Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. THE MEANING OF ECOTOURISM 'A NEW ZEALAND PERSPECTIVE' A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Resource and Environmental Planning at Massey University Vanessa Louise Browne 1996 11 ABSTRACT Growing recognition of the negative impacts of conventional mass tourism has been accompanied by an increasing number of tourists seeking tourism that provides opportunities for interaction with the environment. This has created a demand for ecotourism. Ecotourism has been promoted as a means of avoiding the negative environmental impacts while retaining the positive economic impacts of tourism. The definition of ecotourism is far from straightforward. The literature identifies a variety of elements. A consistent definition of ecotourism is required to reduce debate about what ecotourism means, to distinguish between genuine ecotourism operators and those jumping on the ecotourisrn ' marketing bandwagon', and to inform planners about what is required for successful ecotourism. A 'core' definition of ecotourism has been developed in this thesis based on the common elements identified in recent literature. To test the relevance of these common elements, a selection of 30 people closely involved with tourism in New Zealand were surveyed. Their views support the fo llowing definition. Ecotourism is: 'tourism that is environmentally responsible, fosters conservation of natural resources through increased exposure, understanding and education and takes place in the natural environment '. The survey enabled opinion to be gathered on what the ingredients are for a successful ecotourism product. This reinforced the emphasis on education, learning, interaction and participation. The support of local communities and cultures are considered important but secondary ingredients in successful ecotourism. Implementation of a code of ethics across the industry is also favoured by those surveyed. 111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A number of people have helped me during the preparation of this thesis. Firstly I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Philip McDermott for his continual stream of ideas, support and enthusiasm. Secondly, thank you to those people who generously agreed to complete the ecotourism survey. Thirdly, thanks are due to all my friends for their help, particularly Fran Prior for providing amusing interludes and encouragement and Kirsten Forsyth for her support and for proof reading. Fourthly I would like to thank my family for being so patient. Fifthly I would like to thank my employer, the Manawatu-Wanganui Regional Council, for allowing me to use council resources while preparing this thesis. Finally I would like to thank Ramon Strong for his gentle encouragement and unceasing faith in my ability. lV CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER TWO BACKGROUND TO TOURISM 3 2.1. Introduction 3 2.2 Historical Record 3 2.3 Tourism Determinants 11 2.4 Tourism Impacts 13 2.4.1 Economic Impacts 13 2.4.2 Social Impacts 16 2.4.3 Cultural Impacts 17 2.4.4 Environmental Impacts 18 2.5 Summary 21 CHAPTER THREE FROM MASS TOURISM TO ALTERNATIVE TOURISM 24 3.1 Dissatisfaction with Mass Tourism 24 3.2 Environmental Ethic 26 3.3 Alternative Tourism 28 3.4 Summary 33 CHAPTER FOUR ECOTOURISM 34 4.1 Introduction 34 4.2 Green Marketing 4.3 Ecotourism Standards 4.4 The Need to Distinguish Ecotourism 4.5 Definition 4.6 Summary CHAPTER FIVE ECOTOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND 5.1 Introduction 5.2 History 5.3 The New Zealand Tourism Product 5.4 Organisation 5.4.1 Public Sector 5.4.2 Local Government 5.5 Ecotourism in New Zealand 5.5.1 Attributes 5.5.2 Present Situation 5.6 Summary CHAPTER SIX ECOTOURISM SURVEY 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Rationale 6.3 Design v 36 37 40 41 49 51 51 51 53 55 55 57 60 60 65 68 71 71 71 72 6.4 Despatch, Response and Analysis 6.6 What is Ecotourism? 6.7 Quality Ecotourism 6.8 Adding Value to the Ecotourism Experience 6.9 A Code of Ethics for Ecotourism? 6.1 0 Summary CHAPTER SEVEN SUMMARY ANNEXA ANNEX B BIBLIOGRAPHY VI 73 74 78 83 86 89 91 96 109 111 Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 TABLES Regional market shares of international tourist arrivals, 1950-1992(%) Common elements of ecotourism Characteristics that define ecotourism Additional characteristics Characteristics that contribute quality to ecotourism experience Additions that would add ffi.Q.S1: value to an ecotourism experience Additions that would add I~ value to an ecotourism experience FIGURES International tourism arrivals and receipts, 1950-1993 International tourists arrivals world-wide: trends and prospects, 1950-201 0 Alternative tourism Country profile of international visitors to New Zealand Characteristics that define ecotourism (mode distribution) Characteristics that define ecotourism Characteristics that contribute quality to ecotourism (mode distribution) Characteristics that contribute quality to ecotourism Characteristics that add value to ecotourism Opinions on a code of ethics for ecotourism (mode distribution) Vll 10 48 74 76 79 84 85 8 9 32 54 75 76 80 83 86 88