity is exhibited when the measures taken by the instrument correlate highly with another instrument designed to measure the same (Page & Meyer, 20 00). Several methods have been used by researchers to assess construct validity and each method attempts to measure different aspects of construct validity. The most widely used method of construct validation is confirmatory factor analysis (Anderson & Gerbing, 1982; Bagozzi, Yi & Phillips, 1991; Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996) though Bagozzi and Fornell (1989 ) argue that confirmatory factor analysis is of limited applicability in examining unidimensionality. 186 Confirmatory factor analysis A useful way to approach construct validation is with confirmatory factor analysis (Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996; Bagozzi & Phillips, 1991). It provides several advantages including measurement of the overall degree of fit in any particular situation (e.g. chi - square goodness of fit test), supplying useful information on if and how well convergent and discriminant validity are achieved (i.e. through chi - square difference tests, the size of factor loadings for traits, and the estimates for trait correlations), and giving explicit results for portioning variance into trait, method, and error components (i.e. through squared factor loadings and error variance) (Bagozzi & Phillips, 1991). All constructs are observed variables in the final model hypothesised in this study; however, since two of the concepts us ed in the original model were subjected to factor analysis, validating them using another approach seemed to be useful. Factor analysis of the model’s scales in the exploratory factor analysis outlined previously in this chapter suggested that both concepts (motivation to migrate and career strategies) have a number of underlying factors and each component or item of the factors loaded high towards a particular factor. The confirmatory factor analyses for these scales are discussed in this section. The confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures). Each concept was analysed either using the factor structure identified in previous studies where possible or where this was not possible, from the exploratory factor ana lysis discussed previously. Motivation to migrate The motivation to migrate concept described the primary reasons individuals had behind their decision to migrate to New Zealand and the scales used to measure this concept were developed especially for the purpose of this study based on literature. A study by Carr, Inkson and Thorn (2004) of the factors motivating the flow of talent resulted in five factors: economic, political, career, culture and family. This theoretical five - factor structure was tested by means of confirmatory factor analysis. The SEM analysis found that 16 of the 22 items had loadings that were greater than 0.700 and all other items except one (loading = 0.552) had loadings greater than 0.600 which is the acceptable level (Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996). All factor loadings were significant. A t - value of ±1.96 was used as the level of acceptable significance despite the larger number of tests conducted (5% chance of rejecting null hypothesis: zero coefficient for every test). However, all t - values were well above this level. 187 Researchers and authors (Byrne, 2001; Arbuckle & Wothke, 1999) have suggested this significance level in a number of cases although a higher level of confidence has been suggested by some others (Hair et al, 1998). F igure 5.16 shows the confirmatory factor analysis model used for this construct. The analysis showed that the score of the 22 items concerned are best represented by a hierarchical factorial structure (Byrne, 2001 ). In other words, the factors are explai ned by a higher order structure, which is a single second- order factor of motivation to migrate. Instead of Carr, Inkson and Thorn’s typology of these factors, different names have been used in this study however the concepts underlying the factors are same in both cases. This is mainly because Carr et al. considered developing a general set of categories to match all situations of migration while this thesis describes a specific situation in terms of these categories. 188 Figure 5.16: Second order factor model for the concept of Motivation to migrate Table 5.58 presents the key parameter estimates of the five - factor motivation to migrate scale. Equal factor loadings (at .70 ) in many cases im plied that the correspondence between the factors and indicators (or the items) is the same across samples (Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996). The factor loadings are simply the correlations of each item with the e1 r1 r2 r3 r5 r4 Career building Financial betterment Family building escaping exploration Motivation to migrate e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 e8 e9 e10 e11 e12 e13 e14 e15 e16 e17 e18 e19 e20 Enjoy seeing the world Love to visit different places Like to see new things Enjoy living in different countries Needed an exciting environment Wanted som ething different Needed new challenges Felt could learn more Difficulties due to political situation Escape from the ethnic conflict I am a victim of war To have greater political freedom To give children a better life To give high quality educatio n Give a good quality life to family To give a peaceful life to family Poor financial position To build- up wealth base To earn more for the family To learn, take back and progress Achieved maximum in home country To learn to upgrade career e21 e2 2 1 1 1 1 1 .15 189 composite or factor (Anderson & Gerbing, 198 2) in which the homogeneity among items is ensured. The higher and almost equal loadings in many cases, as suggested by the confirmatory factor analysis, confirmed that the items are related to particular factors. Table 5.58: Five-factor solution loadings (standardised regression weights) for confirmatory factor analysis Item Exp. Esc. Fam. Mer. Car. t Like to see new things Love to visit different places Needed an exciting environment to face Enjoy seeing the world Enjoy living in different countries Needed new challenges Wanted something different Felt could learn more Difficulties due to political situation To escape from the ethnic conflict To have a greater political freedom I am a victim of war To give children a better life To give high quality education to children Give a high quality life to the family To give a peaceful life to family To earn more for the family To build up wealth Poor financial position To learn to take back and progress To learn to upgrade home career Achieved maximum in home country .769 .768 .749 .741 .737 .726 .709 .700 .799 .772 .756 .716 .745 .733 .610 .552 .779 .767 .635 .689 .677 .638 11.122 11.109 10.806 * 10.642 10.404 10.158 10.050 11.598 11.107 * 10.192 9.830 7.936 7.163 * 8.891 8.788 * 8.615 * 8.011 (* One item in each factor was assumed as the most important among all items as suggested by SEM technique and given a regression weight of 1 and therefore no error is assumed in that item. Because t value (critical ratio) is equivalent to parameter estimate divided by error term and no error is assumed in those items with a regression weight of 1, this resulted in no t values for such items.) The internal consistency of the construct’s indicators is usually expressed by their reliability measure. The widely used measure is Cronbach’s alpha, which assumes that unidimensionality exists. Hair et al. (1998) suggest that reliability and variance extracted for a latent construct must be computed separately for each multiple indicator construct. 190 The construct reliabilities for the constructs in the above confirmatory factor analysis model were computed using the formula below (Hair et al, 1998): The measurement error is 1.0 minus the reliability of the indicator, which is the square of the indicator’s standardised loading. The indicator reliabilities should exceed .5, which roughly corresponds to a standardised loading of .7 (Hair et al., 1998). Thus, the above equation can be written in a different way as presented by Anderson & Gerbing (1988): The variance extracted measure is another complementary measure of construct reliability, which reflects the overall amount of variance in indicators accounted for by the latent construct (Hair et al, 1998). The variance extracted measure is calculated as: The guidelines suggest that the variance extracted value should exceed .50 for a construct (Hair et al, 199 8). In order to measure the internal consistency of the factors concerned in the above analysis, both construct reliability and variance extracted measures were computed. Computed measures are given in the table below. Sum of (standardised loading 2) Variance extracted = ____________________________________________________ Sum of (standardised loading 2 ) + Sum of indicator measurement error (Sum of standardised loading) 2 Construct reliability = ____________________________________________________ (Sum of standardised loading) 2 +Sum of (1 - standardised loading2 ) (Sum of standardised loading) 2 Construct reliability = ____________________________________________________ (Sum of standardised loading) 2 + Sum of indicator measurement error 191 Table 5.59: Construct reliabilities and Variance extracted on factors Factor Construct reliability Variance extracted Exploration Escaping Family Building Financial betterment Career building 0.91 0.85 0.75 0.79 0.71 0.54 0.58 0.43 0.58 0.45 All construct reliability measures exceeded the commonly used threshold of .70 (The Cronbach’s coefficient alpha measure for all these factors also exceeded .70). However, the variance extracted measure for two factors was below the level of .50. Since variance extracted is a complementary measure of reliability and the reliability measures for these factors exceeded the suggested level, it was decided to use the factors in future analysis. The standardised regression weights of the factors towards the concept of motivation to migrate showed that each factor has its explicit uniqueness while three factors have weights higher than .700. All related regression measures with their t values are given in the table below. Table 5.60: Factor standardised regression weights and significance on the concept of Motivation to migrate Factor Standardised regression weight t value Exploration Escaping Family building Financial betterment Career building .774 .383 .258 .726 .907 8.899 4.478 2.884 7.200 8.888 The goodness of fit measures ( Chi- square = 797.276 & p < .0001, relative chi - square or CMIN/ df = 3.512, FM IN = 3.815, F0 = 2.729, AIC = 893.276 and ECVI = 4.274) were marginal for this solution, with higher RMSEA value (.11) than the preferred level of less than or equal to .08 (Hair e t al, 1998). The CFI measure as utilised by Bagozzi & Foxall (1996 ) to assess the model fit met its .95 criterion. 192 Career Strategies The concept of ‘career strategies’ is deemed to identify the major strategic behaviours of immigrants wishing to prosper in their careers. A twenty- five item scale was used to measure this behaviour and those items were factor analysed in the same way as the ‘motivation to migrate’ concept just discussed. The exploratory factor analysis revealed that there were six unde rlying factors. Confirmatory factor analysis was also useful. The factor structure used in the confirmatory factor analysis includes partial structure identified in Guthrie, Coate and Schwoerer’s (199 8) study and the structure identified in exploratory fa ctor analysis. This was taken as appropriate since the context of this study is entirely different from Guthrie et al.’s. The second order confirmatory factor analysis model has been presented in figure 5.17. 193 Figure 5.17: Second order Factor Analysis Model for Career Strategies e1 r1 r2 r3 r5 r4 Flexibility Mentoring Info. seeking Networking Career planning e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 e8 e9 e10 e11 e12 e13 e14 e15 e16 e17 e18 e19 e20 Think self - strengths & weaknesses Develop skills needed in future Think of acquired experiences Set goals for different time periods Volunteer to acquire skills Attend training programmes Connections with employers Connections with prof. associations Connections with people outside SL com. Connection with members of same occupation Contact community service organisations Get info. from friends & relatives in NZ Contacts with working frie nds & neighbours Access job ads. through mass media Attend seminars by migrant centres Get guidance from experienced peo. in org. Get guidance from prof essionals in organisation Spend time on volun teer work Present as a person who get things done Work hard when supervisors see the results Adapt to changes in who works with Keep career options open e21 e22 1 1 1 1 1 Make employers aware of aspiration Take work home Spend time thinking about job e23 e24 e25 Extended time involvement r6 1 C ar ee r st ra te gi es 194 Factor loadings for 16 of the 25 cases were above the acceptable level of 0.60 and in all other remaining cases it was above .55. All loadings were highly significant (critical ratios were well above ±1.96). The standardised regression coefficients (factor loadings) shown in the SEM construct wer e slightly different than those loadings found in exploratory factor analysis. The reason for this is that an exploratory factor analysis assumes every indicator is statistically related to every factor, while confirmatory factor analysis assumes only the linked indicator variables are correlated with a factor (MacLean & Gray, 199 8; Hedges, 2003). Table 5.61 provides estimates of factor loadings and critical ratios. Table 5.61: Six-factor solution loadings for the confirmatory factor analysis on career strategies Items F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 t Attend training programmes to acquire skills Volunteer to acquire skills Develop skills needed in future Think of acquired experiences Think of self strengths and weaknesses Set goals for different periods Connections with professional associations Connections with people outside Sri Lankan comm. Connections with members of the same occupation Connections with employers Contact community service organisations Access job advertisements through media Contacts with working friends and neighbours Get information from friends and relatives in NZ Get guidance from experienced people in orgn. Attend seminars by migrant centres Get guidance from professional organisations Spend time on volunteer work Make employers aware of your aspirations Adapt to changes in who he/she works with Present as a person who get things done Work hard when supervisors see the results Keep career options open Take work home Spend time thinking about job Cronbach’s alpha Composite reliability Variance extracted .658 .602 .592 .575 .562 .548 0.85 0.76 0.35 .684 .667 .649 .622 0.83 0.75 0.43 .709 .647 .613 .584 0.76 0.73 0.41 .698 .668 .658 .620 0.79 0.76 0.44 .672 .596 .565 .552 .545 0.76 0.72 0.35 .729 .715 0.75 0.68 0.52 7.27 5 6.82 5 * 6.57 4 6.47 5 6.34 4 8.18 3 * 7.80 4 7.48 3 7.19 4 6.73 8 6.48 7 * 8.39 3 * 7.99 9 7.57 3 6.82 5 6.31 7 6.06 0 5.97 9 * 9.03 8 * ( Note: F1 – Career planning, F2 – Networking, F3 – Information Seeking, F4 - mentoring, F5 – Flexibility and F6 - Extended time involvement; one item in each factor was assumed as the most important among all items and given a regression weight of 1 and therefore no error was assumed in that item resulted in no t value for those items as explained previously.) The reliability of the factors was above the threshold level of .70 except for the last factor ‘extended time involvement’. The variance extracted measure for this factor with low reliability exceeded .50 while two other factors; information seeking, networking and mentoring had values higher than .40. The variance extracted for ‘career planning’ 195 and ‘flexibility’ was .35. The data fitted the model marginally, with a Chi - square statistic of 942.849 and an RMSEA value of .10. The other goodness - of- fit measures were reasonable (CMIN/ df = 3.473, CFI = .95, F0 = 3.491, AIC = 1134.5 6, & ECVI = 5.429) suggesting that this construct could be used as a six - factor scale in the subseque nt analysis. Each factor explained a higher (>.60) loading on the construct suggesting that the factor structure is a single second- order factor of career strategies. The prior independent second order factor analyses of two of the concepts (motivation to migrate and career strategies) confirmed that the factors assumed to relate to a particular concept are true and that those factors can be used in further analyses. However, the issue of discriminant validity needed confirmation before moving forward. In order to ensure the discriminant validity of these two concepts, further analysis was carried out using a simulated model shown below in figure 5.17 (a) as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (19 81). This simulated model switched the factors assumed to relate most strongly to motivation to migrate and career strategies. Both concepts were brought together to confirm that the two concepts are distinguishable with their measurement variables. Figure 5.17(a): A simulated model to test discriminant validity e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 e8 e9 e10 e11 Exploration Escaping Family building Financial betterment Career building Career planning Networking Information seeking Mentoring Flexibility Extended time involvement Motivation to migrate Career strategies 196 The negative loadings (standardised regression weights) for factors on a concept (shown in table 5.61a) that were assumed to be unrelated to the measurement variables confirm that this is the case. Table 5.61(a): Standardised regression weights for simulated model Estimate Exploration < --- Career strategies - .287 Escaping < --- Career strategies - .740 Family building < --- Career strategies - .075 Financial betterment < --- Career strategies - .482 Career building < --- Career strategies - .572 Career planning < --- Career strategies .897 Networking < --- Career strategies 1.046 Information seeking < --- Career strategies .984 Mentoring < --- Career strategies .943 Flexibility < --- Career strategies .933 Extended time involvement < --- Career strategies 1.324 Exploration < --- Motivation to migrate .820 Escaping < --- Motivation to migrate 1.128 Family building < --- Motivation to migrate .351 Financial betterment < --- Motivation to migrate 1.037 Career building < --- Motivation to mig rate 1.018 Career planning < --- Motivation to migrate - .586 Networking < --- Motivation to migrate - .771 Information Seeking < --- Motivation to migrate - .617 Mentoring < --- Motivation to migrate - .504 Flexibility < --- Motivation to migrate - .618 Exten ded time involvement < --- Motivation to migrate - .915 Also the goodness- of- fit for this simulated model shows (CMIN/df = 7.262, RMS EA = .173, CFI = .50 ) that the structure is not viable for future analysis. Thus, independent models other than the simulated model showed better goodness- of- fit measures. This analysis confirms that the analyses using two reverse concepts violate assumptions of congruent validity and support assumptions of discriminant validity. 197 Estimation of the Hypothesised Model This section introduces the final stage of the statistical data analysis, namely the estimation of structural model. The hypotheses tested related to a pattern of “causal structure” (Byrne, 2001) linking several predictor variables and mediator variables wit h overall career satisfaction. Though latent variables and measurement models are part of the SEM technique, no latent variables were included in testing the hypothesised model of this study. This is because most of the variables were measured using developed scales either taken from previous researches or developed specifically for the purpose of this study, and tested for their reliability in both pre - testing and during the study using Cronbach’s alpha or confirmatory factor analysis. That is, all vari ables in the hypothesised model were observed variables. Existing literature did not provide a ready - made model for migrants’ career behaviour, and few studies had applied multidimensional models to migrants’ careers. However, using the literature of cross- cultural behaviour and career, the researcher developed a model of culture- career interaction including aspects of life before and after migration. Regression analysis on this model revealed that some of those variables included in the model did not contribute extensively in predicting the outcome variables and therefore they were removed. Based on the output of the regression analyses, the researcher developed a modified model with potential variables for subsequent analysis. The reliability measures for all variables concerned were above the acceptable level. Also the constructs factor analysed previously in this chapter yielded clear factor structures with acceptable reliable measures. All construct reliabilities were above the recommended level of 0.70 (Page & Meyer, 20 00) and the variances extracted were mostly above the recommended level 0.60 level (Page &Meyer, 2000) in exploratory factor analysis and each factor had an acceptable level of variance extracted in confirmatory factor analysis as well. The revised model that was initially tested with SEM is shown in Figure 5.18. 198 Figure 5.18: Model 1 – Hypothesised model Variables in the model and their related reliability measures are shown in Table 5.62. All other variables in the model not stated in the table are either continuous variables or ordinal scales. Education Self - efficacy Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Efforts made towards career Networking Length of time in New Zealand Education in New Zealand Information Seek ing Overseas experience Escaping Family Building Flexibility Ability in using English Language Adapting to NZ cultur al aspects Job Satisfaction before migration Employment status at present Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Overall career Satisfaction Er2 Er1 Er3 Er4 Er5 199 Table 5.62: Variables in the model with their scale reliability Variables Sc al e re li ab ili ty C ro nb ac h’ s al ph a C om po si te re lia b ili ty f or th os e fa ct or s de ri ve d by f ac to r an al ys is Predictor Variables Self - efficacy Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills Efforts made towards career Network building Information seeking Escaping as a motivation to migrate Family building as a motivation to migrate Flexi bility Ability in using English language Adapting to New Zealand cultur al aspects Intervening variables Job satisfaction before migration Mediator variables Subjective career success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Outcome variable Overall Career Satisfaction 0.84 0.93 0.85 0.83 0.76 0.85 0.81 0.71 0.92 0.70 0.79 0.93 0.91 0.94 0.75 0.73 0.85 0.75 0.72 The most obvious examination of the structural model involves the significance of estimated coefficients (Hair et al, 19 98). The output of the SEM technique provides not only estimated coefficients but also their critical ratios ( t - values) and therefore an assessment of significance made easy. 200 Model 1- the hypothesised model In the specification of relationships between predictor variables and career outcomes: job satisfaction before migration, respondents’ employment status at present, subjective career success after migration, career satisfaction after migration and overall career satisfaction, the hypothesised model ( model 1 shown in Figure 5.18) was examined to identify the model fit. Table 5.63 provides measures of standardised regression coefficients with their respective critical ratios (significance). Table 5.63: Regression coefficients– model 1 Sta nd ar di se d re gr es si on co ef fi ci en t C ri tic al r at io Employment status at present er2 Employment status at present Education in NZ Employment status at present U sefulness of previous knowledge & skills Employment status at present L ength of time in NZ Employment status at present Efforts made towards career Employment status at present Information seeking Employment status at present Networking Employment status at present Education Sub jective career success after migration er3 S ubjective career success after migration Employment status at present S ubjective career success after migration Education in NZ Subjective career success after migration Escaping Subjective career success after migration F lexibility Subjective career success after migration L ength of time in NZ Subjective career success after migration Overseas experience Subjective career success after migration Family building Job satisfaction before migration Self - efficacy Job satisfaction before migration Education Job satisfaction before migration er1 Career satisfaction after migration er4 Career satisfaction after migration Employment status at present Career satisfaction after mig. Subjective career success after mig. Career satisfaction after migration Ability in English language Career satisfaction after migration Flexibility Career satisfaction after migration Adapting to NZ culture Career satisfaction after migration Family building Career satisfaction after migration Information seeking Career satisfaction after migration Escaping Overall career satisfaction Employment status at present Overall career satisfaction Subjective success after migration Overall career satisfaction Career satisfaction after migration Overall career satisfaction Job satisfaction before migration Overall career satisfaction er5 .616 .438 .250 .205 .142 - .23 7 .011 .074 .825 .405 .008 - .04 3 .095 .172 .123 - .10 7 .422 .179 .889 .645 .055 .659 - .05 4 - .00 6 .220 - .02 9 - .04 8 .054 .113 .428 .343 .115 .607 16.148 6.54 2 4.47 3 3.54 0 2.57 8 - 4.01 7 .204 1.31 8 19.972 4.29 3 0.07 6 - .70 8 1.54 6 2.56 1 2.12 5 - 1.74 9 6.48 2 2.76 9 19.336 20.147 0.89 3 12.186 - 1.07 4 - 0.11 5 4.71 7 - 0.56 0 - 0.88 7 1.11 2 2.17 1 6.60 5 5.54 3 2.61 4 20.233 201 An examination of regression coefficients and their significance (at 95% confidence level) revealed that some of the estimates are not significant ( t values less than ±1.96 where hypotheses were non directional and ±1.64 5 where hypotheses were directional ). Covariances and their t-values were examined in the next stage. Again, t-values of covariances showed that there were lower values than ±1.96. Table 5.64 provides standardised estimates of covariances (correlations) and their t -values. Table 5.64: Covariances – model 1 Sta nd ar di se d co rr el at io n co ef fi ci en t C ri tic al r at io Edu cation Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Networking Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills L ength of time in NZ Edu cation Education in NZ Education in NZ Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Efforts made towards career Information seeking Education in NZ Networking Education in NZ L ength of time in NZ L ength of time in NZ Information seeking L ength of time in NZ Networking Education in NZ Information seeking Usefulness of Prior Knowl edge & skills Efforts made towards career Overseas experience Education Overseas experience Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Escaping Education Flexibility Efforts made towards ca reer Family building Information seeking Self - efficacy Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Self - efficacy Efforts made towards career Self - efficacy Networking Ability in using English language Educ ation Self - efficacy Ability in using English language Ability in using English language Usefulness of prior kn. Ability in using English language Efforts made towards. Self - efficacy Adapting to NZ culture Adapting to NZ culture Efforts made towards career Ability in using English language Networking Ability in using English language L ength of time in NZ Ability in using English language Education in NZ Ability in using English language Information seeking Adapting to NZ culture L ength of time in NZ Adapting to NZ culture Education in NZ Adapting to NZ culture Information seeking Ability in using English language Overseas experience Ability in using English language Escaping Adapting to NZ culture Overseas experience Adapting to NZ culture Family building Ability in using English lan guage Adapting to NZ culture 0.218 0.19 3 0.15 6 0.34 0 0.23 1 0.30 3 0.14 3 0.37 9 - 0.30 1 0.05 4 - 0.22 8 0.26 1 0.14 2 0.21 9 - 0.14 9 0.21 0 0.31 1 0.27 0 0.13 4 0.24 9 0.28 5 0.29 9 0.49 6 0.18 8 0.10 0 0.17 1 0.20 0 0.28 9 0.30 6 - 0.09 8 0.25 7 0.26 6 - 0.13 2 0.25 8 - 0.16 4 0.08 0 0.10 8 0.13 7 3.42 0 2.81 8 2.66 8 4.27 1 3.08 9 4.62 5 1.80 5 4.52 4 - 4.42 9 0.82 3 - 2.98 9 4.21 8 2.16 7 3.39 0 - 2.18 7 3.13 8 4.34 5 3.98 7 2.09 7 3.33 4 4.47 3 4.67 0 6.84 5 3.17 1 1.58 2 2.68 4 3.00 6 4.64 6 4.10 3 - 1.74 4 3.72 5 3.42 0 - 1.84 2 4.15 4 - 2.80 3 1.28 0 - 1.60 7 2.37 9 202 Considering the chi- square measure, the model yielded a value of 166.061, with 105 degrees of freedom and a probability of less than .0001 ( p < .0001), thereby suggesting that the fit of the data to the hypothesised model is not entirely adequate. Howeve r, the relative chi- square (CMIN/ df ) value of 1.582 falls within the range of 2 to 1 and assumes that the model fits perfectly in the population. Taking the limitations of chi - square measure into consideration, other measures suggested by Browne and Cudec k (1993) and the CFI were utilised to test the fitness of the model. An examination of other goodness - of - fit measures showed a good fit for the initial run of the model ( CFI = .99, FM IN = 0.795, F0 = 0.292, RMS EA = 0.053, p for close fit = 0.369, AIC = 374.061). The additional goodness - of- fit measures, the expected cross validation index and MECVI were used in the estimation of models, for ease of comparison of the fit of models. In this case, both ECVI and MCVI values (1.79 0 & 1.895 respectively) were lowest (compared to saturated and independence models) in the case of hypothesised model. However, it was observed that the critical ratios (significance) were less than the acceptable level for some paths (i.e. non significant regression coefficients). In order to reach a better fitting model it was decided to remove non- significant paths. Self - efficacy had the largest impact on job satisfaction before migration (42%) of the respondents while education explained 18% of the variance. Education in N ew Zealand had the largest impact on employment status at present explaining 44% and usefulness of prior knowledge and skills explained 25%. Length of time in New Zealand and information seeking had impacts explaining 21% and 24% (negative) respectively. The other variables had impacts of 14% or less. Employment status at present had the largest impact on subjective career success after migration (thus an indirect impact of all variables related to employment status at present) explaining 41% and length of time in New Zealand had an impact explaining 17%. The other variables related to subjective success after migration had impacts of 12% or less. Also it was noted that the motivations of family building and escaping had negative impact on subjective car eer success after migration. 203 Subjective career success after migration and adapting to New Zealand cultur al aspects had the largest impacts (66% and 22% respectively) on career satisfaction after migration while all other variables had impacts of 6% or less. And also it was noted that 4 of the 8 variables (information seeking, family building, flexibility and ability in using English language) had negative impact s on career satisfaction after migration. Subjective career success after migration had th e largest impact (43% ) on overall career satisfaction followed by career satisfaction after migration (34%). The other variables; job satisfaction before migration and employment status at present had impacts of 12% and 11% respectively on overall career satisfaction. Many regression coefficients in the model were very small and not significant and therefore suggested the model be respecified. Model 2 – removing non significant paths In order to improve the model, the non- significant paths (where the critical ratio was less than ±1.96 for non directional hypotheses and ±1.645 for directional hypotheses) were removed (Byrne, 2001; Hair et al., 1995). This resulted in an increase of chi - square statistic (177.706 ) and higher degrees of freedom (117) and so co nsidering the overall model fit; the process has worsened the model structure. Chi - square to degrees of freedom ratio (relative Chi - square) has been reduced to 1.519 and RMSEA to .05 with a p for close fit of .49. An examination of other measures (CFI = .99, FM IN = .850, F0 = .290, AIC = 361.706, ECVI = 1.731 and MECVI = 1.824) compared to the previous model (model 1) showed that many fit measures had improved while others worsened. Therefore, different goodness - of - fit measures led to different conclusions that model fitted well and the measures had improved from the previous model. However, important measures like the RMSEA and p for close fit measures showed that the revised model has improved from the previous model. The impacts of education and self- efficacy on job satisfaction before migration remained the same (no change in regression coefficients). Again education in New Zealand had the largest impact (48% ) on employment status at present; a 4% increase from the previous model while usefulness of prior knowledge and skills also had an increased impact of 28%. The impact of length of time in New Zealand had been reduced to 19% while other paths had unchanged regression coefficients. 204 Employment status at present had the largest impact on sub jective career success after migration (similar to previous model) however the percentage of impact increased to 46% (a 5% increase). The impacts of length of time in New Zealand and overseas experience have reduced by 3% and 1% respectively. Career satis faction after migration had only two predictor variables: subjective career success after migration and adapt ing to New Zealand cultural aspects. These variables had an impact of 69% and 22% respectively whilst the impact of subjective career success after migration increased by 3%. The impacts of related variables on overall career satisfaction remained unchanged. Further examinations of the path coefficients also revealed that all remaining paths were significant but not all covariances were significant. Simultaneously, this process left no paths from five variables including networking, escaping as a motivation to migrate, family building as a motivation to migrate, flexibility as a career strategy and ability in using the English language. Model 3 – removing non significant covariances An examination of model 2 revealed that all regression coefficients were significant; however, critical ratios of covariances showed that there were critical ratios less than the value of ±1.96 and further improvement was necessary. This was taken into consideration in a further respecification of the model. The model improvement process was continued until all remaining paths and covariances were significant. This resulted in model 3 showing that the goodness - of - fit measures had worsened in comparison to model 2. Chi - square statistic has increased to 215.501 (at 124 degrees of freedom) and CMIN/ df ratio also increased to 1.738. RMSEA increased to 0.059 while p for close fit lowered to 0.12. All other goodne ss - of - fit measures showed a comparative increase from model 2 (FM IN = 1.031, F0 = 0.438, AIC = 385.501, ECVI = 1.845 and MCVI = 1.931). The impact on variables increased in 7 cases while 7 remained unchanged and 2 others decreased. The variable with the largest impact was the same as for model 2 in all cases. However, the impact of self - efficacy on job satisfaction before migration increased by 1%, the impact of education in New Zealand also increased by 1%, while the impact of employment status at present on subjective career success after migration decreased by 1%. The impact of subjective career success after migration on career satisfaction after migration and on overall career satisfaction remained unchanged. Further examination of the model suggested that there were five variables in the model with no paths and had to be removed. This process was executed in the next step. 205 Model 4 – removing variables with no paths Model 3 showed that there are variables with no paths, but are correlated with other variables in the model, so they were removed. An examination of the goodness - of- fit measures at each level with modifications showed that the model after removing non- significant covariances had worsened the model fit and some of the fitness measures had increased compared to the model examined previously [CMIN/ df = 2.658, F 0 = 0.476, RMS EA = 0.08, p for close fit = 0.009 (lowered means lowered fit)]. Other fitness measures (Chi - square = 159.456 at 60 degrees of freedom, CFI = .99, FM IN = .763, AI C = 277.456, ECVI = 1.328 & MECVI = 1.371) had reduced in comparison to model 3 suggesting an increased model fit. All coefficients and covariances were significant and therefore the process of respecification stopped at this stage. The final model (mode l 4) is shown in figure 5. 19. .889 .181 .420 .294 .116 .616 .161 .632 .107 .487 - .229 .428 .268 .840 .146 .344 .112 .687 .661 .229 Figure 5.19: Model 4- model after removing variables with no paths Education Self - efficacy Job Satisfaction before migration Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Efforts made towards career Education in New Zealand Information Seeking Length of time in New Zealand Er 1 Employment status at present Er2 Ov erseas experience Subjective career success after migration Er3 Adapting to NZ cultur al aspects Career satisfaction after migration Er4 Overall career satisfactio n Er5 206 Regression coefficients for the remaining paths in m odel 4 with their critical ratios are given in table 5.65. All critical ratios were significant (> ±1.645 in all cases and all the remaining paths in the model were represented by directional hypotheses). Table 5.65: Standardised regression coefficients and t-values – model 4 Sta nd ar di se d co rr el at io n co ef fi ci en t C ri tic al r at io Employment status at present er2 Employment status at present Education in N ew Z ealand Employment status at present Usefulness o f prior knowledge & skills Employment status at present L ength of time in N ew Z ealand Employment status at present Efforts made towards Career Employment status at present Information Seeking Subjective career success after migration L ength of time in N ew Z ealand Subjective career success after migration Overseas experience Subjective career success after migration er3 Subjective career success after migration Employment status at present Job Satisfaction before migration Self - efficacy Job satisfaction before migration Education Job satisfaction before migration er1 Career satisfaction after migration er4 Career satisfaction after migration Subjective success after migration Career satisfaction after migration Adapting to NZ cultur al aspects Overall Career Satisfaction Employment status at present Overall Career satisfaction Subjective Career Success after migration Overall Career satisfaction Career satisfaction after migration Overall Career satisfaction Job Satisfaction before migration Overall Career Satisf action er5 .632 .487 .294 .268 .161 - .22 9 .146 .112 .840 .453 .420 .181 .889 .661 .687 .229 .107 .428 .344 .116 .616 15.723 8.48 5 5.21 9 4.97 5 2.80 3 - 3.73 7 2.29 1 1.89 1 19.959 6.91 4 6.43 3 2.79 2 19.332 20.188 14.757 4.92 2 2.02 4 6.45 4 5.55 7 2.60 0 20.234 The simplification of model 4 increased the standardised regression coefficients of 2 of the remaining 16 paths and reduced 3 others , leaving 11 unchanged. However, these changes were not large (maximum of 2%). Education now explained 18% of job satisfaction before migration while self- efficacy explained 42%. Education in New Zealand had the largest impact on employment status at present, explaining 49% of job status. Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills explained 29% of employment status at present, efforts made towards career explained 16% of it (1% decrease from model 3), information seeking explained 23% (negatively predicted and 2% decrease from model 3), and length of time in New Zealand explained 15% of employment status at present. All of these variables had an indirect impact on subjective career success after migration through the predictability of employment status at present. 207 Employment status at present had the largest impact on subjective career success after migration, explaining 45 % while length of time in New Zealand and overseas experience explained 15% and 11% respectively of subjective career success after migration. Subjective career success after migration had the largest impact (69 %) on career satisfaction after migration while adapting to New Zealand cultural aspects explained 23%. All these paths revealed that each intervening and mediator variable has its unique predictor variables in the model. However, there were indirect predictions in many cases where employment status at present and subjective success after migration had impact on other mediator variables. Subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration had larger impacts (43% and 34% respectively) on overall career satisfact ion while job satisfaction before migration and employment status at present explained smaller impacts (12 % and 11% respectively). Covariances were significant in all cases except 2 (where critical ratios were 1.812 and - 1.736). However, it was decided to keep the model as it was, since the critical ratios were not much less than 1.96 and removing those relationships worsened the model. Once again, it is a case of balancing social realities and statistical rigour. Lower correlations (less than .350) supported the uniqueness of variables concerned. Table 5.66 provides detailed measures of correlations and t -values. Table 5.66: Correlations and t-values – Model 4 Sta nd ar di se d co rr el at io n C ri tic al r at io Usefulness of prior knowledge & s kills L ength of time in N ew Z ealand Education in N ew Z ealand Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Efforts taken towards career Information seeking Education in N ew Z ealand Information seeking Useful ness of prior knowledge & skills Efforts made towards career L ength of time in N ew Z ealand Information Seeking Overseas experience Usefulness of prior knowledge & ski lls Education Usefulness of prior knowledg e & skills Self - efficacy Usefulness of prior knowledge & skills Self - efficacy Efforts made towards career Education Education in N ew Z ealand Education Overseas experience Adapting to NZ culture Efforts made towards career Adapting to NZ culture Education in N ew Z ealand Adapting to NZ culture L ength of time in N ew Z ealand .152 .135 .311 - .13 6 .276 - .24 4 .237 .229 .275 .147 .332 .155 .219 .257 .195 2.55 9 1.81 2 4.48 7 - 1.73 6 4.29 9 - 3.54 4 3.64 4 3.51 5 4.02 9 2.21 8 4.01 4 2.30 7 3.47 4 3.30 2 3.00 6 208 The goodness- of- fit measures for each of the models estimated so as to assess the impact of predictor variables, intervening variables, mediator variables on each other and on outcome variable have been summarised as shown in table 5.67. Table 5.67 Goodness of fit measures – comparison of models Model C M IN df C M IN /d f C F I F M IN F 0 R M S E A P c lo se A IC E C V I M E C V I 1 2 3 4 1 6 6.06 1 17 7.70 6 21 5.50 1 15 9.45 6 10 5 11 7 12 4 60 1.582 1. 51 9 1.73 8 2.65 8 .99 .99 .99 .99 .795 .850 1.03 1 .763 .292 .290 .438 .476 .053 .050 .059 .080 .369 .492 .120 .000 37 4.06 1 36 1.70 6 38 5.50 1 27 7.45 6 1.79 0 1.73 1 1.84 5 1.32 8 1.89 5 1.82 4 1.93 1 1.37 1 The goodness- of- fit measures were reasonably good for all models; however significant regression coefficients and covariances are important for a good model fit. The comparison of the models demonstrated that all models have reasonable goodness- of- fit measures. Considering the comparative goodness- of- fit measures and models’ appropriateness (e.g. a variable that does not reveal any relationship with the outcome variable or other intervening and mediator variable is not appropriate to be in the model), model 4 seems to be the best fitting model in the study. Also, it was clear that the relationships assumed between the intervening variable (job satisfaction before migration) and the mediator variables (employment status at present, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migratio n) with the outcome variable (overall career satisfaction) were true and all had positive relationships with overall career satisfaction. However, many predictor variables initially hypothesised in the model were removed and it was clear in the final model that all variables except information seeking had a positive relationship with respective outcome variables as hypothesised in the model. The identified relationships between factors and their implications are discussed in Chapter 6. 209 Content Analysis A content analysis was used to examine the responses of the last item with an open- ended question in the questionnaire. The item was “what is your overall opinion of your life and career in New Zealand? What particularly good or bad experiences have you had?” This was complementary to the statistical analyses performed in the study and attempted to identify the concerns of individual respondents in their day- to- day life that were not covered by the structured questions. Content analysis, in general, i nvolves analysing the text with respect to its content, with the factors of interest most often relating to its meaning, or how many times (the frequency with which) particular phrases/ terms appear (Page & Meyer, 2000). Neuendorf (2002, p.10) defines content analysis as “a summarising, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific method (including attention to objectivity - intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalisability, replicability, and hypothesis testin g) and is not limited to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented”. It is suggested as a widely applicable tool for measuring the semantic content of a communication, the analysis of message s (Cooper & Schindler, 20 01; Lombard, Snyder - Duch & Bracken, 2002). Krippendorff (2004, p.18) defines content analysis as “a systematic technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the context of their us e”. It is the study of recorded human communications (Babbie, 2001) and it allows us to construct worldviews, values, attitudes, opinions, prejudices and stereotypes, and compare these across communities (Marvasti, 2004). However, not all researchers agr ee that “counting” strengthens the analysis (Boyle, 1994 ). Since qualitative messages provided by respondents are of an unobtrusive (Berg, 2004; Babbie, 2001) and unstructured nature, they are often not amendable to analysis until the information they convey has been condensed and made systematically comparable (Berg, 2004). Content analysis facilitates this process by providing systematic classification and counting of text units to distil a large amount of material into a short description of some of its features (Marvasti, 2004; Grazioli & Jarvenpaa, 2003). Many uses of a content analysis have been discussed by various researchers (Krippendorff, 2004; Neuendorf, 2002; Palmquist, 2004) and one of these is to aid in technical research operations (to code open- ended questions in surveys), which is related to this study. 210 Both human and computer coding may be applied to the analysis of open- ended responses (Neuendorf, 2002). A content analysis can either be text - driven (also called “fishing expeditions”), problem- driven or method driven (Krippendorff, 2004). Text - driven content analyses are motivated by the availability of texts to stimulate analyst’s interest in them. Texts here denote not just written text but also any other message type that is consider ed in its entirety (Neuendorf, 20 02) including pictures. Problem - driven analyses start from research questions and proceed to analytical paths to find answers to these questions from suitable texts. Method - driven analyses are motivated by the analyst’s des ire to apply known analytical procedures to areas previously explored by other means. With open- ended written responses when the goal is the measurement of psychological constructs, one approach uses any variety of pre - set coding (priori) schemes. The second approach to open- ended responses is that of emergent coding, uses coding schemes that are more idiosyncratic and less well validated but in many instances may be the required technique (Neuendorf, 2002). The second approach is employed when no standard coding scheme exists or the researcher wishes to begin the development of a new coding scheme. Thus, this study chose to use emergent coding due to the non- availability of a standard coding scheme for this process in this particular case. Palmquist (20 04) discusses two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis. Conceptual analysis tries to establish the existence and frequency of concepts while relational analysis seeks to go beyond the presence by exploring the relationships between the concepts identified. Boyle (1994 ) discussed three basic elements of any kind of content analysis: (a) deciding what the unit of analysis will be, (b) borrowing or developing the set of categories, and (c) developing the rationale and illustrations to guide the coding of data into categories. Palmquist (2004) discusses the process in more detail and provides eight steps that can be followed to code a text or set of texts in conceptual content analysis: deciding the level of analysis, deciding how many concepts to code for, deciding whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept, deciding on how to distinguish among concepts, developing rules for coding texts, deciding what to do with “irrelevant” information, coding the texts and analysing the results. 211 There are computer software packages that perform content analysis, however the researcher chose to use a manual examination of contents as human judgement of human messages can consider the practical significance and also interpret the nuances in the responses. Manual coding provides an opportunity to the researcher to recognize errors far more easily (Palmquist, 2004). Also, the messages passed through by respondents were short descriptions, easy to process and the amoun t of data was manageable. No matter what type of coding is used the basic requirement for using content analysis is that it yields reliable measurements (Schnurr, Rosenberg, Oxman & Tucker, 1986). The reliability of a content analysis study refers to its stability, or the tendency for coders to consistently re- code the same data in the same way over a period of time; reproducibility, or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories of membership in the same way; and accuracy, or the extent to w hich the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm statistically (Palmquist, 2004). Various researchers (Krippendorff, 2004; Neuendorf, 200 2; Lombard, Snyder - Duch & Bracken, 2003) have discussed reliability in content analysis and the var ious measures used to measure it. The most common measures discussed by these researchers are percent agreement, Scott’s pi, Cohen’s kappa and Krippendorff’s alpha. However, many of these measures require two coders (Krippendorff, 2004). The Krippendor ff’s alpha has the facility to measure the reliability with multiple coders and also it seems to be roughly based on the observed and expected logic that underlies chi - square (Grayson, 2001). This study used three coders in content analysis and thus Krippendorff’s alpha seemed to be the appropriate measure of reliability. Results of content analysis It was requested that the respondents report on their overall opinion of their life and career in New Zealand and on any particular good or bad experiences they had. This was to give the respondents an opportunity to express their feelings and opinions of their life in a new country without restriction. In order to encourage them to express their feelings, they were given the option of writing their answer s in Tamil or Sinhalese. Answering this question was optional and 163 of the received questionnaires included answers to it. The answers were written mostly in English (156 out of 163) while three responses were in Sinhalese and the other four were in Tam il. 212 Those answers in Sinhalese and Tamil were translated by the researcher and by a second person independently and then compared. There were no differences found in translation and the common versions of the responses agreed by both translators (the researcher and the second independent individual who is fluent in all three; Sinhalese, Tamil and English languages) were used in the analysis. As the responses and opinions were from individuals themselves and the unit of analysis was the individual’s mes sage, it was decided to perform a conceptual content analysis with coding for existence as well as frequency of concepts. A four - step approach was followed in performing the analysis. The first step developed the categories or codes for message identification based on the researcher’s judgement and it resulted in 8 categories: • General feeling about the country • Opinion about NZ people • Opinion about personal life • Comments on life of family members • Comments about employers • Comments on employment • Suggestions made to government or other authorities and • Comments about adjustment and adaptation (see appendix II). Information identified as irrelevant to the question (for example views about their life before migration, why did they migrate etc.) were left ou t. The second step was to identify words and phrases to fit each of those categories listed. The third step was to calculate the reliability index for coding. The fourth step was to get a summary of coding for reporting purposes. The coding process was executed with three independent coders. The first coder was the researcher herself. The second coder was the co- supervisor for this study who had a doctoral degree in management and extensive research experience and previous experience with content analy sis. The third coder also had a doctoral degree in business studies and previous experience in content analysis. One hundred and sixty three respondents answered the question and their responses were identified, coded, and entered in the database for analysis. In coding the text, first the unit (individual by 213 questionnaire number) was identified and recorded. Then, the text (written answer to the respective question) was examined to code the messages provided. To evaluate the reliability of the coding, an index of intercoder reliability was computed using the following formula (Neuendorf, 2002, p.156): Krippendorff’s alpha (nominal) = 1 - nm – 1 ∑pfu m- 1 ∑ pmt where pfu = product of any frequencies for a given unit that are different (i.e., show disagreement) pmt = each product of total marginals n = number of units coded in common by coders m = number of coders The Krippendorff’s alpha value of the coding in this analysis was 0.98 which represents the level of consistency among coders. In the twenty six cases where coders were in disagreement the answers were discussed in detail and twenty of them were resolved by agreement. In the other six cases where agreement was not reached, the code accepted by two of three coders was selected. For each domain except the first, there were two sub categories as designed in the coding sheet. The results of the analysis are presented in the following tables with discussion. The responses were analysed by grouping together comments on similar themes. The discussion began with the number of positive and negative comments reported on each aspect and then moved onto in- depth issues reported on each category. Only 52 of the 163 respondents commented on the New Zealand environm ent. These comments resulted in 55 instances equal to 1.1 and 1.06 comments per case. The most common (48.1%) comment was ‘peaceful’ followed by ‘good’ (19.2%). There were three negative comments (1.9%) about the environment and they especially commente d on the increasing crime rates and incompatibility with their expectations. Other comments about environment included nice, safer, a supportive environment to grow or prosper, and wonderful. Those who commented on the natural environment said that the country is clean, green, beautiful and great. Table 5.68 presents the summary of comments about the country. 214 Table 5.68: Comments about country: nature & environment Nature Peaceful Good Beautiful Clean & Green Safer Supportive environment Not what imag ined Great Nice Wonderful f 25 10 04 04 03 03 03 01 01 01 % 48.1 19.2 7.7 7.7 5.8 5.8 5.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 (The percentage total in all cases in this section could be greater than 100 due to multiple responses in many cases.) The 32 respondent comments on the people of New Zealand contained 33 instances, equal to 1.03 comments per case. Among them, the most common (56.26%) comments were positive and the commonly used terms to describe the people were wonderful, friendly, supporti ve, kind and generous, fair, value hard work and not racists. On the other hand, 43.75% of the comments were negative and they said that the people of New Zealand are either racist, discriminate against immigrants or have a negative attitude towards immigrants. Table 5.69 presents the summary of these comments. Table 5.69: Comments about NZ people Positive Negative Wonderful Friendly Supportive Fair Kind and generous Good Good examples f 2 6 4 2 1 1 2 % 6.25 18.75 12.5 6.25 3.13 3.13 6.25 Racist/ D iscriminative Having bad attitude towards immigrants f 9 5 % 28.12 15.63 Eighty - four of the 163 respondents commented on their personal life in New Zealand resulting in 110 comments equal to 1.3 comments per case. Among them 65.45% comments were positive while the remaining 34.55% were negative. The commonly used positive terms were peaceful, happy, satisfactory, good quality, easy or convenient and safe. Some respondents revealed a feeling of achievement in life by being in New Zealand. The negative terms consisted of feelings of loss and frustration, difficult, 215 unhappy, not having a feeling of belonging, disappointment, stagnation etc. Table 5.70 provides the details of these comments. Table 5.70: Comments about personal life Positive Negative Peaceful Happy Good Satisfactory Good quality Convenient Achievement Safe Wonderful f 15 12 12 08 05 05 05 02 02 % 17.86 14.29 14.29 9.52 5.95 5.95 5.95 2.38 2.38 Feeling of loss and frustration Feel out of place Low standard Difficult Hopel ess/ little motivation Disappointed Missing friends and family Stagnated Unhappy f 09 07 05 04 04 03 02 02 02 % 10.7 1 8.33 5.95 4.76 4.76 3.57 2.38 2.38 2.38 Thirty- two of the 163 respondents reported on family life resulting in 34 instances equal to 1.06 comments per case. Out of these, 77.78% were positive comments and especially consisted of comments about their children’s life and the remaining 22.22% were negative feelings including their concerns about children’s behaviour in the n ew environment. One person said that his/her children were bullied at school (a bad experience to children) and two others said that the facilities available for the children were not enough. These comments are summarised in table 5.71. Table 5.71: Comments about life of family Positive Negative Quality education for children High prospects for children Good life for children f 15 07 06 % 46.8 6 21.8 6 18.7 Children’s behaviour is not acceptable/ can’t control Less facilities for children Children were bullied f 05 02 01 % 15.63 6.25 3.13 216 5 Twenty- four of the 163 cases commented on their employers which resulted in 29 comments equal to approximately 1.2 comments per case. Among them 37.93% were positive and 62.07% were negative. The positive comments stated that their employers are fair, friendly, supportive and satisfactory. On the other hand, 48.86% of the negative comments suggested that the employers discriminate based on ethnicity or colour and employ immigrants below their skill level. Others said that employers are selfish, are not helpful or friendly and expect more from migrants. Also t hey said that employers ask for local experience when considering an immigrant for first time employment knowing that these people are new to the country. However, only a few respondents commented on employers and this suggests that respondents considered this aspect (employer related aspect) as not important or they may have looked at their wider life in answering the question. Table 5.72: Comments about employers Positive Negative Appreciative Good/satisfactory Supportive Fair f 04 03 02 02 % 16.66 12.50 8.33 8.33 Discriminate Ask local experience Expect more from immigrants f 13 03 02 % 54.17 12.50 8.33 Eighty - three of the 163 respondents commented about their employment resulting in 109 comments equal to approximately 1.3 comments per case. Among them 32.11% were positive and 67.89% were negative. The positive comments offered feelings of happiness and satisfaction, feeli ngs of achievement in their employment, the enjoy ment of vocational freedom and a high level of opportunity. On the other hand, the majority (67.89%) of the negative comments suggested that they have less opportunities for their career and poor prospects, they feel that they cannot get a job that matches their qualifications and skills, they don’t feel their working environment to be friendly and some of them had been unemployed for a considerable time suggesting that initial entry for a migrant is difficult. For some cases, they had to get through educational/re - 217 training barriers (for example, doctors) and it was difficult. Table 5.73 provides the summary of these comments. Table 5.73: Comments about employment Positive Negative Satisfactory Ha ppy Good Feeling of achievement Enjoy vocational freedom Feel fair opportunity f 11 07 07 06 03 01 % 13.25 8.43 8.43 7.23 3.61 1.20 Less/No opportunities No Job for qualification Not satisfied First entry is difficult No friendly working environment Difficult to get through the barriers f 28 22 11 06 04 03 % 33.73 26.51 13.25 7.23 4.82 3.61 Twenty- one of the 163 respondents commented on income and related issues which resulted in 23 comments equal to 1.09 comments per case. Among them, 5 positive comments suggested that they earn a satisfactory level of salary and a good financial position. On the other hand, the negative comments were about high taxes and the cost of living and the lower income compared to other countries and their cost of living. These comments are summarised in table 5.74. Table 5.74: Comments about Income Positive Negative Good salary and financial position f 05 % 23.80 Low income High cost of living High taxes f 09 05 04 % 42.86 23.80 19.05 218 Thirty- four of the 163 respondents commented on support and adjustment which resulted in 35 comments equal to 1.03 comments per case. Those who commented on support said that either there should be a system to support migrants to get employment that matches their qualifications or skills or the relevant authorities should provide guidance to new migrants. Twenty- four respondents suggested that migrants need to adjust to the culture and working environment and some of them said that they have succeeded throu gh adjustment and adaptation. Summary of these comments are presented in table 5.75. Table 5.75: Support and adjustment Support needed Adjustment needed Need a system to help Need guidance from authorities f 06 05 % 17.65 14.71 Need to adjust Adjustmen t helped to succeed f 19 05 % 55.88 14.71 The results of the content analysis showed that the sample of migrants who responded to the open ended question were concerned with the country, their personal life, family, their employers and employment, income and the necessary aspects to succeed as a migrant in his/her career in the new environment. Implications of these issues are discussed in chapter 6. Summary This chapter analysed the data with appropriate techniques and tried to test the hypotheses formed in this study and tried to find the answers to the research questions. The next chapter will discuss the findings in detail with their implications for migrants’ careers and will suggest appropriate measures to help migrants achieve successful and satisfied career outcomes and avenues for further research in this arena of migrants’ careers. 219 219 Chapter 6 Findings, Discussion, Summary and Recommendations Introduction The present chapter summarises the study’s findings, considers their relevance and implications to migrants’ careers and makes recommendations based on them. Following a brief review of the work done in previous chapters, relationships between variables identified as having an impact on migrants’ career outcomes are outlined. The implications of the findings as a whole are then discussed. Recommendations are made to migrants themselves, to policy makers and to future researchers who are interested in migrants’ career issues. Review of previous chapters The present study considered that migrants to a new country are responsible for their own career prospects and that ‘career’ is the property of the individual. Based on this notion of migrants’ careers, the literature review attempted to identify relevant issues that influence migrants’ career outcomes. The model tested was developed on a step - by- step basis considering the fact that migrants’ careers have different phases and that their career as a whole should incorporate all those phases. The integrated model was examined using data obtained from survey responses of 210 migrant individuals. Considering the complexity of the model, different techniques were used to refine it into a more comprehensive multifaceted model. As a result of some initial findings, revised models were suggested and examined. Participants of this study were Sri Lankan migrants living in Auckland and most of them were skilled migrants to this country. In order to gain an overall picture of the factors that contributed to their career success and satisfaction, they were asked questions about a variety of topics. These topics were grouped into factors affecti ng careers before migration, factors affecting careers after migration, career outcomes before migration, career outcomes after migration and overall career outcome (career satisfaction). The factors affecting careers after migration included several conc epts in the areas of personal adjustment, societal support and personal qualities of individuals. Career outcomes before migration and after migration consisted of objective and subjective components. Career satisfaction was conceptualised as the ultimat e outcome of one’s career. 220 Amendment of the model At the beginning of the study it was recognised that the constructs included in the model were numerous and complex, and thus the model would become difficult to test. However, prior researches and literat ure supported their importance and therefore, it was decided to assess the extent of influence of each construct using multiple regression analysis in the first instance in order to formulate a simplified testable model. Regression analysis examined each component of the model to remove variables that did not adequately contribute to the model. After removing constructs that were not significant predictors, a final integrated model was formulated. Structural equation modelling was performed to refine a nd test a more comprehensive model which highlighted the significant predictors of career outcomes of migrant individuals and these predictors led to respecifications of the model at different stages. Insignificant links, or variables that did not have a link, were removed resulting in a model that contained only significant variables and links derived from the data of the present study. This was the model presented in figure 5.19. Migrants’ career management as their own responsibility As stated previously, an important principle underpinning the study was that career is an individual’s property and managing it successfully is solely the responsibility of the individual. This was explored from the literature on careers and their changing contexts. It can be seen that this major theme was supported to a great extent by the findings of the present study. Since migrants’ careers are somewhat different from those of individuals who start, get on with and continue, their careers in their familiar cultur al environment, it was conceptualised that it is important to migrant individuals to have levels of support that help them prosper in their new cultural environment. This conceptualisation was supported by the findings of the present study. 221 The hypotheses supported were that positive adjustment factors that developed among migrant individuals plus other positive personal qualities they brought to the new environment would enhance their career success and satisfaction. This included their adjustment in the new cultural environment, as well as adjustment towards career, their abilities, society’s contribution to their new life etc. The results from the operational hypotheses suggest that adjustment both in terms of culture and career was an important contributor to positive career outcomes. Also the migrants’ willingness to adjust in terms of qualities that were needed in the new environment (language, culture) seemed to influence career outcomes. From the results of the analysis 68 of 116 hypotheses were accepted. Although many of the hypotheses were supported in this study, the major objective was to identify a model, which showed the different factors that influence the career outcome of migrant individuals. The model refined from statistical analyses namely multiple regression and structural equation modelling is shown in figure 5.19. It was noticeable that the constructs of most importance were related to migrants’ life after migration and mostly concentrated on personally achieved aspects. The constructs removed for lack of significance were concerned with their motivation to migrate, social support and personally uncontrollable factors like age and gender. It appears that migrants’ present career and life are of great importance in determining the ir feelings of satisfaction with their overall career. Overall career satisfaction, the ultimate career outcome of these individuals, was explained by the combination of influences from four aspects; job satisfaction before migration, employment status at present, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. However, subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration were the major contributors to overall career satisfaction in this case. Job satisfaction before migration itself was influenced by self - efficacy and the qualifications gained before migration. This finding was consistent with previous researchers (Glenn & Weaver, 1982; Bradley & Roberts, 2004; Staples, Hulland & Higgins , 1999) of education and job satisfaction and self - efficacy and job satisfaction. 222 Employment status at present was explained by a combination of variables. These included usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, efforts made towards career, education in New Zealand, information seeking, and length of time in New Zealand. As conceptualised in the model, it is obvious that the useful qualities an individual possesses and the extent to which he/she makes an effort to gain new employment taken play a positive role in career outcomes after migration assuming that external forces are supportive to migrants’ prospects and endeavours. Thus, migrants’ employment status at present is determined by the extent to which previous knowledge, skills and habits are useful in the new cultural environment. At the same time, the extent of their personal efforts towards their career prospects becomes part of the process. Education in New Zealand also plays an important role because qualifications gained in the new environment will be more recognised than qualifications gained before migration (qualifications gained before migration were not statistically related to any of the career outcomes after migration in the final model). Information seeking showed a negative relationship with career outcomes suggesting a reverse causality as explained previously in chapter 5. Length of time in New Zealand showed a positive influence suggesting that the longer the time an individual has spent in New Zealand the better the prospects for his/her career. This could suggest that the longer time a migrant spends in a new environment the greater is their ability to cope with the environment having learnt what to do and what not to do. Subjective career success after migration showed a co mbination of influences from employment status at present (thus also an indirect influence from all aspects that influenced the employment status at present), length of time in New Zealand and overseas experience. Employment status at present explained 45 % of subjective career success after migration, so it appears employment status at present is a major contributor to subjective career success after migration. Employment status at present is a component of objective career success and this finding agrees with previous researches ( Judge et al., 1995; Lau & Shaffer, 19 99) that found objective career success is positively associated with subjective career success. Length of time in New Zealand and overseas experience also had a positive impact again justifyi ng the notion that the longer the time spent in a new environment and the exposure to different environments the more successful individuals feel in terms of their careers. Their learning about new environments and the ability to cope enhances this. 223 Career satisfaction after migration was explained by the combination of subjective career success after migration and adapting to New Zealand culture as influencing factors. It is interesting to note that although cultural adaptation predicted satisfaction, it was unrelated to success measures (however, all hypotheses related to cultural adaptation were accepted during the analysis). Though satisfaction in general is concerned with personal feelings concerning many dimensions of migrants’ career, it is clear that these migrants developed an attitude in relation to their new country and environment in evaluating their personal satisfaction in terms of career. It was evident from the model and the predictions of several factors in the model that intrinsic issues (subjective career success and career satisfaction) after migration played an important role in the overall career satisfaction of this particular group of migrant individuals. This finding emphasises that migrants need to feel that they have achieved what they wanted to achieve if they are to be satisfied, and their evaluation of their personal satisfaction is more related to what they have now than what they had before migration. Answers to the research questions The research questions developed in chapter 4 were answered through the analyses at various stages. The predictors of career success of migrants as suggested by the refined model in the analysis (figure 5.19 ) answered the first question (what factors predict career success of migrants?) in th is regard. The second question asked the extent to which acculturation strategies and modes of adjustment to career influence Sri Lankan immigrants’ career success in New Zealand. Since the model failed to develop a conceptual connection between accult uration variables and career success measures this could not be determined. However, modes of adjustment to career variables; usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and habits and the efforts made towards career suggested a positive relationship with the employment status at present explaining 19% and 16% of their impact respectively. This partially answered the second research question. 224 The third question asked whether those migrants who are successful in their careers are satisfied. The answer for this question was a definite ‘yes’ showing that there is a positive relationship between career success variables (employment status at present and subjective career success) and satisfaction variables (career satisfaction after migration and overall career satisfaction). The fourth question looked at the extent to which different factors influence Sri Lankans’ career satisfaction after migration. The model showed that only two variables; subjective career success after migration and adapting to New Zealand cultural aspects have impacts on career satisfaction after migration explaining 69% and 23% of their influence respectively. The last research question looked for the relationships, if any, between career success variables before migration (employmen t status and subjective career success before migration) and overall career satisfaction. Both of these variables were removed from the model since they were not significant suggesting that career success variables before migration do not influence overall career satisfaction of this migrant group. Implications The analyses undertaken showed how important it is to migrants to take personal responsibility for their careers in a new environment if they want to succeed and to be satisfied. The analyses demonstrated a direct relationship between cultural adjustment and career outcomes after migration, although the influence of cultural adaptation was left out of the model except in respect of its relationship to career satisfaction after migration. It was a lso demonstrated that efforts and adjustment in terms of careers play a major role in determining career outcomes after migration. Thus, it was shown how important it is to adjust in terms of culture and career. As discussed previously the career concept covered careers both before and after migration. However, the analyses demonstrated that in evaluating their success and satisfaction migrant individuals are more interested in their present condition. Successful and satisfied migrants will certainly lo ok at the positive outcomes they have received by being in this country and continue to contribute to the prospects of the country. In contrast, less successful, less satisfied and thus disappointed migrants may 225 withdraw (go back to their home country or migrate to another) or remain in the country for other reasons (educating children, thinking of other positive aspects that New Zealand provides like a peaceful life) but find their talents underutilised. It was also revealed from respondents’ general opi nions about their life and career in New Zealand that they are concerned about country, their personal life, family, their employers and employment, income and the necessary support and adjustment to succeed as a migrant in his/her career in the new enviro nment. The results implied and emphasised that migrants’ careers in this country are viewed in a wider context and a harmonious life fulfilling all needs are important if New Zealand wants to benefit from the flow of migrants. Future research The present study explored aspects of the career as individual property and career management as a personal responsibility and suggested that personal adjustment both in terms of career and culture is of greater importance in achieving career success and satisfaction. There were many issues that were highlighted by the analyses and findings of this study that provide avenues for further research. Some of those are suggested here. Is it the same for other migrant groups? The present study considered only Sri Lankan migrants in New Zealand. However, the generalisability of the results of this study needs to be treated with caution considering the uniqueness of this particular group. Thus, it raises the question: Is the situation the same for other migrant groups? M igrants from many other countries have chosen New Zealand as their preferred destination and it is equally important that those migrants feel successful and satisfied. There may be greater similarities with migrants from cultures similar to Sri Lanka (esp ecially migrants from other Asian countries) than with migrants from countries where they have a similar culture, language etc. to New Zealand (migrants from the U.K, Australia etc). It would be useful to compare different migrant groups to enhance the generalisability of the present model. It would be useful to propose a more general and acceptable model applicable to all migrants to enable them to prosper in their careers. 226 Is it the same for Sri Lankan migrants in other countries? Since the present stu dy chose Sri Lankan migrants in New Zealand as the target group, generalising the results to all migrant Sri Lankans has some limitations. However, this suggests an avenue for future research exploring the experiences of Sri Lankan migrants in other countries. There may be similarities and specific differences (for example under which category those Sri Lankans migrated) between these migrants living in different countries and also the environment between countries. Sri Lankans nowadays live in many countries including Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, France and the U.K, all “developed” countries. Therefore, it would be useful to suggest a model applicable to all Sri Lankans to assist in making their migration harmonious. Are there other factors that influence migrants’ career outcomes? The present study looked at only the personal side of migrants’ career where their own efforts and adjustment were taken as important. However, there may be other external factors that are not in the control of migrants. For example if an employer prefers hiring local labour only then this would have a major impact on migrant individuals’ career outcomes. It would be useful to explore these issues in future researches. This would enable migrants (present and future m igrants) and policy makers to make wise decisions on migration issues. Do Sri Lankans change their attitudes after migration? The present study was based on a model developed specially for the purposes of study and tested with only one group of migrants in New Zealand. However, several concepts or constructs had to be removed from the initial model since the data did not support such conceptual connections as hypothesised in the model. Social support was one of the constructs removed and the cluster analysis revealed that the majority of these migrants in the present study perceived themselves to have received a low level of support from both the host community and from their own community in New Zealand. However, the literature showed that Sri Lankans a re collectivists to a greater extent than New Zealanders and caring for others is one of their characteristics. This raises a question as to why there was a low level of support from Sri Lankans in New Zealand. Though this area is not in the scope of careers as such it would be useful to study why this situation exists. Is it because old migrants have changed their cultural values or is it 227 because new migrants did not seek support from others? This would be a useful and interesting area for future researchers. Recommendations It is evident from the findings of this study, and from literature and statistics from New Zealand that though some migrants are successful, satisfied and happy on their move and have a successful career, there are failures, frustr ations, withdrawals, criticisms and questions. The results of the present study showed that personal factors (adjustment, efforts and other positive qualities) influence migrants’ success and satisfaction to a certain extent. Even though many of the cons tructs were removed from the model, analyses at various stages (especially tests of association) showed that even the factors not included in the refined model have their own links with career outcomes. Based on these results, the following section outlines possible recommendations to appropriate parties in order to improve migrants’ lives in New Zealand especially in terms of their careers by giving them a feeling of achievement, success and satisfaction. Recommendations to migrants As per the results of the present study, the main influences upon migrants’ job level (employment status at present) is placed by educational experience in New Zealand, usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, length of time in New Zealand, efforts made towards career. This means that migrants themselves have to take responsibility for their careers. It is necessary therefore those migrants are aware of the situation they face on their arrival, and have assistance to make the adjustments they need and to integrate themselves in their new country. Some suggestions are outlined below. • Reduce uncertainties by getting more information The more information migrants have about their new life the better they are prepared. Though experience is a better teacher than the classroom, it is wise to know what the potential situation could be. Developing a network with friends, relatives and other known people before arrival and listening to their experiences could be invaluable. Asking for advice is preferred in Sri Lankan culture and help will be offered where possible. Reading and understanding the information leaflets 228 sent by Skill New Zealand is another way of acquiring relevant facts and information. Such information provides baseline of understanding. Personal contacts on arrival can provide much practical knowledge on everyday life, how to start their career in the new country, what to do and how to do it. Information from all possible sources such as personal contacts, organisational networks, community organisations and support centres for migrants in New Zealand should be sought. Learning and practicing would provide increased confidence. • Assess the usefulness of prior knowledge, skills and habits for your career after migration Findings of the present study suggested that the usefulness of migrants’ prior knowledge, skills and habits place an influence on employment status at present (29% of variance in employment status at present was explained by the usefulness of prior knowledge and skills). On the other hand, employment status at present had its influence on subjective career success after migration (45% variance in subjective career success was explained by employment status at present) and overall career satisfaction (11% of variance in overall career satisfaction was explained by employment status at present). These findings emphasise that it is important for migrants to continue their career they had before migration to have useful knowledge, skills and habits that can be used in their new country. If the knowledge, skills and habits of a new migrant are not utilised then that migrant has to start from scratch in a new career. • Make your own efforts to succeed The present study’s findings suggested that individuals who had made great efforts have succeeded in their careers (16 % of variance in employment status at present was explained by these efforts). A new environment has many differences from migrants’ own country and this is true in terms of employment markets as well. The probability of getting a preferred j ob can be increased by applying for many jobs rather than trying one or two and waiting for the results. Even slender experience in the local context assists when applying for jobs. Migrants should volunteer for community work that brings experience and e nhances employability. The scope of job searching can be increased by investigating job searching strategies (introduced 229 at employment seminars and/or workshops), by preparing the CV according to the specific job being applied for, and by building good employment networks (with employment agents, WIN Z, employers etc.). It is also prudent to improve qualifications and language skills. • Try to gain a qualification in the local context Again the findings suggested that the educational qualification gained in New Zealand had a noticeable impact on employment status at present (49% of variance in employment status at present was explained by educational qualifications gained in New Zealand). Whether starting a new career or continuing with the old one, it is wise to gain an added qualification in the new country. Undertaking study in the new country can involve learning that is specifically applicable to that country (for example laws), sharing experiences with people aware of the country (natives or others who have been in the country for a long time), and learning the language in the context of the country (even if one has mastered the language, its usage may be different in different places) are all sensible strategies. Thus, a person with a local qualific ation can exhibit to the employment market that he/she has learnt some issues in the local context. • Be proactive in your endeavours In a new environment everything will be a challenge to the newcomer. We don’t know what everything is and how everyone wil l be until we really know everything and everyone. But, we can take our own steps to know what it is and how we should behave. It may be stupid to keep quiet and travel in a bus at a time when you don’t know the place where you are going and how to find it. Asking someone who knows before getting into the bus or at least the driver after getting on would be the right way to reach the place. This is appropriate to every step a newcomer takes in a new environment and equally important in his/her career. 230 Recommendations to migrant community organisations Community organisations and migrant centres are the institutions with which new migrants interact and acquire the necessary information and assistance to settle down, adjust and start their life and car eer in a new environment. However, the analyses showed that the support received from both the migrants’ own community and the host community was low and this was not identified as a predictor of career outcomes in the model. There are many ways in which these institutions can facilitate better career outcomes. Some possible ways are outlined below. • Introduce yourself to new migrants Community organisations have their own accountability to assist migrants as members of their own community or as potential members of the receiving society. Migration is a process of excitement and exhaustion to some extent (because migrants leave their own country, relatives and whatever and whoever they love) and getting to know someone who offers support on arrival would certainly be a positive experience. It would provide a feeling of having a hand to support and guide and thus increase moral strength. On the other hand, it will take a certain period of time for the new migrant to get to know the place and people and find who can support him/her if on his/her own. By introducing themselves organisations can make this gap smaller and thus can help migrants to find the appropriate sources to fulfil their needs. This introduction could be enhanced with the network of New Zealand Immigration Service. • Show an attitude of concern and support As established organisations care about migrants, it is important that the organisations continuously maintain a good relationship with migrants by helping them in need. The early stages of life in a new environment need good support and guidance and organisations could be of great help in this regard. Meeting new migrants often, giving them a reliable person to contact whenever in need, introducing them to the places and people, putti ng them into a network of other useful organisations and persons can enhance life in a new environment. 231 • Create a network with employers Many Sri Lankans in New Zealand are professionals and well acknowledged for their commitment and hardworking attitude by employers. A good reference on the other hand plays an important role in getting into the workforce and the analysis showed that getting the ever first job in New Zealand is the hardest part of migrants’ career. A network of community organisations as providers of potential employees to employers and employment agents (this is equally applicable to community organisations from migrants’ own community) is likely to be a good way to assist new migrants to the country. In this case, it is good that organisations from migrants’ own community develop networks with other organisations to support migrants’ employment issues. • Facilitate the learning of language and new cultural environment This study, from its findings, suggested that adapting to the new cult ure has an impact on migrants’ career satisfaction after migration (23% of variance in career satisfaction after migration was explained by adapting to New Zealand culture). It is important to know what everything is and how everyone is expected to behave to make that cultural adaptation possible. One way in which these organisations can make migrants’ life easier in the new environment is by facilitating their process of learning about their new environment. Organisations from migrants’ own community needs to play a major role in this case since learning from people of one’s own community is easier for migrants due to similarities in the ways of communicating things. Recommendations to policy makers and relevant authorities It is important that migrants lead a harmonious life with successful and satisfied careers and share in New Zealand’s growth and prosperity. New Zealand, a multicultural country with migrants from various countries, needs to get reciprocal benefits if migration policies are to be successful. Though the present study considered the role of migrants in their career success and satisfaction it is equally important to New Zealand to care about migrants’ success, as they are potential contributors to the economic prosperity and cultural richness of the country. 232 The results of the content analysis suggested that the migrants are equally concerned with their personal adjustment needs and the support required from relevant authorities in New Zealand. An appropriate system to offer support a nd guidance to new migrants was suggested in this case. This section introduces the possible means of actions those policy makers and relevant authorities can consider as a step towards success for migrants. • Develop a system to support new migrants on their arrival Establishing a system to support new migrants on their arrival would be of great benefit. Person to person interaction is more effective than printed material. In a way, migrants are invitees to the country (though choosing this country is the ir option) and if the host country is interested in using their talents and skills to further the country’s prosperity then they should be treated empathetically. A network of organisations to support new migrants on their arrival (for example a guide at the airport to offer information) and continuous contacts for a certain length of time would be useful ways of assisting them. • Relevant authorities to make contacts with new migrants It is not necessary that all new migrants know people on their arrival to get information and guidance. But the information network in this country is very good and it is easy for organisations to identify first time migrants. Making contacts with them and guiding them with essential steps to follow (for example getting an I RD number, registering with professional bodies or WINZ for employment purposes) could help reduce the natural anxiety felt as a new migrant. • Creating opportunities for using the knowledge and skills migrants bring The content analysis revealed that getting the first job in New Zealand is the hardest hurdle for migrants to scale and it would seem that there are few opportunities for migrants. Providing opportunities for new migrants to share their knowledge and expertise and to get first time work experie nce in the new country would be a very helpful strategy. A network with employers to provide such opportunities and to introduce migrants to such a network could assure the migrants that their skills are of value to the country. 233 • Appropriate system to assess migrants’ employability The findings of this study suggested that the employment status of migrants had declined compared with their employment statuses before migration (before migration, 72.4% had a job that requires a tertiary qualification and only 42% of them had a similar job at the time of the survey). On the other hand, a major concern revealed from the results of the content analysis was that a certain number of respondents of this study felt that they could not get a job that matched their qualifications and skills; they also had long - term initial unemployment. New Zealand is a country of option for many skilled migrants who hope to get a similar job to that which they had in their home countries. However, the system of assessing potential migrants to this country does not assure their employability. It is important to advise them before coming into New Zealand that their employability depends on so many other factors, not just on their qualifications. It is better to prepare migrants to face the realities than putting them into a vague or misleading situation. Conclusions The present study considered the personal adjustment and qualities of migrants as important predictors of their career success and satisfaction using as its basis the prior researches in the area of expatriation, careers, acculturation and other related issues. The developed model incorporated many possible factors although some potential factors were not demonstrated during the analyses and progressively removed from the model. However, some factors identified showed strong connections with career outcomes of migrant individuals suggesting that migrants need to take responsibility for their careers. It was found that many of the factors related to career self - development and cultural adjustment, along with personal adjustment especially in terms of career are important to positive career outcomes after migration. This is of major significance in their influence on overall career satisfaction. Qualifications gained b efore migration and self- efficacy were found to be the most significant variables explaining job satisfaction 234 before migration. Usefulness of prior knowledge and skills, efforts made towards career, education in New Zealand, information seeking and length of time in New Zealand had the greatest influence on employment status at present. However, the hypothesis related to information seeking and employment status at present was rejected because a negative relationship was explained by the results. This was identified as a reverse causality. Employment status at present, length of time in New Zealand and overseas experience had significant impact upon subjective career success after migration. It was found that subjective career success after migration and adapting to New Zealand culture had significant impact upon career satisfaction after migration. Another important finding of this study was that migrants’ overall career satisfaction is influenced mostly by the career outcomes after migration- subjective career success after migration and career satisfaction after migration. Though many concepts or constructs were removed due to data that did not support the conceptual connections, the refined model showed the significant factors that influence career outcomes. Content analysis revealed respondents’ general opinions on several issues including their concerns about the employability in New Zealand and support needed from relevant authorities. 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International Journal of Manpower , 21(6), 492- 5 10. Zheng, Y., & Kleiner, B. H., (2001). Development Concerning Career Development and Transition. Management Research News, 24( 3/ 4), 33- 39. Appendix 1 253 Dear Sri Lankan Immigrant, I too am Sri Lankan. I would like your help. I am studying towards my PhD in the Department of Management and International Business at Massey University. I am writing a thesis on Sri Lankan immigrants’ Experience of Emplo yment and Work in New Zealand. As part of this research I would like to receive information from you and other immigrants. Please could you complete and return the enclosed questionnaire. If you do so it will help my research and may ultimately contribu te to broader understanding of, and assistance to, other Sri Lankan immigrants. This questionnaire is about ‘career success’ of Sri Lankan Immigrants in New Zealand including those Sri Lankans who arrived in New Zealand from other countries. However, this questionnaire is not Please do not complete this questionnaire intended for persons who fall under any category stated below: if you have already done so through another source. I encourage you to answer the questionnaire in English. Please try t o answer all questions that are relevant to you. Once you have finished, simply return the questionnaire in the reply - paid envelope supplied. Remember, all replies are confidential, your name is not required and no one other than my academic supervisors and myself will see any of the responses. Prof. Kerr Inkson and Dr.Carole Page of the Department of Management and International Business supervise this research. Filling the questionnaire will take only 10 – 15 minutes. Completion and return of questi onnaire implies consent. You have the right to decline to answer any particular question. If you have any question, please feel free to contact the researcher and supervisors without identifying yourself. This project has been reviewed and approved by the Massey University Human Ethics Committee, ALB Protocol No. MUHEC 03/024 Nithiyaluxmy (Nithya) – Tharmaseelan . If you have any concerns about the conduct of this research, please contact Associate Professor Kerry P Chamberlain, Massey University Campus Human Ethics Committee: Albany, telephone 09 443 9700 x 9078, email K.Chamberlain@massey.ac.nz I realize that you may be busy and are often bombarded with such requests. But this is special, because it is about Sri Lankans. My sincere thanks for your participation and time in making this research successful. If you are not interested in participating, please return the questionnaire anyway in the envelope supplied so I can use it again. Thank you, • Those who are still in school or any other institution as full-time students • Those who are retired • Those who are under the age of 25 • Those who have never been employed in any institution • Those who were born in New Zealand Employment Experiences of Sri Lankan Immigrants in New Zealand The 2003 Survey Appendix 1 254 Note: Contact details of all concerned parties are below: Researcher : Mrs.Nithiyaluxmy (Nithya) Tharmaseelan Telephone: 414 0800 ext.9242 Email: tharmatha@xtra.co.nz Supervisors: Professor. Kerr Inkson Telephone: 414 0800 ext.9240 Email: K.Inkson @ Massey.ac.nz Dr. Carole Page Telephone: 414 0800 ext.9576 C.A.Page@Massey.ac.nz Appendix 1 255 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SRI LANKAN IMMIGRANTS For each question, please select your answer by either circling to the left of the statement that most closely represent your situation or by writing in the spaces provided. a) Are you  Male or  Female b) Which of the following age ranges are you in?  25 - 34 years  35 – 44 years  45 – 54 years  55 and over c) What was your h ighest educational qualification when you migrated to New Zealand?  No formal qualifications  Secondary school  Certificate or Diploma (Technical College/ Any other higher educational institute)  Bachelors degree  Postgraduate Diploma/degree  Other ( please specify) ___________________ d) What is the subject of your qualification above?  Arts  Medicine  Dental Surgery  Veterinary Science  Bio Science  Agricultural Science  Engineering  Physical Science  Business Studies  Architecture  Law  Other (please specify) ___________________ e) Please name the institution where you gained your highest qualification in Sri Lanka. _____________________________________________________________________ f) What was your occupation immediately before yo u immigrated to New Zealand? _____________________________________________________________________ g) Did you have any overseas employment experience other than in Sri Lanka before migrating to New Zealand?  Yes  No Part 1: The first part of this questionnaire deals with your personal details, your time in Sri Lanka and the last country you lived and your migration. Appendix 1 256 h) If you had overseas employm ent experience before, please list the countries where you gained such experience and the number of years experience in each.  _________________ __ years  _________________ __years  _________________ __ years  _________________ __years i) Which of the following best describes your last employment situation before migrating to New Zealand?  Unemployed  Employed part time on a fixed term contract  Permanent part time employee  Employed full time on a fixed term contract  Permanent full time employee j) What was your annual basic salary from the last job you had before migrating to New Zealand?  Rs.48,000 or less  Rs.48,001 – 72,000  Rs.72,001 – 96,000  Rs.96,001 – 120,000  Rs.120,001 and over k) How long had you been working for your last organization before migration?  0 – 5 years  6 – 10 years  11 – 15 years  16 – 20 years  21 years or more l) Which of the following indicates how much of the time you felt satisfied with your last job performed before migration?  Never  S eldom  About half of the time  Most of the time  All of the time m) Which of the following statement best describes how you felt about your last job before migration?  I hated it  I disliked it  I was indifferent to it  I liked it  I loved it Appendix 1 257 n) Which one of the following statements best describes how you felt about changing your last job you performed before migration?  I wanted to quit the job at once if I could  I would have liked to change my job soon  I was not sure if I would exchange m y last job for similar one  I was not eager to change my job but I would have done so if I could get a better job  I did not want to exchange my job for any other o) Which one of the following statements best describes how you thought you compared with other people?  No one disliked his/her job more than I disliked mine  I disliked my job more than most people disliked theirs  I liked my job about as well as most people liked theirs  I liked my job better than most people liked theirs No one liked hi s/her job better than I liked mine p) The following statements describe how would have you felt about various aspects of your career before you migrated to New Zealand. Please think of your whole work life before migration while answering. Using the rating scale below, simply circle the number beside each statement that matches how did you feel on each aspect. a) I felt my career contributed to a good status for me in the community b) I felt my career contributed to a good and happy family life c) I fel t my career led me to achieve my goals in life d) I felt I had good career prospects e) I felt peace of mind through my career 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Very little Undecided To some extent To a great extent Appendix 1 258 q) Why did you migrate? Using the scale below, rate how much each of the following contributed to your decision to migrate. 1. I enjoy seeing the world 2. I wanted to give a peaceful life to my family 3. I wanted to have a greater political freedom 4. I had to earn more for my family 5. I had achieved to the maximum possible level in my career in the home country/ where I was 6. I love to visit different places 7. I needed an exciting environment to face 8. I wanted to give high quality education to my children 9. I wanted to build up m y wealth base through high earnings 10. I needed new challenges 11. My poor financial position in Sri Lanka pulled me towards migration 12. I wanted to learn more to upgrade my home country career 13. I like to see new things 14. I wanted to escape from the ethnic conflict 15. I was eager to learn the modern developments to take back to my country and progress my career there 16. I enjoy living in different countries 17. I wanted to give a good quality life to my family 18. I wanted something different from what I had 19. I faced lot of difficul ties due to the political situation in the country 20. I wanted to give my children a better life 21. I felt I could learn more in New Zealand 22. I was a victim of war 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 r) Under which category did you ga in residence visa in New Zealand?  General Skills  Business  Refugee  Humanitarian  Other (please specify) ___________________ 1 2 3 4 5 Not Contributed Contributed little Not sure Contributed to some extent Contributed to a at all great extent Appendix 1 259 Section 1: The following items deal with the support you received in settling down in New Zealand as a newcomer. Please circle the number that matches to what extent you received support in terms of each aspect from both Sri Lankans and the New Zealand communities. Your response guide: 1 = 2 3= 4 5 = In terms of: By Sri Lankans in New Zealand By New Zealand community 1. Guidance and support for settlement 2. Guidance and support for employment 3. Religious organizations and services 4. Accommodation support on arrival 5. Resources support (financial or otherwise) 6. Health services (including mental health services) 7. Other new migrant services 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Section 2: The next section asks you about your ability in the English language when you arrived in New Zealand. Using the scale below, rate your ability on each aspect. 1. Your ability in using English for conversations 2. Your ability in written communication in English 3. Your ability to understand English when communicating with other communities living in New Ze aland 4. Your ability to read and understand documents published in English 5. Your ability to understand the colloquial/ informal English terms used in New Zealand 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Part 2: This part asks you about aspects of your experiences immediately after your arrival, your life and employment experiences in New Zealand 1 2 3 4 5 Very poor Poor Moderate High Very High 1 2 3 4 5 No support Little Support Undecided Supported to Highly some extent supported Appendix 1 260 Think about the days immediately after your arrival in New Zealand. Please indicate to what extent you used English for communication in different situations. Use the scale below for your rating. 1. Using English at home 2. Using English for communication with friends and relatives 3. Using English with other people from Sri Lankan community 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Section 1: This section asks you about your adjustments in a new environment a) How long have you been in New Zealand? ________ Years and ______ _ months b) Did you gain any educational qualifications in New Zealand?  Yes  No c) If you answered ‘Yes’ above, please s tate such qualifications with the subject areas. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ ______________ d) The following statements express how people like you may behave to get into the employment market in a new environment. For each statement, please circle the number that corresponds to your behaviour since coming to New Zealand. 1. I make job applications for all possible chances 2. I volunteer for community works 3. I attend employment seminars and/or workshops 4. I modify my CV according to the job applications 5. I try to build good employment networks 6. I work on improving my qualifications 7. I work on improving my English language skills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Very little About half the time Often Always 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Very little Undecided To some extent To a great extent Part 3: This part deals with your day to day life and employment experiences in New Zealand. Appendix 1 261 e) Please respond to each of the statements below using the scale to indicate how much you agree or disagree with the statement. 1. My prior working knowledge is very relevant to overall work opportunities in New Zealand 2. The skills I have learned in the past are very relevant to overall work opportunities in New Zealand 3. The work habits I developed previous ly are very relevant to overall work opportunities in New Zealand 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 f) There are a number of things people might do to prosper in their career. Below are some statements one could practice in his/her way. Please respond to each one using the scale below to indicate to what extent you have relied upon/ used it in your life in New Zealand. 1. Keep Career options open 2. Set goals for different time periods (Short term Vs long term) 3. Develo p skill which may be needed in future career positions 4. Think of self - strengths and weaknesses in terms of career goals 5. Think of acquired experiences in terms of future phase of career 6. Volunteer to acquire the skills needed 7. Get information from friends and relatives settled in New Zealand 8. Access job advertisements available through mass media 9. Contact community service organizations (e.g. Citizens Advice Bureau, WIN Z) to get information 10. Contacts with working friends and neighbours 11. Connections with employers 12. Connections with professional associations 13. Connections with people outside the Sri Lankan community 14. Connections with members of the same occupation 15. Get Career guidance from professional career service organizations 16. Attend seminars on career directions organized by migrant centers and ethnic community organizations 17. Get career guidance from experienced people in organizations 18. Present yourself as a person ‘who get things done’ anywhere you have a chance to do so 19. Work hard when you know supervisors will see results 20. Take your work home (if it is appropriate to your job) 21. Spend considerable non- work hours thinking about your job 22. Make employers aware of your aspirations and career objectives (e.g. personal statement in your CV) 23. Spend time on volunteer work 24. Attend training programmes to acquire work related skills and knowledge 25. Adapt to changes in ‘who you work with’ (e.g., work habits, social behaviour) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Very little Undecided To some extent To a great extent Appendix 1 262 g) Below are some scales dealing with how you express your Sri Lankan identity in New Zealand. Please circle the appropriate number to express how you stick to Sri Lankan culture or move towards New Zealand culture. Some examples: The person wears Sri Lankan traditional dress 30 percent of the time and New Zealand culture form of attire 70 percent of the time. He/she will mark as follows: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Another example: The person has no memberships at all in any community organization gives his /her response as follows. Now give your response to each item below: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Sri Lankan Traditional Dress Developing and learning new skills and knowledge needed in NZ Sri Lankan Traditional Dress Using Tamil/Sinhala for communication at home Celebrating Sri Lankan cultural events Memberships and activities in SL community based organizations Friendships/ relationships with Sri Lankan s living in N Z Consumption of same food as in Sri Lanka Using skills and knowledge developed in Sri Lanka Attending Sri Lankan Cultural programmes Using Tamil/Sinhala for communication outside home New Zealand culture form of attire Memberships and activities in SL community based organizations Memberships & activities in NZ based community organizations New Zealand culture form of attire Using English for communication at home Celebrating NZ cultural events Memberships & activities in NZ based community organizations Friendships/rel ationships with NZ communities Consumption of NZ recipes Attending NZ Cultural programmes Using English for communication outside home Appendix 1 263 Section 1: This deals with your current employment experiences a) Which of the following best describes your current emplo yment situation?  Presently unemployed  Employed part time on a fixed term contract  Permanent part time employee  Employed full time on a fixed term contract  Permanent full time employee If you are currently employed, please answer the questions below. If you are unemployed please skip to the section 2 in page 12. b) What is your current job? ______________________________ c) Is this your first job in New Zealand?  Yes  No d) H ow long had you been unemployed before getting into your first employment? ________________ Years __________ Months e) If this is not your first job, what was your first job in New Zealand? _______________________________ f) If this is not your first job in New Zealand, how long have you been employed in this country? _____________ Years ____________ Months g) Which of the following options best describes your current employment?  In line with my qualifications and experience  Below my qualifications and experience  Far below my qualifications and experience h) Is your job just a job to earn money?  Yes  Not Sure No i) Is your job are where you can learn new skills for better employment?  Yes  Not Sure No Part 4: This part asks you about your employment experiences in New Zealand including your current job and the whole career Appendix 1 264 j) What is your annual salary from the job you have now?  $ 15,000 or less  $ 15,001 – 25,000  $ 25,001 – 35,000  $ 35,001 – 45,000  $ 45,001 and over k) Which of the following indicates how much of the time you feel satisfied with your present job?  Never  Seldom  About half of the time  Most of the time  All of the time l) Which of the following statements best describes how you feel about your present job?  I hate it  I dislike it  I am indifferent to it  I like it  I love it m) Which of the following statements best describes how you feel about changing your present job?  I would quit the job at once if I could  I would like to change my job soon  I am not sure if I would exchange my present job for a similar one  I am not eager to change my job, but I would do so if I could get a better job  I do not want to exchange my job for any other n) Which one of the following statements best describes how you think you compared with other people in relation to your present job?  No one dislikes his/her job more than I dislike mine  I dislike my job more than most people dislike theirs  I like my job about as well as most people like theirs  I like my job better than most people like theirs  No one likes his/her job better than I like mine Appendix 1 265 Section 2: If you are currently unemployed this section is for you. a) How long have you been in this situation? _____________ Years ____________ Months b) Have You ever been employed in New Zealand?  Yes  No c) What is the main source of your current income?  Savings  Benefit from WIN Z  Support from family members  Other (Please specify)________________________________________ d). Which of the following indicates how much of the time you feel satisfied with your current situation?  Never  Seldom  About half of the time  Most of the time  All of the time e). Which of the following statements best describes how you feel about your current situation?  I hate it  I dislike it  I am indifferent to it  I like it  I love it f). Which one of the following statements best describes how you fe el about changing your current situation?  I would get a job at once if I could  I would like to get a job soon  I am not sure if I would go for a job  I am not eager to get a job, but I would do so if I could get a job that meets my expectations  I do not want to get a job g). Which one of the following statements best describes how you think you compared with other people like you?  No one dislikes his/her current career position more than I dislike mine  I dislike my current career position more than most people dislike theirs  I like it about as well as most people like theirs  I like my current position better than most people like theirs No one likes his/her current position better than I like mine Appendix 1 266 Section 3: Think about your time in New Zealand including any period of unemployment. The following statements describe how you may feel about various aspects of your career in New Zealand. Please think of your whole work life in New Zealand while answering. Using the rating scale below, simply circle the number beside each statement that matches how did you feel on each aspect. f) I feel my career contributes to a good status for me in the community g) I feel my career contributes to a good and happy family life h) I feel my career leads me to achieve my goals in life i) I feel I have good career prospects j) I feel peace of mind through my career 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Section 4: The fourth and last section of this Part asks you how satisfied you are with various aspects of your career. Please remember that Career does not mean simply the job you perform. It consists of all your work-related experiences including your past and present employment experiences. Using the rating scale below, simply circle the number beside each aspect that matches how satisfied or dissatisfied you feel. 1. I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career 2. I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my overall career goals 3. I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my goals for income 4. I am satisfied with the progress I have made for advancement 5. I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for the development of new skills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Very Dissatisfied Neither dissatisfied Satisfied Very satisfied dissatisfied nor satisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Little Undecided To Some extent To a great extent Appendix 1 267 Everyone has his/her own belief on his or her abilities and strengths while at work. The following section asks you to indicate how often you feel confident in each situation. It is not specific to your present or past job but any job in general. Using the scale below please circle the number that matches your response. 1. How often, on average, do you feel conf ident about your ability to perform your job? 2. How often, on average, do you feel that you are on top of things concerning your job? 3. How often, on average, do you feel that at work things are going your way? 4. How often, on average, do you feel certain you ca n perform your job well? 5. How often, on average, do you feel certain you can overcome the difficulties in any situation? 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 A final question is to let you give your own ideas. What is your overall opinion of your life and career in New Zealand? What particularly good or bad experiences have you had? Use the space below for your answer. Write your answer in Sinhala or Tamil if you wish. __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ Thank you for your assistance and time. It is much appreciated. 1 2 3 4 5 Never Not often About half the time Often Always Part 5: This asks you about your general belief. 268 Appendix 2: Code book of content analysis DOMAIN 2: People Standard Coding Categories Used_______________________________________ Each theme (a word or phrase) is counted into one of the following categories DOMAIN 1: About the Country Mentions of particular characteristi cs of the country with which it could be expressed. For example, green, clean etc. It also includes r eferences made to country’s characteristics that support or disturb the life of immigrant individuals. For example, peaceful, good etc. 2.1 Relationships: Positive Favourable mentions of host society with which the individual has interactions. For example: friendly, approachable, easy to know etc. 2.2 Relationships: Negative Negative mentions about people’s attitudes towards immigrants, the ir relationship with immigrants etc. revealed in messages presented. DOMAIN 3: Personal Life 3.1 Life: Positive Favourable references to their life in the host country (New Zealand) in general. For example: enjoyable, satisfactory, good, very good, good quality, happy, convenient etc. 3.2 Life: Negative Negative impressions about their personal life in New Zealand revealed in their messages. For example: A feeling of frustration, loss of life, less comfortable, lower standard, difficult etc. 269 DOMAIN 4: Family 4.1 Life of Family members: Positive Favourable mentions revealed in the message about life of family members in New Zealand as a result of migration; good education to children, better prospects for children, good quality life to the family etc . 4.1 Life of Family members: Negative Negative feelings expressed in terms of life of family members as a result of migration. For example: uncontrollable behaviour of children. DOMAIN 5: Employers 5.1 Employers: Positive Favourable mentions of New Zeal and employers in terms of providing opportunities for employment and future prospects and support etc. 5.2 Employers: Negative Negative mentions revealed in messages about employers as a cause of unemployment, underemployment and inability to succeed in t heir careers. DOMAIN 6: Employment 6.1 Employment: Positive Favourable mentions of satisfactory employment including work environment, and better prospects. 6.2 Employment: Negative Negative references to employment status and employability in New Zealand revealed in messages. DOMAIN 7: Income 7.1 Income: Positive Favourable mentions of income levels; high, better and compared to their previous income levels etc. 7.2 Income: Negative Negative references to income levels; low, low - paid, tax cut - down income etc. 270 DOMAIN 8: Adjustment and government support 8.1: Support for adjustment Need for government support in providing guidance for employment, training programmes for migrants, a system to welcome and direct migrants towards a satisfactory life, WIN Z assistance to find suitable jobs, system to utilise the pool of migrants’ skill resources etc. 8.2: Personal Adjustment Need to adjust to the environment, need to change in attitudes, need to underst and and accept cultural differences, developing new skills etc.