Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for 
a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and 
private study only.  The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without 
the permission of the Author. 
 



Discovery, a Case Study on the New Zealand 
Lifeskills and Study Skills Programme for Adolescents, 

and its Contribution to Adolescent Development 

A thesis presented in partial .fulfilment of 
the requirements for the degree of Master of Education 

at Massey University, Palmerston North 

Catherine Ellen McGachie 

2000 



11 

ABSTRACT 

This case study examined Discovery, a lifeskills and study skills programme for 

adolescents, and it's contribution to adolescent development. The Discovery programme 

was introduced in New Zealand in 1991 through the Global Youth Foundation. 

Developmental perspectives in adolescence suggest certain tasks and skills need to be 

achieved in order to reach adulthood. These skills are developed from the maturational 

demands, and the psychological and social adjustments the teenager needs to make in 

order to resolve their identity crisis (Erikson, 1968) and achieve their own identity. A 

review of international educational programmes suggested some of these needs were 

addressed. 

A case study on the Discovery programme probed into the programme's development, 

content and structure. Responses to Discovery from previous participants were also 

investigated. This study then focused on the 22nd Discovery programme in New 

Zealand and its contribution to teenage development. This involved an exploration into 

Discovery's contribution to lifeskills, study skills, coping with challenges and limiting or 

preventing depression in the adolescent years. The Lifeskills and Study Skills 

questionnaire (LASS) was developed to examine these aspects. Parent-Adolescent 

communication was also measured to understand what changes may have taken place 

between two weeks prior to Discovery and two months after the last day of the 

programme. The Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale by Barnes and Olson (1982) 

was used to determine this. 

The resulting trends in this research showed Discovery positively influenced the 

participants' development by providing a number of skills which were consistent with 

developmental perspectives of adolescence. Sections of Discovery were highlighted as 

important for an adolescent's growth and development and participant changes were 

since attributed to Discovery. This study showed that Parent-Adolescent communication 



111 

improved for both the majority of teenagers and their parents. Intrafamily 

communication also enhanced for more than half the families. Sections of Discovery 

could also be highlighted as beneficial for coping with challenges and the prevention or 

limitation of depression in the adolescent years. 

Overall, Discovery provided the skills and knowledge appropriate for the development of 

an adolescent. The seven day programme provided the forum for an initiation into 

adulthood similar to many "rites of passage" formalities. This study highlighted the skills 

required for adolescents in the New Zealand context and the confirmation of the 

developmental tasks outlined in Newman and Newman's (1995) "early adolescence". 

Recommendations from this research strongly supports the need for further research into 

educational programmes for teenagers. It is also recommended that the Discovery 

programme continues to be made available to New Zealand teenagers. 



iv 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

I would like to thank the teens, parents and adults who participated in this study. Their 

enthusiasm in completing the questionnaires and interviews was most appreciated. This 

research could not have taken place without the co-operation and support of the Global 

Youth Foundation. For this, I am truly grateful to the members of the Board of Trustees 

and those in the National Office who helped me throughout the data gathering process. 

Thanks also to my Supervisor Dr. Wilhelmina Drummond for her advice and 

encouragement throughout the project. Finally, much appreciation and gratitude to my 

husband, family and friends who supported and encouraged me along the way. 



v 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 
TITLE PAGE 
ABSTRACT ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS v 
LIST OF FIGURES ix 
LIST OF TABLES x 

PART ONE 1 

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 2 
Background 2 
Overview of the Developmental Perspective 3 
The Rationale of the Research 4 
The Aims of the Research 5 
Definitions of Terms 6 
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study 10 
Summary 11 

CHAPTER TWO - REVJEW OF LITERATURE AND 
DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES 14 

Lifeskills Training Programmes for Adolescents 14 
An Overview of Programmes Available for New Zealand 
Teenagers 15 
A Review of Life skills Training Programmes - International 16 

Study Skills 21 
Challenges in Adolescence and Adolescent Coping Ability 23 
Depression in Adolescence 26 
Parent-Adolescent Communication 29 
Developmental Perspectives of Adolescence 31 
Cognitive Learning and the Social Environment 38 
Societal Changes Influencing Adolescence 40 
The Period of Adolescence and the ''Rites of Passage" 42 
Conclusion 43 

CHAPTER THREE - DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD OF 
THIS CASE STUDY 46 

Rationale for the Research Design 46 
Framework ofthis Chapter 47 
The Aims and Research Questions 48 
The Methodology Relating to the First Aim 50 
The Methodology Relating to the Second Aim 53 
The Methodology Relating to the Third Aim 54 

The Lifeskills and Study Skills Questionnaire ~ASS) 56 
- Pilot Testing of the LASS Questionnaire 57 
- Method of Gathering Data Using the LASS Questionnaire 58 



- Analysis Procedure of the LASS Questionnaire 59 

The Parent-Adolescent Commuoication Scale (PACS) 59 
- Method of Gathering Data Using the PACS 61 
- The P ACS Sampling Procedure 63 
- Pilot Tes.ting of the PACS Covering Letter 64 
- Scoring P ACS 65 
- Analysis Procedure of the P ACS Questionnaire 65 

Discovery NZ22 Participants 66 
Ethical Considerations 67 
Summary 68 

PART TWO 69 

CHAPTERFOUR-THEDEVELOPMENT,CONTENTANDSTRUCTURE 
OF THE DISCOVERY PROGRAMME FOR NEW ZEALAND 

ADOLESCENTS: THE RESULTS 70 
Framework of This Chapter 70 
The Development of Discovery 
(in answer to Research Question 1-1) 70 
Discovery, it's Purpose and Intended Outcomes 
(in answer to Research Question 1-2) 72 
Discovery's Participants (in answer to Research Question 1-3) 74 
Scheduling and Venue of the Discovery Programme 
(in answer to Research Question 1-4) 75 
Mode of Address (in answer to Research Question 1-5) 75 
The Structure and Training of Staff 
(in answer to Research Question 1-6) 76 
The Content of Discovery (in answer to Research Question 1-7) 79 

An Explanation of Sections of Discovery 79 
The Content of the Discovery Programme for Teenagers 89 

- Teen Workshop 89 
- Parents l 00 
- Both Parents and Teens Together 100 
- StaffWorkshop 102 

Summary 102 

CHAPTER FIVE - PREVIOUS PARTICIPANTS' VIEWS OF DISCOVERY: 
THE RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS 104 

Introduction 104 
The Results: Previous Participants' Views of Discovery 105 
The Analysis and Conclusions: Previous Participants' Views of 
Discovery and the Contribution to Their Development 112 
Discussion 114 

CHAPTER SIX - PARTICIPANTS' PERCEPTIONS OF DISCOVERY NZ22: 
THE RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS 115 

Introduction 115 
The Structure of This Chapter 116 

VI 



The Results: The Lifeskills and Study Skills Sections 
of Discovery NZ22 (in answer to Research Question 3-1) 116 
The Participants' Views on Discovery NZ22' s 
Lifeskills Sections 116 

- The Most Useful Lifeskills Sections of Discovery 116 
- The Least Useful Lifeskills Sections of Discovery 118 
- Other Comments or Suggestions Given About 

the Lifeskills Sections of Discovery 120 
The Analysis and Conclusions: Discovery's Lifeskills Sections 

and Their Contribution to Teenage Development 121 

The Participants' Views on Discovery NZ22' s 
Study Skills Sections 127 

- The Most Useful Study Skills Sections of Discovery 127 
- The Least Useful Study Skills Sections of Discovery 128 
- Other Comments or Suggestions Given About 

the Study Skills Sections of Discovery 131 
The Analysis and Conclusions: Discovery's Study Skills Section 
and Their Contribution Teenagers Development 131 

The Results: Changes in the Nature of Communication Between 
Parent and Teenager (in answer to Research Question 3-2) 134 
The Changes in Parents' and Teenagers' Perception 
of Communication 135 
The Number of Changes in Communication Scores 13 7 
Communication Changes by Parent, Teen and Gender 13 8 
Changes in Communication for First-Born Teen Families and 

Non First-Born Teen Families 140 
The Analysis and Conclusions: The Changes in the Nature of 

Communication Between Parent and Teenager in Relation 
to the Literature 141 
The Analysis and Conclusions· Discovery and its Influence on the 
Adolescent and Their Families 146 

The Results: The Overall Perception of Discovery NZ22 
in the Teenagers' Lives (in answer to Research Question 3-3) 147 

The Overall Perception of Discovery's Influence 
in the Teenagers' Lives 148 

The Analysis and Conclusions: The Overall Perception of 
Discovery's Influence in the Teenagers' Lives 150 

The Results: The Contribution of the Sections of Discovery NZ22 
on Coping Ability and Depression in the Adolescent Years: Participants' 
Viewpoint (in answer to Research Question 3-4) 152 

Teenage Challenges and the Teenagers' View of Discovery's 
Contribution to Coping Ability in the Adolescent Years 15 3 

Vll 



Teenage Depression and the Teenagers' View of Discovery's 
Contribution to Depression in the Adolescent Years 156 

The Analysis and Conclusions: Depression and Coping Ability in 
Adolescence 159 

The Analysis and Conclusions: Discovery's Influence in Preventing or 
Limiting Depression and the Ability to Cope With Challenges 162 

Summary 166 

CHAPTER SEVEN - DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 167 
Discussion 167 
Recommendations 170 

REFERENCES 173 

APPENDICES 190 
I. Lifeskills and Study Skills Questionnaire (LASS) 190 
II. Covering Letters for P ACS 1 & 2 196 
III. Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS) 204 
IV. Interview Consent Forms 206 
V. Interview Format 208 

Vlll 



Figure 
Number 

6.1 

6.2 

6.3 

LIST OF FIGURES 

New Study Skills Learnt 

Average Score Comparisons of Parent and Teen 
Communication 

Percentage of Participants who Showed an Increase 
in P ACS Scores 

Page 
Number 

129 

136 

138 

lX 



x 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table Page 
Number Number 

3.1 Response Rate for Parent-Adolescent 
Communication Scale 63 

5.1 Percentages of Teenagers who Rated the Sections 
as Favourite or Low Points 108 

5.2 Percentage of Teenagers' Ratings of Discovery 109 

5.3 Percentages of Teens from NZ20 and NZ21 who 
Made a Change in the Corresponding Questions 111 

6.1 Sections From the Lifeskills Part of Discovery Found 
Useful by the Teenagers 117 

6.2 Sections From the Lifeskills Part of Discovery Found 
Least Helpful by the Teenagers 118 

6.3 Ratings of Study Skills by Percentages of Participants 
for Each Study Skill 127 

6.4 Comparison of New and Improved Study Skills by 
Rank Order 130 

6.5 Average Scores of PACS 1 and PACS 2 for Parents 
and Teens 137 

6.6 Percentages of Gender/Role Participants who Showed a 
Change in Total Score 139 

6.7 Difference (PACS 2 - PACS 1) in Average Total Score 
Within Each Group 141 

6.8 Changes Noted in the Participants buring the Week 148 

6.9 The Biggest Personal Breakthrough for the Teenagers 149 

6.10 Sections of Discovery Which may Help Teenagers 
Cope with Challenges 155 

6.11 Other Reasons Given for how Discovery Helps Teenagers 
Cope with Challenges 156 



PART ONE 

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER TWO - REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND 
DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES 

CHAPTER THREE - DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD 
OF THIS CASE STUDY 

I 



2 

CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

This case study focused on the New Zealand. programme Discovery, a lifeskills and 

study skills programme for adolescents, and its contribution to adolescent development. 

The programme Discovery has been developed specifically for New Zealand adolescents 

aged between 13 to 18 years and has grown from the current Lead Facilitator's 

involvement with teenage programmes in Hawaii and Australia. 

The Discovery programme was introduced in New Zealand with the establishment of the 

Global Youth Foundation in 1991 . The Global Youth Foundation is a charitable trust 

devoted to offering programmes which promote the psychological and social well-being 

of the participants. Since Discovery was introduced to New Zealand, over 25 

programmes have taken place, and continue to take place throughout the secondary 

school holidays. Discovery was designed to provide selected lifeskills and study skills 

training to fee-paying adolescents with a view to supporting their development during 

such an important transition in their life - from childhood to adulthood. 

Background 

The writer's prior involvement with the Discovery programme as an adult staff member, 

allowed her to informally observe changes in the teenage participants over the seven days 

of the teenage programme. The behavioural and attitudinal changes observed were 

dramatic for some of the young people. It was therefore the interest in understanding 

what, and how, Discovery, contributed to these observed changes that led to this 

research being undertaken. Although the Global Youth Foundation previously gathered 

information about Discovery through their own questionnaires, these questionnaires were 

not analysed and therefore no formal evaluation had been made as to how exactly the 

programme contributed to the lives of its participants. The search for the influence of 



3 

Discovery on the lives of the participants, particularly from a developmental perspective, 

and their responses to the evaluations of the programme, formed the basis of this 

research. To achieve this, an investigation into the Discovery programme itself was 

essential. 

The focus on skills training in adolescence is an important challenge because of its place 

in setting the building blocks for individuals to assume personal responsibility and the 

young people to find their place within society. 

The observed enhancement of the teenage participants' personal development prompted 

a group of parents to bring the Discovery programme from Australia to New Zealand. A 

group of parents who had experienced Discovery abroad, through their own involvement 

as staff, and the observed effects it had upon their own teenagers, set up the Global 

Youth Foundation to establish a foundation through which the Discovery programme 

could be facilitated in New Zealand. The Discovery programme, was designed to 

encourage each participant to respond effectively and joyfully to life's challenges and to 

its developmentally required tasks. The Global Youth Foundation promotes Discovery 

as a programme which provides the participants with the skills to learn, to communicate 

effectively and take responsibility for one's own well-being and one's direction in their 

lives. Through these skills, Discovery aims to increase self-esteem, self-confidence, 

positive attitudes to life and to encourage the family to work as a supportive 

co-operative unit (Discovery Core Staff Manual). 

Overview of the Developmental Perspectives 

The theoretical base contributing to this study stems from the developmental theory of 

Erik Erikson and his psychosocial perspective of adolescence. According to Erikson, 

adolescence is the fifth stage, out of eight stages in a person's life span development, 

called "identity versus role confusion". This period, covering the years from 10 to 21, is 

when the individual experiences an identity crisis, and the psychological crises and social 



4 

development skills interplay with the prospect of role confusion or diffusion (Erikson, 

1963). The period of adolescence is the time in a person's life when they are faced with 

finding out who they are, what is important to them, and where they are going in life. 

A successful resolution of this crisis prepares them for the next crisis in early adulthood: 

Intimacy versus Isolation. James Marcia elaborated and expanded on Erikson's original 

bipolar stage identifying four identity statuses (identity confused/diffused, foreclosure, 

moratorium, identity achieved) based on a person's stage of commitment or 

non-commitment to a vocation (Kroger, 1989). In Jane Kroger's analysis of adolescent 

development she claims, "fidelity ot commitment to a vocation, a set of meaningful 

values, and a sexual identity are the observable cues indicative of a more or less 

successful identity resolution during late adolescence" (Kroger, 1989, p.34). 

In line with Erikson's psychosocial theory, Havighurst (1972) and Newman and Newman 

(1995) identified sets of developmental tasks - a set of skills and competencies that 

contribute to increased mastery over one's environment, that define what is healthy, 

normal development at each age in a particular society (Havighurst, 1972). Failure in 

achieving the tasks at one stage leads to greater difficulty in achieving later tasks which 

may even make succeeding tasks impossible to master (Newman & Newman, 1995). 

Each society has tasks and skills set for young people to learn in order to be admitted 

into adulthood and resolve the crisis at hand. The Discovery programme addresses a 

selection of developmental tasks which it attempts to cultivate in young people as they 

participate in the programme. 

The Rationale of the Study 

The role of the Discovery programme in enhancing the lifeskills and study skills of 

adolescents involved in the programme needed to be examined in light of the 

participants' view of its effectiveness in supporting their growth and development. It 



5 

was important to get some insight into participants' responses on what they got out of 

the programme and its influence on their development. 

With the introduction of the first Discovery programme in New Zealand in 1991, namely 

NZ 1, it was important to consider the tracing of its evolution and development, as well 

as focus on the organisational structure and the specific programme topics and activities 

of the 22nd Discovery programme held 12th to 18th July, 1998, at Nga Tawa School, 

Marton, New Zealand. With this knowledge, this study was intended to (1) identify the 

skills highlighted by the programme for adolescents, skills which were considered 

relevant to today's society and (2) study the participants' responses to Discovery's 

effectiveness in introducing selected lifeskills and study skills which support their 

development and their entry to adulthood. With this study of the Discovery programme 

in New Zealand, the rationale was to provide infonnation on it's role and contribution to 

the participants' development. In addition, it examined aspects of the programme which 

can be modified or improved so it could be more adaptable to the New Zealand 

environment. 

The Aims of the Research 

The aim of this research was to conduct a case study of the Discovery programme, by 

tracing its historical development, examining its programme content, organisational 

procedures, and its contribution to the teenage participants' development. 

More specifically, this research aimed: 

(i) To study the Discovery programme in New Zealand by examining its 

development, main purpose and aims, structure and content of the programme, 

availability of the programme, and the processes involved in staff training; 

(ii) To gain a background understanding of Discovery through an examination of 

previous participants' (Discovery NZ20 - 1997; NZ21 - 1998) responses to 



6 

the programme in relation to skills mastered as well as the participants' views of 

Discovery in relation to their achievements and their development. The 

researcher undertook this preliminary investigation as part of this study; and, 

(iii) To focus on a detailed study of Discovery NZ22 held 12th - 18th July 1998. In 

this section, the focus was on the participants' views regarding the contribution 

of Discovery to their lifeskills and study skills development, the nature of the 

communication patterns between the participating adolescents and parents, an 

overall perception of Discovery's influence in the teenage participants' lives, and, 

participants' views on challenging issues such as depression and coping and the 

aspects of Discovery which may have helped address these. 

Definition of Terms 

The terms "teenagers", "young people", "teens" and "adolescents" are used 

interchangeably in this thesis. For the purpose of this thesis, these terms refer to young 

people aged between 12-22 years. According to Newman and Newman (1995) there is a 

distinction between early adolescence and late adolescence. ''Early adolescence" refers 

to those aged between 12 and 18 years and "later adolescence" refers to young people 

aged between 19 and 22 years. Both these definitions are used within this thesis as it 

applies to Newman and Newman (1995). 

''Developmental tasks" are described by Havighurst as a set of skills and competencies 

that contribute to increased mastery over one's environment, that define what is healthy, 

normal development at each age in a particular society (Havighurst, 1972). "A 

developmental task is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the 

individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with 

later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the 

society, and difficulty with later tasks" (Havighurst, 1972, p. 2). Thus, a developmental 

task is halfway between and individual need and a societal demand. 



7 

The word ''lifeskills" refers a number of developmental tasks which, according to 

Nelson-Jones (1991), are chosen sequences in specific psychological and social contexts. 

These tasks are deemed necessary for the healthy development of an individual. 

Nelson-Jones (1991) describe lifeskills as having two levels. On one level lifeskills are 

the skills which enable a person to make personally responsible choices; they ensure a 

choice of behaviours. On another level they are motivational skills which enable people 

to help themselves; they aid in the chosen sequence of behaviours. According to 

Nelson-Jones (1991) lifeskills are aimed to empower rather than disempower people. 

"People require a repertoire of lifeskills according to their developmental tasks and 

specific problems ofliving" (Nelson-Jones, 1991, p.13). 

The specific types of lifeskills addressed in the Discovery NZ22 programme are skills 

relating to an individual successfully living in the social environment such as 

communication skills, forming meaningful and satisfying relationships, including parental, 

peer and boy/girl relationships, teamwork and acceptance of others. Other examples of 

lifeskills addressed at Discovery are focused around the strengthening of the internal 

structure or framework for living life as a responsible adult. Such skills covered include 

skills related to taking responsibility and control in one's life, being reliable and 

trustworthy, goal setting, coping strategies and the psychological adjustments required 

when faced with life's challenges, gaining confidence and motivation, and accepting 

oneself 

"Study skills" refers to strategies or tips for enhancing learning, particularly within the 

academic realm (Global Youth Foundation Promotional Brochure). The four specific 

study skills covered at Discovery are "mindmapping", "learning styles", "multiple 

intelligences", "memory techniques", and "speed reading', skills. Firstly, "mindmapping" 

refers to a technique where material to be learned is organised in a visual manner that is 

easily stored in long term memory. It is a most useful application of brain theory where 

the technique of mindmapping combines the skills associated with both the left and right 



8 

brain functioning such as logic, words, and symbols combined with left brain skills, and, 

the use of pattern, colour and shape for the right brain. The most common, versatile and 

easily learned rnindmap has branches corning out from a central title. This technique of 

displaying material pictorially and conceptually assists in easy learning. 

Secondly, "learning styles" refer to three most commonly expressions of how a person 

learns: visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. Those who have a visual learning preference 

would best learn by visual techniques, such as posters, reading or writing things down 

(Ward & Daley, 1993). Thus, visual communicators or learners tend to capture the 

concepts in their minds and/or use images. Auditory learners tend to listen and talk. 

They prefer to learn from lectures, talks or audio-tapes and verbalising material (Ward & 

Daley, 1993). Kinaesthetic learners use moyement and action to learn hence they prefer 

to write, act, pace and use gestures (Ward & Daley, 1993). In addition to the three 

learning styles, Discovery participants also get to understand their own preference to 

learning through the seven multiple intelligences. ''Multiple intelligences" provides a 

more diverse understanding of a way a person learns and is also provided in the study 

skills section of Discovery. The "multiple intelligences" are the theory of Howard 

Gardner (1993) and are anchored in the view that "human beings are capable of at least 

seven different ways of knowing the world" (p. 12). The seven intelligences Gardner 

( 1993) refers to are musical, spatial, mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, physical 

and linguistic. Each represents a way in which the individual operates depending on the 

task or individual preferences. An overview of each is listed as follows: 

musical - a person who has the capacity to perceive, appreciate and produce 

rhythms and melodies. They have a good ear, sing in tune and can keep time to 

music. 

spatial - a person who understands their world through pictures and images. He 

or she has the ability to perceive, transform and recreate. They are sensitive to 



9 

visual details and can visualise vividly, draw or sketch ideas graphically, and can 

orient themselves in 3-D space. 

mathematical - a person who prefers numbers and logic, has the ability to reason. 

and are good at sequencing with a rational outlook on life. 

interpersonal - these people understand and work with other people. They are 

responsive to moods and intentions. 

intrapersonal - a person who is connected with the inner self. They access their 

own feelings, are introspective, deep and soul-searching. They are also fiercely 

independent, and can work on their own successfully. 

physical - these people are good at handling objects and controlling body 

movements. They like any hands-on activity. 

linguistic - a person who is good with words. They have the skills in persuasion, 

can entertain, argue, or instruct effectively. They are usually trivia experts or 

masters ofliteracy. They also read voraciously and write clearly. 

(Discovery Study Skills Workbook) 

The third main study skill offered at Discovery are techniques for enhancing memory. 

"Memory techniques" are aimed at enhancing the learning process and include skills 

consistent with "multiple intelligences" and "learning styles" and involve strategies such 

as the use of music and colour while studying, peer tutoring, highlighting material when 

learning, working in a team, visualising and reading aloud. 

Fourthly, the skill of "speed reading" is also taught at Discovery. "Speed reading" 

applies to a number of skills which allows the reader to increase their speed of reading as 



10 

well as their comprehension on material (Ward & Daley, 1993). Eye exercises and 

comprehension practise help the participants to better their understanding of the material 

and increase their speed of reading. All these skills are taught throughout the study skill 

sessions of Discovery. 

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study 

The focus on studying in detail the Discovery NZ22 programme meant that to 

understand it fully, one had to take into account the history and development of the 

Discovery programme. This study therefore examined the overall development of the 

Discovery programme as it relates to New Zealand, with its historical development, 

purpose and aims, structure and content and processes involved in staff training. This 

provided an important background to the ov~rall development of the programme and the 

context in which it was introduced. It was not intended in this study, to go more deeply 

into details of the organisation and administration of Discovery and the Global Youth 

Foundation, as this study was focused mainly on the participants and their views of the 

programme on their development. 

In order to obtain a preliminary indication of participants' views to the programme, it 

was important to examine past participants' responses to previous questionnaires. In 

examining past participants' responses to previous questionnaires, only questions 

relevant to this study, such as skills mastered and their views on achievement, were 

selected as this section was a preliminary study intended to provide a basic understanding 

of the programme's accomplishments through the perspective of the participants. A list 

of responses was made through a clustering of similar remarks and some statistical 

tabulation was produced to illustrate and highlight some trends. It was the intention to 

identify parts of the programme which participants showed some degree of response; and 

thus provide preliminary information and directions for this study. It was not intended to 

focus on these results nor subject them to detailed statistical analysis. 



11 

The lack of literature on programmes for adolescents such as Discovery in New Zealand 

is not surprising considering it's recent introduction in 1991 and its previous cultural 

orientation. Two programmes out of the past 21 programmes for study were selected, 

Discovery NZ20 and NZ2 l, as preliminary data to the study as discussed above. 

International studies have therefore provided the basis for the literature review of 

educational programmes in relation to programmes such as the Discovery programme. 

The theoretical link of this study to Eriksons' s identity crisis of adolescence (Erikson, 

1968) and Marcia's four identity statuses (Kroger, 1989) is acknowledged particularly in 

the adolescents' balancing between their commitment and confusion about their role in 

society. The link of the theoretical perspectives with this study lies with the 

developmental tasks spelled out in the theories by Havighurst (1972) and Newman and 

Newman (1995) as their tasks identify skills or roles that needs to be learned by 

adolescents in order to become soundly adjusted in the adult world. The Discovery 

programme, which is the focus of this study, addresses certain tasks and skills which 

contributes to the well-being and development of its participants and are delivered 

through the lifeskills and study skills components of its programme. Discovery's tasks 

and skills serve as building blocks to development in a similar way that Havighurst's 

(1972) and Newman and Newman's (1995) developmental tasks are identified for young 

people to achieve. 

Summary 

The focus of this case study was on the Discovery programme, which was introduced in 

New Zealand in 1991, and the contribution it makes towards the teenage participants' 

development. The observations made by the writer as participant observer during a 

previous Discovery programme in New Zealand prompted a formal study into the 

programme and the influence it had on the participants. 



12 

Erik Eriksons's psychosocial developmental theory, particularly the stage of adolescence, 

provides the developmental perspective of this study. Erikson refers to adolescence as a 

stage where the young person experiences the fifth crisis of "Identity versus Role 

Confusion", where identity is viewed as a balance between commitment and confusion 

about one's role in society (Kroger, 1989). Havighurst (1972) and Newman and 

Newman (1995) identified developmental tasks which related to these roles and these 

relate to lifeskills and study skills, which are addressed, directly and indirectly, by the 

Discovery programme. 

The rationale of this study was to obtain a clear picture of the role of the Discovery New 

Zealand programme in contributing to the adolescent participants' development within 

the New Zealand environment. 

The aims of the study were therefore constructed around the above mentioned rationale 

such that a case study of the Discovery programme was undertaken and highlighted its 

historical development, content, procedures and overall contribution to the teenage 

participants development was highlighted. This involved a preliminary examination of 

the Discovery programme itself and a sampling of previous participants' responses to the 

programme. A specific investigation into Discovery NZ22 was also undertaken and the 

participants' views on the contribution to their lives involving lifeskills, study skills, 

communication patterns with parents, overall perceptions, and adolescent issues. 

The terminology referring to young people aged between 12 - 22 years were defined 

according to Newman and Newman's (1995) characterisation of "early adolescence" 

(12 - 18 years) and "later adolescence" (19 - 22 years). Interchangeable terms for 

adolescence were also discussed. 

Lifeskills and study skills forms the basis of skill-training for Discovery's teenage 

participants. In simple terms, lifeskills was defined as processes in which chosen 



13 

sequences in specific psychological and social contexts are conducive to a person's 

well-being. Study skills refer to strategies or tips for enhancing learning. Both the 

lifeskills and study skills components of Discovery incorporate psychological, social, and 

academic learning skills. 

The investigation into selected aspects of the Discovery programme, prev10us 

participants views of Discovery, and specifically NZ22 participants' responses to its 

contribution in the lives of young people, emphasised a case study approach to research. 

The following chapter comprises a reVJew of the literature and developmental 

perspectives in adolescence. 



CHAPTER TWO 

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND 

DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES 

14 

This chapter introduces the literature on other programmes and developmental 

perspectives related to this study. The sections are designed to provide information of 

other studies related to lifeskills and study skills training. The literature pertaining to 

teenage issues is also reviewed including challenges in adolescence, coping, depression 

and parent-adolescent communication. A review of developmental perspectives in 

adolescence is also provided. 

The sections in this chapter are arranged in the following order: Lifeskills Training 

Programmes for Adolescents; Study Skills; Challenges in Adolescence and Adolescent 

Coping Ability; Depression in Adolescence; Parent-Adolescent Communication; 

Developmental Perspectives in Adolescence; Cognitive Learning and the Social 

Environment; The Period of Adolescence and the "Rites of Passage"; Societal Changes 

Influencing Adolescence; Conclusion. The combination of sections provided an 

overview of the literature relevant to the present study. 

Lif eskills Training Programmes for Adolescents 

Educational programmes for teenagers have fallen into a number of categories which 

either address specific groups or the general population, and either address certain topics 

or a generic based curriculum either in the school settings, private institutions or 

community based initiatives. The following two sections discuss the programmes 

available in New Zealand for teenagers and then the lifeskills programmes available 

internationally. 



15 

An Overview of Programmes Available for New Zealand Teenagers 

Teenage self development programmes have been in existence for decades in New 

Zealand. Examples such as Outward Bound, Outdoor Pursuits, Spirit of Adventure and 

the new Spirit of Youth Trust provide programmes for the teenage population to 

enhance self esteem and confidence. Sport, adventure and physical challenges have 

generally been vehicles for self development programmes for teenagers on these 

programmes. 

A variety of clubs such as Scouts and Guides, youth church groups and other community 

groups have also created programmes which support the teens of New Zealand society 

by encouraging their personal growth. However, formal evaluations and the 

understanding of the impact they have on their participants is scarce. 

Within secondary schools, the programmes provided in the curriculum have 

predominantly been focused around a problem-based curriculum. Alcohol, drug and 

teenage pregnancy programmes have been developed in response to the recent problems 

in teenage years. In 1997, the Ministry of Education released a draft document of the 

Health and Physical Education curriculum for all New Zealand schools (Ministry of 

Education, 1997). A trial of the curriculum took place during 1999 in various schools 

throughout New Zealand and has been implemented in the national curriculum over the 

following two years. Although it is still early days before the impact of the Health and 

Physical Education curriculum for teenagers is implemented and evaluated, it is a 

curriculum which appears to have addressed adolescent development by focusing on a 

number of adolescent challenges by promoting healthy living, mentally, physically, 

spiritually and socially. This is done through a generic curriculum of social and 

intrapersonal skills as well as an integration of specific topics pertinent to adolescents 

such as sexuality, relationships and drug abuse. The spiral curriculum also allows for the 

accumulation of knowledge through age-appropriate learning. 



16 

School-based initiatives are one way of reaching the general population of teenagers. 

Initiatives which enhance teenagers' psychological and social health have featured 

increasingly within the school environment (Taylor, 1992; Ministry of Health, 

1995-1996; Hamburg, 1997). The development of public health prevention programmes 

for youth are ideally implemented in the school environment as they reach a large youth 

population. Various booklets and pamphlets about lifeskills in education have been 

disseminated throughout New Zealand schools to promote the successful application of 

these to school students (Ministry of Health, 1995-1996). 

Community-Based youth initiatives are somewhat more intense and usually engage the 

participants over shorter periods of time than schools. For some, it is better for students 

to learn skills outside of the school environment as school is often perceived as a 

negative place and inhibits rather than promotes mental health. For example, one quarter 

of the youth sampled in the Gordon and Grant ' s (1997) research on the psychological 

health of adolescents in Glasgow named "school" as a place when asked to indicate 

' 'things that make me feel bad". Although not all reports about school were negative, a 

large number of them were. On reflection of their findings, it is unfortunate that such 

feelings are conjured up about an institution which plays a prominent role in teenagers' 

lives. 

Whether lifeskills training is promoted through schools or through alternative means, the 

programmes essentially provide a context in which the skills, necessary for the healthy 

development of adolescents, are being taught. However understanding the idiosyncrasies 

and benefits of each programmes is the next step in the formula of addressing the 

educational programmes available to adolescents. 

A Review of Lifeskills Training Programmes • International 

There are a number of programmes which have involved lifeskills training and have either 

been the total focus of programmes or existed as portion of the curriculum. Some 



17 

programmes have focused upon more generic skills such as communication or problem 

solving skills, whereas others have focused upon a curriculum associated with specific 

teenage problems such as suicide, teenage pregnancy or the rate of young people 

smoking. The following review of literature presents a combination of programmes 

which have been either developed within schools or through community initiatives and 

which have, to varying degrees, the elements of lifeskills training. An explanation of 

each programme is first given and then the respective studies of each programme is 

explained. 

The community based programme named Summer Training Education Programme 

(STEP) was developed in America to address school age pregnancy (Walker & 

Vilella-Velez, 1992). STEP' s long term goals were to reduce teenage pregnancy, 

decrease school drop-outs, improve academic skills and the chance of employment. The 

programme is implemented during a fifteen month period and includes two full-time 

Summer vacations. STEP was aimed at 14 to 15 year old disadvantaged teenagers and 

was designed to enhance their options for life by providing meaningful and attainable 

alternatives to pregnancy. In the STEP programme "disadvantaged teenagers" referred 

to those who were from low income families, who came from a wide ethnic and racial 

group, and whom had a high percentage who were already sexually active. 

There are four integrated components to the STEP programme of which one part, 

consisting of 18 hours, is devoted specifically to lifeskills training. The remaining three 

components consisted of work experience during the two Summers (90 hours), 

remediation in reading and maths (90 hours), and regular support from mentors during 

the school year (80 -100 hours) over the fifteen month period of the programme. 

The Lifeskills and Opportunity component (LSO) of STEP is designed to help young 

people raise their expectations for the future so they will be motivated to delay 

parenthood until they have achieved those goals. The combination of skills associated to 



18 

the preparation of employment and planning future families, addresses the heart of future 

prospects for adolescents. The Lifeskills and Opportunity component builds upon 

generic skills such as assertiveness, decision-making, communication, goal setting, and a 

recognition and rejection of stereotypes. 

Research into the effects of STEP for their participants has involved 4800 young people 

from five different cities who were part of either the treatment group or the control 

group. The research investigated whether the programmes goals, stated earlier, were 

upheld (Walker & Vilella-Velez, 1992). The findings showed that the effects were 

positive. By the end of the first Summer reading and maths scores had improved by an 

average of half a grade for STEP youth as compared with the control group who 

received only Summer jobs and no training. The STEP participants also showed more 

responsible sexual and social behaviour, had higher attendance rates, and attrition rates 

for the next Summer were high (75%). Overall, the participants became more 

knowledgeable of birth control and the consequences of teenage parenting, and as a 

consequence there was no increase in sexual activity. These findings demonstrate that 

the goals of the programme were in fact upheld. 

The Summer Training Educational Programme (STEP), especially the Lifeskills and 

Opportunity component, has similarities to the Discovery programme such that the mode 

of address allows for experiential learning since the teenagers themselves find the 

answers to their own questions or problems. This of course is helped by the guidance 

and support of trained staff members and the facilitators. Furthermore, Discovery is 

similar in the content of generic skills it provides as problem solving, decision making, 

communication, recognition and control over stereotypes and goal setting are also part 

of the Discovery programme. However, the difference between Discovery and the STEP 

programme emerges when the number of hours spent in lifeskills training is compared. 

Discovery is predominantly a lifeskills training programme whereas the STEP 

programme attributes a much smaller component of such training in its curriculum. 



19 

Another teenage programme, which is based upon a problem curriculum, is that of 

Orbach and Bar-Joseph (1993). This suicide prevention programme incorporated 

lifeskills training with the skills appropriate for an adolescent to deal with feelings of 

hopelessness, the development of ego identity, coping and suicide tendencies. The mode 

of implementation is introspective such that each of the seven weekly, 2 hourly sessions 

was constructed in such a way to elicit discussion about the participants' own emotional 

expenences. These shared and guided experiences were designed to emphasis the 

similarities of their experience, find alternative ways to solve problems and encourage a 

self-help and peer-help approach. The 393 participants were from six classes in six high 

school throughout Israel and were categorised as non-at-risk individuals except for one 

class which consisted of conduct disordered teens. All participants were randomly 

assigned to either the treatment group or the control group. 

The topics of the seven sessions were concentrated around depression and happiness, 

adolescent and the family, feelings of helplessness, coping with failure, personal 

perspective on coping with stress and problem solving, coping with suicidal urges, with 

the last session providing a summary and feedback. The impact of this programme was 

conducted in a pretest-posttest design using instruments which measured suicidal 

tendencies, ego identity, hopelessness, and coping ability. The participants' evaluation of 

the programme also provided further information. The posttest was given within a three 

week time span after the last session. The results showed the experimental group 

showed a significant reduction in suicidal tendencies, had an increase in ego identity 

cohesion and their ability to cope, and had a decrease in feelings of hopelessness (Orbach 

& Bar-Joseph, 1993). Also, the evaluations of the programme overall were mostly 

positive. 

One limitation of the previous study is that the programme was conducted through each 

school's counsellors and variance between their styles and interactions, both during and 

out of the session times, may have emerged. The significance of the findings showed 



20 

that an introspective programme effected the participants' ability to cope and shielded 

against self-destructive behaviours. This is significant especially in the area of suicide 

prevention as other programmes which were aimed toward the prevention of suicide 

have shown reverse results (Shaffer, Vieland, Garland, Rojas, Underwood & Busner, 

1990). Orbach and Bar-Joseph (1993) have placed great importance on the type of 

programme and the difference it made to suicide prevention. It involves the process of 

exploring inner feelings and actions helps to guide and encourage the teenage 

participants to focus on alternative ways of doing things which are both positive and 

health promoting. Discovery is similar to Orbach and Bar-Joseph's programme through 

its introspective elements. 

A generic educational programme for early adolescents named Bridging the Gap was 

developed and implemented through the Salvation Army in eight Eastern states in 

America. The aims of the programme were to help young people to take charge of their 

own lives through self respect, to provide information about their physical and emotional 

needs and to have the knowledge and skills in community rights and utilising community 

services. These three broad curriculum areas were divided into twelve units of 90 

minutes each and conducted as a community project for those who used the services of 

the Salvation Army. Support from parents was gained and their inclusion of parents in 

final ceremonies helped to open communication channels. 

The effect Bridging the Gap had on its participants was explored by the Salvation Army 

and Dr. Petersen (Hamburg, B., 1990). Information was gathered through the first and 

last sessions of the programme which involved the completion of a questionnaire 

measuring self concept, knowledge and coping skills. A control group was used to 

understand the effects of the programmes on it's participants. The findings showed that 

the youth in the Bridging the Gap program made substantial gains in knowledge about 

themselves, the community and it's resources (Hamburg, B., 1990). The majority of 

participants felt they had become more self confident and had a more positive image of 



21 

themselves. Overall, the participants showed positive gams in the skills area the 

programme provided. 

In a review of literature on lifeskills programmes for early adolescents, Moote and 

Wodarski ( 1997) found that adventure based lifeskills programmes impacted positively 

on the adolescents' self-concept and self-esteem. Combined with a counselling type 

programme, these programmes serve to benefit most of the participants in the studies 

reviewed. An increase in co-operative behaviours, the generalisation of adventure skills 

to their life areas, and positive gains on psychological, social and intellectual growth 

were also acknowledged. 

Study Skills 

Study skills are offered as part of the Discovery programme in recognition of the skills 

required by a young person in today's society. These days, it is not only important for 

young people to receive an education but also to succeed at school so that it increases 

the prospects for employment and their future. According to Crockett and Petersen 

( 1993 ), study skills are essential in helping a student through schooling and exams, 

especially those exams which contribute toward nationally recognised qualifications. 

Therefore, employment opportunities are reduced for those who do not have a minimum 

qualification and the probability of earning a satisfactory income is somewhat lessened 

(Crockett & Petersen, 1993). 

New Zealand statistics support this as in the 1998 statistical analysis of school leavers, 

the highest group unemployed are those with no qualification with the next highest group 

being those who have only School Certificate (Statistics New Zealand~ 1998). 

In New Zealand the percentage of school leavers who obtained at least Sixth Form 

Certificate or higher has slightly decreased. In 1993, 66% of all school leavers obtained 

Sixth Form Certificate or higher (Ministry of Education, 1995) as compared with 64% in 



22 

1995 (Ministry of Education, 1997). By calculation, the remaining 97 44 have School 

Certificate or no such formal qualifications (Ministry of Education, 1997). The majority 

of leavers withdraw from school when their age no longer permits them to remain there. 

School was one source of stress for the fifteen year old Canadians investigated in a study 

by Mates and Allison (1992). The reasons for school as a contributor to stress in 

adolescence showed that there was considerable pressure put upon students to succeed 

at school which comes mainly from parent who want their child to succeed, not only at 

school, but in life as well. 

Exams are also a stressful time for teenagers and are often an instigator of negative 

feelings (Gordon & Grant, 1997). In a snapshot view of feelings, fifteen year olds from 

nearly all the high schools in Glasgow, on a designated day, were invited to write about 

"how it is to be you today". Many students chose to reflect on school. The feelings 

related to school were mostly negative referring to boredom, doing badly in school, 

stressful place to be, tests/exams, teachers, homework and peers. 

Increasing the prospects of the future in regard to employment opportunities 

undoubtedly promotes the positive development of an adolescent. Supplementary 

programmes which provide additional skills for learning and increasing the prospects of 

the future have already been discussed. One such intervention was the STEP programme 

which provided literacy and numeracy skills to the participants of the programmes 

(Walker & Vilella-Velez, 1992). These skills, along with the mentoring assistance and 

opportunity to work, helped the teenagers gain better grades in reading and writing and 

all had higher attendance rates at school. 

The interest for the present study is in finding out whether the study skills taught at 

Discovery were useful or not and whether the perception of their study skills had, in their 



23 

view, improved. It was presumed that good study skills lead towards better academic 

results in the future. 

Challenges in Adolescence and Adolescent Coping Ability 

The period of adolescence provides the opportunity for young people to explore their 

world and discover their role in society as it fits for them. In doing so the adolescent 

may be faced with many challenges and sources of stress as they move through the tasks 

associated with adolescence. 

A number of challenges and stresses can be identified within adolescence as the following 

review of literature shows. Peers, teachers, and especially parents were found to be 

major stresses in a number of studies (Moore, 1997; Morris, 1985; Patten, 1988), as so 

was finding a job (Silva, 1989; Morris, 1985). The threat of war especially nuclear war 

was particularly disturbing for teenagers in the study by Silva (1989) which focused on 

Otago teenagers. Other challenges that created stresses in young peoples lives were 

school achievement (Moore, 1997; Morris, 1985; Silva, 1989), coping with their own 

physical development (Morris, 1985; Maskill, 1991), body size, especially for girls 

(Moore, 1997), sexual orientation (Moore, 1997), moving house or places (Morris, 

1985). Such stresses may be either prolonged or intermittent (Nicol, 1987). 

Mortality issues are a major stress for young people as a number of studies have shown. 

In a large sample of Wellington secondary school students, Patten (1988) reported the 

teenage participants rated highly the fear of their own death. In the same study the death 

of a family member or fiiend was also rated highly in their fears (Patten, 1988). Death 

was the concern of a large number of adolescents in another study (Nicol, 1987). Other 

studies have shown similar findings with the addition of the feeling of stress about their 

own health (Morris, 1985; Moore, 1997; Nicol, 1987). 



24 

A number of major sources of stress were reported in Mates & Allison'-s (1992) study of 

15 year old participants. The teenage participants, who were from three Toronto high 

schools, were asked a number of questions through focus group interviews and identified 

major stresses such as relationships with parents and family, work and lack of money. 

Other responses given by some of the 15 year olds as stresses were friends, school, gangs 

or strangers, addictions/drugs and the pressure to drink, smoke or use drugs. When the 

23 participants were asked how someone their age would deal with or cope with a 

number of problems, their responses showed that their coping mechanisms involved 

substance use (drinking alcohol, smoking cigarettes, and using drugs) and diversionary 

tactics such as relaxing, playing sports, listening to music, or playing an instrument. 

Rebellious responses were also given for coping with challenges such as being reckless 

or telling lies. Mates and Allison's (1992) study is particularly important as it provides a 

guideline for the responses to challenges in adolescence given by the teenage participants 

at Discovery. 

Different reports of concerns emerge when the age of the young person is studied. For 

example, Violato and Holden (1992) found those in younger adolescence (11 - 14 years) 

were more concerned about smoking whereas older adolescents referred to challenges 

with drugs and other substances. The same study showed that during the middle ages of 

early adolescence, 14 to 15 years, there was an increase in concerns about peer 

acceptance and relationships with friends (Violato & Holden, 1988). Self esteem issues 

were also raised at this age (Levenson, Morrow, Johnson & Pfefferbaum, 198~) - For 

older adolescents, the focus of concerns was upon school and academic performance, 

which in developmental terms, impinges upon vocational security and career plans 

(Violota & Holden, 1988). 

Gender differences were analysed in a study by Plancheral and Bolognini (1995) which 

examined the responses to coping with challenges in early adolescence. It was reported 

that young females invest in social activities, express more negative feelings, and adopt 



25 

consumption habits such as shopping or eating as coping strategies. Young males on the 

other hand, invest in hobbies or sport and use a sense of humour to cope. 

One study relevant to the present research investigated a psycho-educational intervention 

for the effects on teenage coping abilities. Rice, Herman and Petersen (1993) theories in 

coping with challenges in early adolescence were examined through a psycho-educational 

programme. The purpose of the programme was to intervene in the developmental 

process by helping young adolescents learn effective coping responses to the challenges 

that arise. Feelings of being depressed were also investigated in Rice, Herman and 

Petersen's study. 

The intervention programme introduced by Rice, Herman and Petersen ( 1993) to the 

teenage participants, takes the interpersonal approach to teaching adaptive emotional, 

cognitive, and behavioural responses to stresses and challenges. This programme 

involved 16 sessions conducted for 40 minutes over a period of eight weeks. Each of the 

16 session focused on a particular social skill, coping method or challenge. The teaching 

of skills begins through a group discussion, followed by the formal teaching of a skill and 

modelling of the skill, then ends with the adolescents themselves practising and 

integrating the skill into their lives experientially. This programme was implemented 

through the school environment and conducted during school hours with small groups 

(8-12 members). A parent-training component is also part of this intervention and is run 

concurrently with the teen programme. 

Participants of the programme by Rice, Herman and Petersen (1993) were recruited from 

two communities with approximately equal number of boys and girls. The participants 

consisted of 151 adolescent, 121 mothers and 93 fathers. Less than one third of the 

adolescents were identified as high-risk for developing depression from a self report 

measure completed prior to the programme' s start. Preliminary findings showed the 

programme helped to increase the quality of family relations and decrease negative life 



26 

events. The adolescent control group reported the opposite on both accounts. Also 

participants of the programme indicated significant increases in perceived coping abilities 

and control over challenges at school and interpersonal situations whereas the control 

group had no such effects. A positive effect of the intervention was reported as a 

significant decrease in negative life events from pretest to post-test as compared to the 

increase of such events for the control group. 

Miller, Meyer, Grund and Herman (1992) assessed the short term proximal effects of on 

coping and social abilities on the same psycho-educational intervention as above, and 

with the same groups of teenagers. Participants in the intervention reported significant 

increases in perceived coping abilities and perceived control over challenging school and 

interpersonal events, and relationships with peers and family improved. This is different 

to the control group who showed no such effects and even declined in the quality of their 

family relationships. 

The challenges which face young people were investigated in the present study as so was 

their ability to cope with such challenges. An exploration of Discovery's influence on 

such situations was explored through the teenagers views. In no way was this 

exploration intended to address the treatment of coping in adolescence. Instead the issue 

of coping with challenges was explored in regard to the overall development of the 

adolescent. 

Depression in Adolescence 

Depression is prevalent during adolescence and can potentially develop into a health 

problem during the teenage years (Andrews & Merry, 1998; Rutter, 1986; Reynolds, 

1992; Shaffer, 1986; Kosky, Silburn & Zubrick, 1986; Marcotte, 1996). In an overview 

of the prevalence of depression in adolescence, on studies carried out on broad samples 

of New Zealand, US and UK teenagers., Andrews & Merry (1998) reported that at any 

one time between 0.7% and 3.4% of teenagers are depressed. In a "community study of 



27 

Christchurch teenagers found that 3 .1 % of 15 year olds displayed depression whereas 

16.7% of 18 year olds had depression" (Andews & Merry, 1998, p. 21). More 

specifically, if depressive symptoms are analysed for teenagers over the last 12 months, 

the rate of depression becomes much higher. Andrews and Merry (1998) noted that 

between 2.7% and 16.7% of the adolescent population in New Zealand recorded enough 

symptoms for a diagnosis of depression (Andrews & Merry, 1998). With the knowledge 

about the prevalence of depression in the adolescent years, this study examined the 

participants' views about the influence Discovery may have on depression. 

Bird and Drewery (2000) briefly addressed the issue of depression in the teenage 

population in New Zealand. The number of young people affected varies considerably 

with symptoms including low moods, diminished interest in going out, significant weight 

loss or gain and sleeping problems including too much or too little. They stress that 

depression does not necessarily lasts forever although once you have had one episode it 

is more likely that you will have another. 

According to Silva (1988), the psychological health of adolescence is the most common, 

and the most debilitating, health problem for people in this age group. The most 

common health disorders found by Silva (1988) in New Zealand adolescents were 

depression, conduct disorder and substance abuse. School was also a source of stress 

reported by the teenagers of the same study. It was found that 10% of adolescents in the 

general population of New Zealand had a definable mental health disorder at any one 

time. 

In a study by Schichor, Bernstein and King (1994), 595 of the 966 (approximately 60%) 

who responded to a questionnaire indicated that they had been depressed or felt down to 

some degree, with females twice as likely to report such states. This group of teenagers, 

with a mean age of 15. 5 years, were given a screening questionnaire soliciting 

information about their general health, home, school, reproductive health, mental health, 



28 

and exposure to drugs and alcohol during their routine visit to a medical centre. All 

teens were asked it they had ever felt down or depressed, and if so, the frequency of such 

feelings. The teenage participants were also asked to report if they could relate to any of 

the problems that were listed in the questionnaire. Those who identified as having felt 

down or depressed at some stage clearly identified more problems than those who never 

felt down or depressed. Although some symptoms identified were physical such as "pain 

in your legs" or "skin or complexion problems" the most significant correlation of 

problems identified by those who indicated they have felt down or depressed were 

psychosocial in nature. The six problem types reported were "trouble with your parent 

understanding you", "worried about the future", "worried about sex or pregnancy", 

"trouble making or keeping friends", "worried about parents" and "worried about a place 

to live". In addition to the profile of those who have felt depressed or down, these 

teenagers were also the group who were three times more likely to have experienced 

suicide ideation, and seven times as likely to have reported a suicide attempt. The 

psychosocial nature of the problems identified by the teenagers in Schichor, Bernstein 

and King's (1994) study help to explain the situations in which teenage depression comes 

about. The reasons for a teenager being depressed are investigated in the present study 

through a teenage perspective as well as the skills and strategies Discovery may provide 

for young people to prevent or limit depression. 

Gordon and Grant's ( 1997) study of secondary students aged between 13 and 14 years, 

mentioned previously, responded to questions about how they felt on the day designated 

for the questionnaire to be completed. Nineteen percent of students said they felt 

depressed giving explanations of"feeling low", ''feeling down", ''bad attitude", and being 

"sad". The importance of the questionnaire given by Gordon and Grant (1997) was that 

it elicited the teenagers own responses and feelings through the series of questions asked 

about their mental health. 



29 

The researcher's intention to explore issues of adolescent depression in the present study 

was to find out the participants views of depression with no intention of addressing the 

treatment. A number of research questions were designed merely to become aware of 

the participants' views as it relates to their developmental tasks and development. 

Parent-Adolescent Communication 

The transition from adolescence to adulthood is a potentially stressful time not only for 

adolescents but also for parents. As the adolescent finds their own identity, the family 

requires a realignment in family relationships. In order for this to happen successfully 

there must be effective communication. Noller and Callan (1991) are convinced that 

effective communication is the medium to good relationships within a family. The ideal 

family environment for adolescents, suggested by Noller and Callan (1991), is one where 

communication is positive and effective, where adolescents receive strong support from 

their parents, feel free to express their feelings and opinions appropriately, and to discuss 

issues, raise conflicts, negotiate about plans and make decisions. 

Positive, effective communication in the family, especially between parents and their 

children, is crucial in the functioning of the family and the well-being of adolescents. 

Communication affects the quality of the relationship between the parents and the healthy 

functioning of the family, both as a whole, and individually. Open communication 

between adolescents and between them and their adult caregivers is imperative as 

Nelson, Farberow and Litman (1988) discovered in their study of prevention of youth 

suicide. Their research focused on a combined group of 12 - 20 year olds, parents of 

suicide victims, and profiles of the suicide victims prior to their suicide. The study 

showed all groups within the study indicated communication problems as a factor 

possibly contributing toward suicide. Furthermore, "having someone to talk to,, was 

identified by the young people as a preventative measure for suicide. 



30 

Barnes and Olson (1985) tested 426 families, consisting of at least one adolescent and 

one parent, for their communication patterns between parent and adolescent. These 

families were classified as intact, meaning the vast majority of parents were not divorced 

(96%) and were without any serious problems. The adolescents consisted of equal male 

and females and with an average age of 16.4 years. The instrument used for exploring 

communication levels in the family was the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale. 

The results showed mothers reported better communication with their child than fathers 

due to the higher levels of openness reported between mother and child. As a group, 

teenagers reported difficulty communicating with their parents. Both parents reported 

significantly more openness and fewer problems in communication with their child. In 

contrast to the parents views, the teenagers viewed their intrafamily communication with 

much greater negativism. 

Parent-Adolescent Communication was also investigated in a study by Noller and Bagi 

( 1985). Frequency, initiation, recognition, self-disclosure, domination and satisfaction 

were dimensions of communication investigated in 58 families with at least one 

adolescent who ranged in age from 16 to 20 years and who lived at home with their 

parents and who attended university. The results showed that the teens tended to 

communicate more with mothers than fathers over a wide range of topics. One 

exception to this was the topic of politics in which teens engaged in communication with 

fathers on this topic. More self-disclosure was related to mothers than to fathers, with 

daughter disclosing more to mothers than did sons. 

Parental control was examined in a study by Smetana (1988). Both the adolescents and 

parents views were sought in regard to control over certain issues relating to moral, 

conventional and personal issues. As expected, parent perceived issues as more under 

their authority than their children. Moral and conventional issues were in parental 

control however parents also wanted to take control over personal issues as well caused 

some conflict with their adolescent. 



31 

The present study examined communication between the participating teenagers of 

Discovery and their parents. A diagnostic tool for communication was used to 

investigate the changes in communication patterns. Comparisons of communication 

before and after Discovery revealed any changes that took place and highlighted the 

effects of Discovery. 

Developmental Perspectives of Adolescence 

The Discovery programme is directed at adolescents from ages 13 -18 years. It 

addresses lifeskills and study skills which aim to contribute to the young person's 

well-being and psychosocial development. One well known theorist in human 

development is Erik Erikson who has defined 8 developmental stages in a lifespan 

(Erikson, 1963). In each stage the individual is required to resolve conflicts in order to 

adjust to the psychological demands placed upon them by society. In Erikson's theory of 

development, societal expectations guide the individual into behaving in certain ways. 

According to Erikson (1963) "adolescence'', the fifth stage of his theory, is a crucial time 

for identity development where the young person wants to establish and know himself or 

herself as a specific individual, to maintain some connection with the meaningful 

elements of the past, and to accept the values of a group. It is in this period of life that 

the adolescent is faced with resolving the conflict of forming their own identity or risk 

identity confusion. The process of identity formation is marked with a variety of changes 

such as experimentation with various roles, sorting out the likes and dislikes of the role, 

making important decisions pertaining to their career, making political commitments and 

an increased interest in world affairs. All these developmental changes helps the 

adolescent make a commitment towards their own identity and a resolution of the 

conflict. 

An adolescent who achieves an identity for themselves, has a new and refreshing sense of 

self; one which is acceptable within their social environment. On the other hand, the 



32 

adolescent who unsuccessfully resolves the identity crisis, suffers from the confusion of 

who they really are with regard to their own beliefs, values, thoughts and possible future. 

Such adolescents are likely to either withdraw and isolate themselves from their family 

and peers or totally lose their identity within their social environment. 

Erikson's emphasis on identity development during the years of adolescence has been 

the basis of studies by James Marcia. Marcia ( 196 7) expanded Erikson's concept of an 

identity crisis by categorising adolescent development into four identity statuses: identity 

confused/diffused, foreclosure, moratorium and identity achieved. All of these involve 

both a crisis and commitment on the part of the individual. 

The first category which describes the young person as identity confused, is one who has 

not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitment to a vocation or set of beliefs. In 

other words, the adolescent has not developed a commitment to anything, instead they 

continue in their childlike activities, thinking and status. The second facet of adolescent 

development, foreclosure, discusses the adolescent in a situation upon which an identity 

has not been explored or formed by the adolescent themselves. Instead, the adolescent 

has taken upon an identity which has been handed to them, usually by their parents. The 

adolescent in this state has experienced commitment, but has not experienced a "crisis" 

and therefore takes upon the values, beliefs and vocation that they have known all their 

lives or what has been decided for them. If the adolescent does not sufficiently challenge 

their environments then foreclosure may become permanent and they will remain 

dependent on others (Kroger, 1989). 

In contrast to the foreclosure adolescent, the third identity status identified by Marcia, 

named moratorium, allows the adolescent to explore and actively search for alternates to 

what they have already experienced and know. Therefore, the adolescent is in an acute 

state of crisis, struggling to find their identity. They are usually rebellious and less 

co-operative with authority, they challenge most things, and they try out different roles 



33 

to ascertain what they like or dislike in order to make a final commitment to their 

identity. In accordance with Erikson's developmental perspective also, this stage is 

important for the identity development of an individual such that the person is able to 

experiment with alternative identities without trying to settle on any one (Erikson, 1968). 

However, this becomes destructive when the person reaches the age maturity of 

adulthood without having made adult commitments such as choosing a lifestyle, a 

vocation, an ideology or even a partner. 

A final commitment to a identity is not part of the moratorium process. However, 

moratorium is a pre-requisite to the fourth and final concept of Marcia's theory, the 

identity achieved adolescent. The adolescent in this category is one who has made a 

commitment to an identity which has developed from the moratorium stage as well as 

past experiences. Therefore, identity achievement is a synthesis of the past and the 

projected future. It is from this anchor of self acceptance and a stable self definition that 

the adolescent has made a sound commitment toward a role in society with adult status, 

and hence, found their own identity. 

Marcia's identity statuses of adolescent development are transient in nature such that an 

individual may involve alternating the statuses at different times before perhaps 

achieving a status of identity achieved (Kroger, 1989). Not all theories follow this 

pattern. 

The present study acknowledges the importance of Erikson's theory of an identity crisis 

and Marcia's expansion by identifying identity statuses in as much as the Discovery 

programme contributes to the young person's learning of skills related to one's role and 

identity. 

Within the same psychosocial perspective of adolescence, Havighurst (1955) specified a 

set of development tasks to be achieved. According to Havighurst, a developmental 



34 

task, as previously defined in Chapter One, is a combination of"an individual need and a 

societal demand" (Havighurst, 1948, p.vi). Within Havighurst's theory of adolescence 

there are eight stages necessary for the healthy development of an adolescent. Each 

stage is thought to be brought about by certain elements such as biological maturation, 

one's own motivation or through societal requirements. When each one of the elements 

are "ripe", then it is the appropriate time for the task to be learned, or what Havighurst 

coins as "the teachable moment" (Havighurst, 1948, p. 7). Any effort to move the 

individual to the next developmental stage prior to the "teachable moment" would prove 

fruitless (Havighurst, 1948). The purpose of education therefore is to act as a medium in 

which the individual can be helped to achieve certain developmental tasks. 

The eight tasks of adolescent development and those acquired through infancy and 

childhood, help the individual to form their identity. Each of the eight developmental 

tasks in adolescence are designed from specific goals deemed by Havighurst as necessary 

in the transition from childhood to adulthood. Each goal is explained after each 

developmental task. The eight tasks and their goals involve the following developmental 

elements: 

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes 

Gotd: To learn to look upon girls as women and boys as men; to become an 

adult among adults 

2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 

Goal: To accept and to learn a socially approved adults masculine or 

feminine social roles 

3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively 

Goal: To become proud, or at least tolerant, of one's body 

4. Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults 

Goal: To become free from childish dependence on one's parents; to develop 

affection for one's parents without remaining dependent upon them 



5. Preparing for marriage and family life 

Goal: To develop a positive attitude toward family life and having children 

6. Preparing for an economic future 

Goal: To organise one's plans and energies in such a way as to begin an 

orderly career; to feel able to make a living 

7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behaviour -

developing an ideology 

Goal: To form a socio-politico-ethical ideology 

8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour 

Goal: To develop a social ideology; to participate as responsible adult in the 

life of the community; to take account of the values of society in one's 

personal behaviour 

(Havighurst, 1972) 

35 

Like Havighurst, Newman and Newman (1995) also developed the concept of 

developmental tasks and divided the concept of Erikson's identity developm~nt into two 

stages reflecting "early adolescence" and "later adolescence". The first conflict, identity 

versus alienation, refers to early adolescence (12 - 18 years) and is a stage which is 

strongly influenced by the peer group. The psychological crisis within this first stage 

requires the adolescent to identify with a specific peer group or risk being alienated 

altogether. According to Newman and Newman (1995) the psychological crisis has 

developed from the pressure within the family, school and age peers to conform to the 

peer group in order to prevent alienation. 

Newman and Newman (1995) outline a number of developmental tasks that occur during 

"early adolescence": physical maturation, formal operations, emotional development, 

experiencing membership in a peer group, sexual relationships. 



36 

''Physical maturation" is the first developmental task which impacts upon the self image 

of the teenager as well as the nature of peer relationships. For example, girls mature 

earlier than boys and therefore the young female shows physical size differences amongst 

her male and female peers causing the likelihood of alienation. ''Formal operations'' is 

the second development task which invites more complex thinking. This gives way to 

the shift of thinking about the complexity of the new, more mature environment and 

what it offers. It is also a time when the child reminisces about childhood activities that 

no longer exist. "Emotional development" refers to the psychological adjustment 

required to master the new tasks. It is also time when the young person becomes more 

aware of their emotions and the variety of such emotions. As the mastery of new tasks is 

being met, so is the need to acquire skills relating to new feelings and emotions brought 

about in adolescence. 

The next developmental stage within early adolescence is the need for "membership in a 

peer group". This involves learning various social skills in which the peer group 

provides the shaping of appropriate behaviours through negative and positive 

reinforcement. Newman and Newman (1995) give the example of drug use as a 

behaviour motivated by a need for peer acceptance and a desire to conform to peer 

group norms. The last developmental stage within the 12 - 18 year age group, and 

coincides with the beginning of the next stage, "later adolescence", refers to "sexual 

relationships". As the teenager matures an interest in the opposite sex increases. This 

may be a time where the adolescent begins dating which enhances sex role identity and 

reflects upon their social status and membership in the peer group. The progress of an 

adolescent through the past five stages allows the adolescent to become more socially 

acceptable in an adult society. However, before this happens, further developmental 

stages are required throughout "later adolescence". 

Newman and Newman's (1995) second stage of adolescent development occurs in the 

later teen years at which the psychological crisis of identity versus role diffusion emerges. 



37 

Four developmental tasks exist in this stage of development: autonomy from parents, 

gender identity, internalised morality, and career choice. 

At first, establishing "autonomy from parents" is important as the child moves away from 

their adult caregivers and learns independence in various ways such as money handling, 

cooking, buying and/or driving a car. Often during this time the young person has little 

contact with their parents showing the sign of their growing independence. The second 

developmental task in "later adolescence" is "gender identity". This is where the 

adolescent is socialised into appropriate sex roles through a usually sex-appropriate 

career and holding a steady job giving the skills of providing for others such as a family 

in the future. "Internalised morality" meaning the formation of one's own morals follows 

the second developmental task in "later adolescence". This stage conceptualises 

Kohlberg ( 1964) theory in which there are three stages of moral development. The 

pre-conventional stage (approximately 4 -10 years) is where the child accepts adults 

morals much like the foreclosure stage of Marcia's. The second stage of moral 

development named the conventional stage, usually occurring around the ages of 10 - 16 

years, relates to the more conscious maintenance of their existing structure and respect 

for authority and morals. The third stage, post conventional (16 - 25 years), activates 

the awareness of their own values which helps to generate a commitment to either a 

universal or newly-developed personal set of values and morals. In some cases this may 

be a reorientation and reconciliation of their previous values and morals yet 

incorporating their individual integrity combined with Social necessity. The three stages 

of Kohlberg's (1964) moral development are integrated into Newman and Newman's 

(1995) third stage of development in the adolescent's later years. Although it is likely 

that the older adolescent may have passed through at least one earlier stage of moral 

development as described by Kohlberg, the progression to the third stage of 

post-conventional moral development requires the synthesis of the two earlier stages for 

moral development to be finalised. 



38 

The last of Newman and Newman's (1995) developmental tasks is "career choice". This 

involves a long term decision in a career choice and is compounded by decisions about 

the effort needed for their career which involves whether they opt for direct entry into 

the workforce earning immediate rewards or delay entry by studying toward a long term 

career goal. Decisions of salary expectations, job satisfaction, lifestyle, rewards and 

routines all need to be taken into account in career choice or planning. It is only after 

this stage of adolescent development that Newman and Newman (1995) considers the 

individual to have formed an identity, providing the conflicts have been resolved and the 

adolescent has successfully progressed through each stage, that they are ready and 

equipped for an adult place in society and that society will accept them as such. 

The theories and concepts presented in the present study all have certain features in 

common. All approaches have been organised around the concept of identity 

development in adolescence and have a psychosocial perspective. Forming a new "sense 

of self' has been crucial in the theories presented and have been the underlying challenge 

of adolescents. Another commonality has been the theories of adolescence are 

developmental. This requires an incremental perspective of a person and not a static or 

predisposed view of what constitutes a person. Therefore, the forming of an identity is a 

developmental process involving the reorganisation of past experiences and associated 

developmental tasks in order to equip the individual with the psychological and social 

growth necessary for the present as well as their future. 

Cognitive Learning and the Social Environment 

The readiness to learn certain developmental tasks is dependent upon the individual's 

zone of learning. Similar to Havighurst's notion of the ''teachable moment", the 

Vygotskian theory of learning involves a more cognitive approach to attaining skills. 

According to Vygotsky, cognitive development moves forward largely because the 

individual is in a world that provides assistance when the child needs it and can benefit 

from it. The responsive social world lets the adolescent solve for themselves the 



39 

problems that they can handle. Critical development occurs with tasks that are not too 

easy but one that the adolescent can do with assistance. The responsive social world 

provides the assistance on these tasks that are within the child' s "zone of proximal 

development" according to Vygotskian theory (Miller, 1993). This "zone" is defined as 

behaviours beyond a child' s level of autonomous functioning, but within reach with the 

assistance of others. People learn how to perform tasks within their "zone" by 

interacting with more competent and responsive others who provide them with cues, 

hints, prompts and assistance on an as-needed basis. Such assistance lead5 to 

autonomous functioning and competency of the task, however without the stimulation of 

the supportive interactions with others autonomous functioning is impossible. 

The type of instruction used in the supportive social environment is one which uses a 

scaffolding approach (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). Scaffolding, as the name suggests, 

is used when a building is being erected and is gradually removed as the building 

becomes self-supportive. This is the type of approach used in learning also when an 

adult provides hints and prompts for the young person to learn a task. Scaffolding, is 

seen by Rosenshine and Meister (1992) as an effective tool for teaching higher level 

cognitive strategies. In their review of numerous studies of students who had 

successfully been taught cognitive strategies, it was apparent that scaffolding was used 

frequently by these teachers. "Scaffolds are forms of support provided by the teacher (or 

another student) to help students bridge the gap between their current abilities and the 

intended goal" (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992, p. 26). 

Scaffolds are effective because they provide support for the student, but they do not 

specify each and every step to be taken, thus allowing for the student to adjust and 

formulate their own effective strategies that they will be motivated to use. 



40 

Societal Changes Influencing Adolescence 

Physical, social and emotional changes throughout adolescence can be a stressful and 

extremely challenging time for many New Zealand teenagers. In a fast changing society, 

such as today' s society, these issues are heightened. Different pressures, stresses and an 

uncertainty of a future bear upon today' s teenagers whereas perhaps in their 

grandparents' or even their parents' time these pressures did not exist, or certainly not to 

the extent they are today (Hamburg, B. , 1990). From Hamburg' s perspective, these 

pressures are described in the following paragraphs. 

The function of the family and the role of adolescence has changed strikingly over the 

last century. Traditionally, family relationships provided powerful organising principles. 

Families were once the focus of education, social and economic activity. Through the 

gradual process of parental guidance and teachings, children grew up learning the tasks 

and roles that would be required of them and knowing what their opportunities would be 

as adults, both in economic and emotional terms. Nowadays, the family has been made 

to forfeit some of these roles due to the pressures and demands our rapidly changing 

society exerts upon the family unit. 

As the family ' s role has changed, so too has the role of adolescence. As the industrial 

revolution developed, the opportunity for work no longer resided within the family and 

so the growing child lost the opportunity to observe, imitate and learn important factors 

related to future opportunities. As machine-related productivity and the need for human 

labour diminished, adolescents could not readily be absorbed into the job market and 

therefore were forced to gaining a formal education. Education became compulsory 

and took the role of educating the young person so that they could cope with the tasks of 

the industrialised world. Thus adolescence was a time for formal education and when 

the necessary skills and knowledge for a sound vocation were obtained. 



41 

In the past, a clear future pathway was built into childhood experiences. The child and 

adolescent would continuously, yet gradually, observe and imitate the adults in their 

environment learning the skills necessary for survival in an adult world. Then, the skills 

were learned in relation to an environment that changed only very slowly and could be 

understood as well as circumstances would permit. Children and adolescents could build 

a solid foundation on which they could make a contribution, earn respect and find 

satisfaction as adults. 

Now, with the rapidity of change, the prolongation of education, and the scale and 

complexity of society, the future is less clear (Hamburg, B., 1990). Opportunities for 

young person to gain the social, psychological and moral skills required for adulthood no 

longer comes entirely form the family. Likewise, the traditional fonnal education system 

did not meet the holistic skills required for the healthy development of an adolescent. 

The lifeskills training and social support systems that were built into the teachings of the 

family over the years can no longer be taken for granted. There is now a requirement to 

teach the skills that are missing. 

In the last few decades, the skills necessary for the healthy development of the adolescent 

have been the focus of extra-curricula or tailored programmes. The new and immediate 

demands for appropriate education and socialisation of youth to prepare them for 

productive and satisfying roles in the future have begun to be met. Educational 

programmes, both within and outside the traditional school setting, have taken the role to 

provide, or at least supplement, the life skills and social skills training that once was the 

role of the family. 

This present research focused on one such educational programme which provides 

lifeskills training (including social skills training) and study skills training for teenagers. 

Therefore an understanding of Discovery and the role it plays in skill-training for 



42 

adolescents is important as the changing role of society and the role of educational 

programmes promotes such programmes. 

The Period of Adolescence and the "Rites of Passage" 

As our society has changed, the period of adolescence has become less defined and there 

is no clear cut passage from childhood to adulthood. Instead, there is a period which is 

prolonged with activities that simulate adult status yet without a distinctive point of 

arrival of an adult. 

In Western society there is a gradual recognition of a person' s competencies which 

introduces a child into adulthood. For example, intellectual competencies are marked 

with the acceptance into intermediate school, high school, and for some, tertiary 

education. There are also events which signify the transition into adulthood such as the 

permission to leave school, the attainment of a driver' s license and to get married 

without parental consent at 16 years, to be able to vote at 18 years (Statistics New 

Zealand, 1999) and to be allowed to buy or drink liquor at 18 years of age also (New 

Zealand Statues, 1999). However, the fact that these events are stretched out over a 

period of time makes the change in status less clearly defined than it is for other cultures. 

Arnold Van Gennep, an anthropologist, was the first person to report the phenomenon 

he named the '"rites of passage". Van Gennep ( 1960) describes the "rites of passage" as 

ritual celebrations of a new life role, that it is designed to smooth the transition from one 

status or role to another. Simply put, to mark the transition from childhood to 

adulthood. 

In tribal cultures such as Africa, the "rites of passage" is inaugurated by puberty changes 

and initiation ceremonies undertaken to mark the "coming" of maturity. This period is a 

distinct, discontinuous event in a young persons life. When the young person returns 

home to the village and family after the ceremony, they immediately assume adult status 



43 

in the community. Although puberty may initiate such ceremonies, Van Gennep (1960) 

argues such festivities also function for social and psychological adjustment. 

In Western culture the transition from childhood to adulthood has been a more gradual 

and continuous transition than the discontinuous and distinct period of coming into 

adulthood as in tribal cultures. Many argue this period in Western cultures has become 

increasingly prolonged (Muus, 1970; Newman & Newman, 1979; Hamburg, B., 1990; 

Hamburg & Takanishi, 1989). 

Whether the "rites of passage" is discontinuous as in tribal cultures or continuous as in 

Western culture, it is the education that takes place in this period that is important. The 

educational component of a "rites of passage" represents society's way of 

acknowledging the timely characteristics of human development. The "rites of passage" 

has the function of transmitting knowledge about sexuality, providing training in adult 

skills, functions and tasks, and a passing of "lore of the tribe" including the socialisation 

of the young person into adult status. The "rites of passage" not only teaches 

behavioural skills but also provides a role in the social, psychological and moral 

adjustment of a young person (Van Gennep, 1960). 

For the young person, it is less clear to them how they can be useful, earn respect and be 

a productive part of society without the education process. The skills associated to the 

"rites of passage" training is imperative for the healthy and holistic development of the 

young person. The less uncertain or ambiguous the transition from childhood into 

adulthood, the more positive opportunity the adolescent has in making assumptions 

about themselves, their future and their social environment. 

Conclusion 

The present study offers the perspective of teenage development, from an educational 

point of view, by examining a lifeskills and study skills community based programme for 



44 

New Zealand teenagers. Lifeskills training offers the individual an invitation to accept 

responsibility in their lives as well as tools to help themselves at their stage of 

development. Little research within New Zealand and around the world has been 

formally conducted on programmes offered to teenagers. This research endeavours to 

remedy this and seeks to understand the contribution Discovery makes in the 

participating teenagers' lives. 

Lifeskills, study skills, communication with parents and views on adolescent issues 

including depression and coping strategies, were the areas chosen to be investigated in 

this study. These areas of skill are important in adolescence and contribute to the 

healthy development of young people. 

How an adult functions and fits into the requests of society is a consequence of 

adolescent development. The healthy psychological and social development of an 

adolescent is therefore important. Through the teenage years the challenges and stresses 

facing an adolescent can often be the cause of an adolescent engaging in inappropriate 

behaviours which are unacceptable in society's standards. Teenagers' feelings towards 

stresses and challenges in their lives often determine the level of such behaviours. 

The developmental perspectives presented in this chapter stemmed mainly from the 

Eriksonian tradition which included Marcia's extension of identity statuses and 

Havighurst's (1972) and Newman and Newman's (1995) developmental tasks. The 

process of adolescence involved the learning of a number of skills which the young 

person needs to master before moving onto the next area of skill, and, true to 

developmental theory, the tasks impact upon the following stages of development 

whether positively or negatively, depending if these skills have, or have not, been 

mastered. So what becomes important, from a developmental perspective, is that these 

skills are mastered at the optimal time of normal development. 



45 

Due to the changing role of the family, the skills necessary for the development of a 

young person into adulthood are not being taught. What would have been taught within 

in the family boundaries in a once slow changing society, is now being taught through 

educational programmes which address the deficiencies our teen