Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Ecological Footprint of Japanese Tourists in New Zealand A thesis presented in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand Yoko Shimada 2006 I. ABSTRACT Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) was employed to assess the ecological sustainability of Japanese tourists in New Zealand. To gather information, survey questionnaires were delivered to the Japanese travellers at Auckland International Airport. Furthermore, an extensive literature review, a pilot study, and participation in a full-day tour were undertaken for more information. The average daily EF of Japanese travellers in New Zealand was ten times larger than global biocapacity and slightly larger than the bioproductivity of New Zealand. The average daily EF of Japanese travellers was larger than the EF of Japanese residents, which indicated their lifestyle and behaviour was different during their travel and that they consume more resources (in particular for transport, housing and activities). Japanese travellers had larger EFs in every consumption category but transport, housing and services components made their footprints considerably larger than that of New Zealand residents. The transportation sector is the main concern for sustainability as it was the largest source of the EF and 50 times larger than average transport footprint of a New Zealand resident. Energy land, cropland and built-up land were also larger than New Zealand residents ' EF. The size of the overall EF did not indicate clear differentiations among the segments, but different segments seemed to have different impacts. In general, school excursion and educational travellers appeared to be the most ecologically sustainable. The size of EF was also likely to correlate with the age of travellers and the length of stay. Younger Japanese travellers tended to have smaller EF than elderly travellers, especially for transport and overall energy consumption. The length of stay and the size of EF also appeared to have some correlations as the size of EFs had a tendency to become smaller with longer stays. Japanese travellers are different from many other travellers. They tend to have larger housing footprints as the most popular accommodation types were hotels and farm/home-stay, which were the most energy intensive accommodation types. Japanese travellers were more efficient than others in some points, as many Japanese travellers prefer travelling as a group and use coaches. However, generally Japanese tended to be the very energy intensive travellers. This study illustrated the lack of ecological sustainability of Japanese 11 travellers in New Zealand and suggested they could reconsider their travel behaviour to become more ecologically sustainable. Some management practices were suggested to reduce the size of EF with the future predictions about Japanese outbound tourism. lll II. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I thank my supervisors Associate Professor John Holland and Dr. Mike Joy for their support during my thesis research. Particularly John's creativity helped me to plan and design the survey instrument. Mike helped me a lot for organising survey at Auckland airport, analysing the results, and editing/ proofreading the draft. I appreciate help from Denise Stewart, a secretary at INR at Massey University, for dealing with the financial part of my research and for arranging the international free postage envelops when she was extremely busy. I would like to show my appreciation to David Adamson from the Auckland Airport company for letting me conduct the survey at the airport and also arranging the contacts with Air New Zealand and Japan Air line. I appreciate all the support from Debbie McKeown (Air New Zealand), Tania Nienhuis (Japan Airlines), the ground crews from both airlines, in particular Naomi Suzuki (Air New Zealand) and Shoko Cooper (JAL), for being very kind and supportive while I was at the airport. Also I would like to thank all the Japanese travellers who completed the survey, and tour operators/guides who let me approach their tour members. During the trip with 14 Japanese tourists I was very fortunate to have two very helpful and friendly bus drivers, Peter Murphy from Ritchies Coach Lines m Christchurch and Terry Hohepa from Tranzit. They provided me very good advice. I also thank my parents (especially my mom) for all their supports and helping organising a trip with their friends (a group of 14 Japanese) as well as the financial support. At last but not least, I want to express gratitude to my partner, Tom, for all his support and patience during the study including the technical suggestions in designing questionnaire. IV Ill. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. ABSTRACT ........................................................................................ ii II. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................. iv III. TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................. v IV. LIST OF FIGUR.ES ......................................................................... xi V. LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................... xiv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................... 1 1.1 Tourism Industry and Ecological Sustainability ....... .. ... ..... ............................... 1 1.2 Ecological Footprint ..... .. ....................................................... .... .... .. ...... .. ... ..... 7 1.3 Aim and Objectives ........................ ...... .. .. ... .... ...... ............... ............................ 9 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................... 10 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Ecological Footprint Analysis ......................................................................... 11 2.2.1 Concept ofEFA ........................................ .. .............................................. 11 2.2.2 Limitations of EFA ... ......... ....... .............................. ............. ....... .............. 13 2.2.3 Ecological Footprints of the World ........................................................... 16 2.2.4 EFA for Tourism Sustainability ................................................................ 19 2.3 Tourism in New Zealand ...................... ............................ ............. .................. 20 2.3.1 Growth ofTourism ................................................................................... 20 2.3.2 Economic Impacts ofTourism in New Zealand ........................................ 20 v 2.3.3 Social and Cultural Impacts ...................................................................... 22 2.4 Tourism and Energy Use ................................................................................. 26 2.4.1 Transportation Energy Consumption ........................................................ 26 2.4.2 Accommodation Energy Use .. ... ... ......... .......... ......................................... 28 2.4.3 Energy Consumption in Tourist Activities/attractions .... ... ... .......... .. ... ... ... 29 2.4.4 Comparisons of Energy Use International and domestic tourists ......... .... .. 31 2.5 Japanese Outbound Tourism ...................................... ..... ... .... ... ........ ..... .... ... .. 33 2.5.1 History ........................................ ........................ .. ................. .................. 33 2.5.2 Characteristics of Japanese Travellers ....... ........................... .................... 37 2.5.3 Japanese Tourist in New Zealand .............................. ........... ... ....... ... ........ 39 2.5.3.1 Growth of Japanese tourism market in New Zealand ............ .......... ... 39 2.5.3.2 Segmentation of Japanese tourist in New Zealand ..... ..................... .. .41 2.5.3.3 Economic contribution of Japanese travellers in New Zealand .......... .42 2.5 .3.4 Seasonality of Japanese arrivals ....... ... ...... .............. .... ..................... . .42 2.5.3.5 Special requirements of the Japanese tourists in New Zealand ......... . .43 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS ............................... .45 3.1 Introduction ................................................... ..... ... .... .................... .. ... ... ......... 45 3.2 Survey .. ................................................................. ..... .. .... .. ......... .... ........ ..... .. 46 3.3 Pilot Study ...................... ........... ... ...... .... ....... .... .... ...... ........... .... ............. .... ... 47 3.4 Japanese Waitomo Full-Day Tour. ................................................ ..... ... ...... .... .49 3.5 Escorted and Package tour itinerary ................................ ... ......... ................... .49 3.6 Other Literature Sources .............. ............. ........... ...................................... ..... 51 3.6.1 International Visitor Survey (IVS) and International Visitor Arrival (IVA)51 3.6.2 Other Sources .......................................................... .. ............................... 52 3.7 Analysis ........ ................................... .............. ... ............ ..... ............................. 53 3. 7.1 Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) ........................................................ 53 VI 3. 7.1.1 Ecological Footprint of Main Consumption Categories ...................... 55 3.7.1.2 Ecological Footprint for Land Type ................................................... 58 3. 7.1.3 Categorization oftravellers ........................................... .... .... ............. 59 3.7.2 Multivariate Statistical Analysis ................................... ...... ................... ... 61 3.7.3 Ordination plot. ................................. ... ...... ....... .... ........ .... .. ........ ... .... ...... 61 3.7.4 Statistical Analysis ......... .. ...... ... .... ....... ...... .. ................. ................ ........... 62 3.7.5 Comparisons ofEcological Footprints .. ..... .... ... .... ... ... ................. ...... .. .. ... 62 3.8 Limitations ofThis Research ......... ..... .. .......................................................... 64 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ............................................................ 65 4.1 Survey .. .... .... .. ..... ... ... ................ ... ..... .... .................. ..... ...... .. ......... ............ ..... 65 4.1.1 Background of Travellers ...... ..... ....... .. ...... ........ ..... ...... .. ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... 65 4.1.1.1 Gender and Age group ............. .... ... .... ... .. ... ....................................... 65 4.1.1.2 Occupation ................................ .......... .. ... ... .............. ..... .. ... ... .. ... ...... 66 4.1.2 Size of Groups ............................... ... ...... .... ... .... ....... .... .. ................... ... ... 67 4.1.3 Length of Stay ................... ... ... ... ....... ...... ........ ...... ................... ... .... ..... ... . 67 4.1.4 Purpose of Visit and Travel Style .... .. .. ..... ... .. ...... .............. .... .. ........ .......... 68 4.1.4.1 Purpose of Visit ... ...... ... ...... .............................................. .... ......... .... 69 4.1.4.2 Travel Style ...... ... ............. .. ........ .. ........ .. ........ .................. ... .............. 71 4.1.5 Travel Destinations .... .... ... ... .. .... ... ..... .... ... ..... ... ....................................... 72 4.1.6 Transportation methods .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. ... ... .. .. ... .. .. .... ......................... ........... 74 4.1.7 Shopping behaviour ........ ..... .. ... ............................ ...... ....... .... .... .. ........ .... 75 4.1.8 Meals ..... ... ..... .... .. .. ... .. ..... .. .. .................... ................................ ... .. ........... 77 4.1.9 Accommodation ....................... .... ... .... ... ...... ............................................ 78 4.2 Comparison of Survey Results with International Visitor Survey (IVS) and International Visitor Arrival (IVA) ............................... ...... ................................... 81 4.2.1 General IVS/IVA Results in 2005 .... ... ...... ................................................ 81 4.2.2 Comparisons of the Survey with IVS/IVA Results .................................... 81 4.2.2.1 Purpose of Visit ................................................................................. 81 4.2.2.2 Travel style ........................................................................................ 82 4.2.2.3 Demographics ................................................................................... 83 Vll 4.2.2.4 Accommodation ................................................................................ 84 4.2.2.5 Length of Stay ................................................................................... 86 4.2.3 Comparisons of Japanese Travellers with All International Visitors .......... 87 4.2.3.1 Purpose of Visit ...................... ... .. ........................................... ........... 87 4.2.3.2 Travel style .. ... ..... ..... ..... .. .... .. .. .. .... .. .. ...... .. .... .......... ........ .... .. .. ..... ... .. 87 4.2.3.3 Demographics ........................................................ ........................... 88 4.2.3.4 Accommodation ........................ ...... ........ ... ... ... ....... ........ .... .. ........ .. .. 88 4.2.3.5 Length of stay ........................ ........................................................... 89 4.2.3.6 Activities/attractions .............. .. ........ .................................................. 91 4.2.3.7 Transport .................................................................. .. ....................... 91 4.3 Pilot Study ....................................... .... ..... .. ..... .... ... ........................................ 92 4.3 .1 Survey ...................................................................................................... 92 4.3. 1.1 Background Information .......................... ..... ............. ............ ............ 92 4.3.1.2 Shopping behaviour .. ..... ..... ............................................................... 94 4.3.2 Transportation .......................................................................................... 95 4.4 Japanese Waitomo Full-Day Tour.. .. .... .... ..... ....... .... .................. ........ .......... .... 97 4.5 Package Tour Itinerary Summary .................................................................. 101 4.6 Analysis ........ ........ ............................. ... ............................................. ........... 104 4.6.1 Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) ............................... ....................... 104 4.6.1.1 Food ............................ .... ... .... ...... .... .... .. .. .............................. ... ...... 105 4.6.1 .2 Housing/ Accommodation ...... ......... .. .................. ............................. 106 4.6.1.3 Transportation .......... .... .............. ..... ..... ........................................... 107 4.6.1.4 Goods ................................... ..... .. ..... .. ......................... .. ........ .... ...... 107 4.6.1.5 Services ................................. ... .. ..... ... .. ........................ ................... 107 4.6.1 .6 Waste ....... ....................................................................................... 107 4.6.2 Multivariate Statistical Analysis ............................................................. 108 4.6.3 Ordination ............ .... ... ..................... .. .... ......... ....... .... .. ........... ... ..... ....... 110 4.6.4 Statistical Analysis ................................................................................. 113 4.6.4.1 EF of Different Segments ................................................................ 113 4.6.4.2 Travel Style and EF ......................................................................... 119 4.6.4.3 EF by Gender ......................................................................... .. ....... 123 Vlll 4.6.4.4 EF by Age Group .............................. .... ................ ................... ....... 124 4.6.4.5 EF by Length ofStay ........................ ..................... .......................... 126 4.6.5 General Comparisons ofEFs ......... ..... ........................... ......................... 128 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ..................................................... 130 5.1 Survey ................ ...... .... ... .... ..... .. .................................................................. 130 5.1.1 Overall Results ....................................................................... .... .. .... ...... 130 5.1.2 Interesting Opinions from the Survey ..... .... .... ... ... .......... .. .. ... .. ... .. .......... 131 5.2 Ecological Sustainability of Japanese Tourism .. ... ............... ........... .. .. ... .... ... . 133 5.2.1 Overall Ecological Deficit.. ........ ...... ..... .. ...... .... .. ....... ... .... .. ... .... ... ........ . 133 5.2.2 Energy Consumption .................. .................................................... .. .. .... 134 5.2.2.1 Accommodation/housing ......................................................... .. ...... 134 5.2.2.2 Services/activities ..... .... ...................................... ........... ..... ..... .. .. .... 135 5.2.3 Transport Footprint ... ...... .... ... ........ ....... .... .. ... .. ........ .. ... .. .. ... .. ................ 136 5.2.3 .1 Built-up land ........ .... .... ... .... ... ...... ... ........ .. ... .... .. ..... ... .... ................. 138 5.2.3.2 International flights ........... ..... ... .. .... ... ... .. ........... ... .. ... .. ... .. .. .. ... ... .. .. 139 5.2.4 Goods ..... ......... ......................... .. .... .... .. .... .... ...... .. ... .... .. ..... .. .... .. .. ..... .... 140 5.2.5 Food ........ ......... ............ .. .................. ..... .... ... ........ .. ... ...... .... .. ..... .. .......... 141 5.2.6 Water .............................. ...................... ......................... .......... ...... .... .... 142 5.3 Comparisons ofDifferent Segments .... ..... .. ........ .. ..... .... ... ... .. .. ... .... .. ..... ........ 143 5.3. l EF with Purposes ofVisit .. ..................... .......................................... ... ... 143 5.3.2 EF with Travel Styles ........................... ..... .. ............. ...................... ...... .. 145 5.3.3 EF with age .. .. ..... ........... ......... ..... .. ..... .. .. .. ... ..... ..... .. .. .... .... ..... ............... 145 5.3.4 EF with Length of Stay ....................... .... .. ......... ........ ........... ..... .......... .. 146 5.4 Comparisons with Japanese Residents' EF .................................................... 147 5.5 Comparisons with Other Tourists in New Zealand .... .... ... .. .................... ........ 149 5.6 Potential Solutions to Reduce EF .................................................................. 151 5.6. l Tourism Industry ................................ .................................................... 151 5.6.1.1 Accommodation Providers ............................................................... 151 lX 5.6.1.2 Transport Sector .............................................................................. 156 5.6.1.3 Food Industry ......................................................... ......................... 156 5.6.1.4 Tour Operators and Guide .. ... .............................................. ............. 157 5.6.1.5 Media and Other Information Providers ............................. .............. 157 5.6.1.6 Ecotourism ...... ............. ... ... .... ......................................................... 158 5.6.2 Technological Improvement ................ .. ... ...... .. ..... .. .. .... ........ ....... ......... . 159 5.7 Future Tourism ......... ..... .... .. ..... ................. .... ........ ..... ...... ... .... ..... ... ..... ... .... . 160 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS ....... 161 6.1 Conclusion ........ ................................. ... ... ... ........ ....... ....... ..... .... ...... ............. 161 6.2 Recommendations ... ... ..... ..... .. .. ................. ..... ..... .. ... ....... ... ....... ..... ........... ... 164 6.2.1 Management Strategies ... .. .................. ..... ... .... .. ....... .. .. ...... .. ... ... ..... ....... 164 6.2.2 Further Research Requirements ... ... ..... ........................................... ........ 164 VI. References .................................................................................... 166 Appendix 1. Survey Questionnaire .................................................. 177 Al. I Survey Questionnaire in English ..... ...... .. .. .. .. .......... ... .... .... ...... ........ ... ... 177 Al.2 Questionnaire in Japanese .......... .... .. .... .. .......... .. ...... .... ........ .. ... ........ ..... 181 Appendix 2. Travel itinerary for a pilot study tour ......................... 185 Appendix 3. EFA Matrices ................................................................ 187 Appendix 4. Escorted Tour Route .................................................... 190 A4.l JALPAK ...... ..... ..... .... ............................ .. ..... .......... ... ............ .............. .. . 190 A4.2 Look JTB ............................... ................................................................ 191 A4.3 KNT Holiday ... ....................................... .. .... .. .... ... .. ... .......................... . 192 A4.4 Hankyu Express ....................... ............. ... ... ............ ............................... 193 Appendix 5. Detail of individual EF ................................................. 194 x IV. LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1 Ecological Footprints of 31 nations and the global average in 2001 ................ 17 Fig. 2 Ecological Footprints and existing biocapacities of selected nations in 2001. .. 18 Fig. 3 The short-term arrivals of overseas visitor to New Zealand last 10 years ......... 20 Fig. 4 Energy sources to total energy use by accommodation type ...... ..... ... .. ........... . 29 Fig. 5 Change in the number of outbound tourists from Japan ................................... 33 Fig. 6 Visitor nights from Japan since 1982 to 2010 ................................... .............. .41 Fig. 7 Visitor nights from Japan by purpose ... ... ............................. .... ... .......... ......... .42 Fig. 8 Seasonality of Japanese visitors to New Zealand ............................................ .43 Fig. 9 Frequency distribution of age group and gender ........................ .................... .. 66 Fig. 10 Occupations of the Japanese travelers ... .... ................... .. .... .. ...... ................... 66 Fig. 11 Frequency distribution of the number of people travelled with ...................... 67 Fig. 12 The frequency distribution oflength of stay from the survey results .............. 68 Fig. 13 Purpose of visit by gender from the survey results .... .. ..... ... .. .......... ...... .. .. .... 70 Fig. 14 The travel purpose by the age group from the survey ...... ............. ... ........ .... .. 70 Fig. 15 Travel Style by gender from the survey results ... ... .... .......................... ... ....... 71 Fig. 16 The age distribution of the Japanese travellers by the travel style from the survey . ............ .... .... ................ ................................................... .. ...... .... ... ... .. ... 72 Fig. 17 Transportation methods by purpose of visit from the survey ......................... 74 Fig. 18 Transportation methods by travel style from the survey ..... .. ......................... 75 Fig. 19 Meal/snack consumption behaviour of Japanese travelers from the survey .... 78 Fig. 20 Accommodation type and guest nights by purpose of stay from the survey ... 79 Fig. 21 Accommodation types and guest nights by travel style from the survey ........ 80 Fig. 22 The comparison of my survey, IVS and IVA for the purpose of visit. ........ .. . 82 Fig. 23 The comparison of the survey and IVS for the travel style ....................... .. ... 83 Fig. 24 The comparison of my survey and IVA in age of the Japanese travellers ....... 84 Fig. 25 The comparison between my survey and IVS for the visitor night at each accommodation type used ................................................................................. 85 Fig. 26 The comparison between my survey and IVS in the number of travellers at each accommodation type ........... .................. ............. ....................................... 85 Fig. 27 The comparison of the survey and IVS for the length of stay ......................... 86 Fig. 28 The comparison of Japanese visitors with all international visitors in New XI Zealand by purpose of visit ....................................................................... ... ..... 87 Fig. 29 The comparison of Japanese visitors with all international visitors in New Zealand by age group .................................................................................... .. .. 88 Fig. 30 The comparison of Japanese visitors with all international visitors in New Zealand by the number of nights in main accommodation type .......................... 89 Fig. 31 The comparison of Japanese visitors with all international visitors in New Zealand by the length of stay .. ... .. ....... ....... .. .. ... ..... ............................................ 90 Fig. 32 The occupations of the travellers in the pilot study trip ............. ... .. ............... 93 Fig. 33 The household income of the travellers in the pilot study trip ...... ........... .... ... 93 Fig. 34 The reasons to choose visiting New Zealand in the pilot study trip ................ 94 Fig. 35 The amount of money spent for souvenir shopping in the pilot study .... ........ 95 Fig. 36 The total number of souvenir items purchased during the pilot study trip ...... 95 Fig. 37 A photo of the bus used for Waitomo Caves Tour. ...... ....... ......................... ... 99 Fig. 38 Morning and afternoon tea I toilet breaks in Huntly .... ..... ............ .................. 99 Fig. 39 Souvenir shop in Roseland BBQ Restaurant in Waitomo ........ ..... ..... ... ..... .. 100 Fig. 40 Waitomo Glowworm Caves, in Otorohanga, Waitomo ............. ... ...... .... ..... . 100 Fig. 41 The average duration of shower from the survey ........... ..... ... ... .... .... .. ... ... ... 107 Fig. 42 Classification of Japanese tourists by purpose of visit ... .. ......... ............ ....... 109 Fig. 43 Classification of Japanese tourists by travel style ... ..... .. ..... .... .. .... .... .... ...... . 110 Fig. 44 Ordination plot of individual EF of Japanese tourists by purpose of visit .... 111 Fig. 45 Ordination plot of individual EF of Japanese tourists by travel style .......... 112 Fig. 46 The average daily EF with standard error by purpose of visit. ..................... 115 Fig. 4 7 The average daily EF with standard error for housing category by purpose of visit ........... .......... ..... ... .... ... ... ..... ... ... ... ..... ..... ... .. ............................................ . 115 Fig. 48 The average daily EF with standard error for transportation category by purpose of visit. ....... .... .... ... ... .... .... ....... ... ... ... ... .. ..... .. ........ ............................ .. 116 Fig. 49 The average daily EF with standard error for goods category by purpose of visit ........... ... .... .. .... ... ..... .... ....... ... .... ... ...... ... ..... .................................. ............ 117 Fig. 50 The average daily EF of Japanese tourists with standard error for services category by purpose of visit ........................................................ .... ... ........ .. .. .. 117 Fig. 51 The average daily EF with standard error for energy footprint by purpose of visit .... .................. ................... ................ ..... ................................................... 118 Fig. 52 The average daily EF with standard error for built-up land by purpose of visit. .......................................................................................... ..................... ........ 119 Xll Fig. 53 The average daily EF with standard error by travel style ......... .................... 120 Fig. 54 The average daily EF with standard error for housing category by travel style ........ ........... .......... ..... ..................................................................................... 121 Fig. 55 The average daily EF with standard error for goods category by travel style ... .... .. ...... .... ... .... ...... .. ..................................................................................... 121 Fig. 56 The average daily EF with standard error for fossil energy land by travel style ... .. ..... .... ............ .... .. ................................. ... .............................................. ... .. 122 Fig. 57 The average daily EF with standard error for built-up land by travel style .. . 122 Fig. 58 Average EFs with standard error for male and female Japanese travellers .... 123 Fig. 59 Average transportation EFs with standard error for male and female travellers . ............................................. .... ... .. ... ..... ..... ... ... ...... ... ..... .......... .. .. .. .. .............. 124 Fig. 60 The individual EFs of Japanese tourists by age group ...... ......... ........... ....... 125 Fig. 61 The individual transportation footprints by age group ..... ................... ...... .. . 125 Fig. 62 The individual energy footprints by age group ... .... .. ....... ................. ........... 126 Fig. 63 The individual EFs by length of stay for travellers who stayed less than 30 days ...... ... .... .... .. .. .... ........... ............................ ................................................ 127 Fig. 64 The individual housing footprints by length of stay for travellers who stayed less than 30 days ...... ... ..... .... .. ... .... ..... .. ............ .. .. ..... ........ ..... ...... .. .. ....... ........ 127 Fig. 65 The individual energy footprints of Japanese tourists by length of stay ...... . 128 Fig. 66 Photo of a leaflet in bathroom .. .... .................... .. ............... .. ........................ 154 Xlll V. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Annual EF of New Zealand, Japan, and the world average in 2001 .............. 18 Table 2 EF distributions of New Zealand, Japan, and the world average .... ............... 18 Table 3 Tourism contribution to New Zealand economy .... ........ ... .. ..... ... .................. 22 Table 4 Social effects of tourism ... ... .... .............. .. .. ........................................... ....... . 24 Table 5 Positive and negative effects from the cross-cultural tourist-host contact.. .... 25 Table 6 Energy consumption for different transportation in New Zealand .......... .... ... 27 Table 7 The average fuel consumption per 100 km ........ .. ..... .... ........... ............. .. ...... 27 Table 8 The energy intensity of each accommodation type .... .. .. ................................ 28 Table 9 Energy intensity for tourist attractions/activities .......................................... . 30 Table 10 Energy use by domestic and international tourists .. .... .... .... ......................... 32 Table 11 Energy use of an average domestic and international tourist ......... .............. 32 Table 12 Information on resource consumption estimated and other things noted during the trip .... .............. .. ....... ... ............................................... .... ... ....... .... . 48 Table 13 Tour companies (wholesalers and retailers) and their website addresses ...... 50 Table 14 References/bibliographies for data applied for calculation ofEF. .. .. ............ 52 Table 15 Definitions for each travel styles . .... ... .... .. .. ...... ................. ............... .... ...... 60 Table 16 The purpose of visit and travel style from the survey ................. .... ............. 69 Table 17 Average and median for length of stay by travel purpose from the survey ... 70 Table 18 Average and median for length of stay by travel style from the survey .... .. .. 72 Table 19 The total number and percentage of visit by the destinations ................... .. . 73 Table 20 The number of souvenir items purchased from the survey .. .. ...................... 76 Table 21 Shopping behaviour by purpose of visit from the survey ............................ 77 Table 22 The average length of stay by purposes of visit from IVS and my survey .. . 86 Table 23 The average length of stay by origin (from key markets) ............................ 90 Table 24 Comparison of energy intensive activities undertaken by Japanese visitors and all international visitors .................................................................. .... ..... 91 Table 25 Details of buses used during the pilot study ......................................... ... ... . 96 Table 26 Scenic Tour: Waitomo Express Full-Day Tour (for Japanese) Itinerary ........ 98 Table 27 Details of the bus used in the tour ...... ......................................................... 98 Table 28 One example of escorted tour itinerary for 8 days tour (from Jalpak) ........ 102 Table 29 One example of the meal plan - Hankyu Express 8 days escorted trip ....... 103 XIV Table 30 Summary statistics for EFA and the length of stay .................................... 104 Table 31 Ecological Footprint of an average Japanese traveller per trip ................... l 05 Table 32 Ecological Footprint distributions for an average Japanese traveller ......... 105 Table 33 The correlation coefficients for axis 1 and 2 of the ordination plots .......... 112 Table 34 Average EF by purpose of visit and travel style ..... .... .......... .. .. .. ............ .. . 113 Table 35 T-test results (P - values) for each purpose of visit .......... ......... .............. .. . 115 Table 36 T-test results (P - values) for housing category by each purpose ofvisit.. .. 116 Table 37 T-test results (P - values) for transportation category by each purpose of visit ...... .. .. .. .. ... .. ................................................................................................. 116 Table 38 T-test results (P - values) for goods category by each purpose of visit .. .... . 117 Table 39 T-test results (P - values) for services category by each purpose of visit.. .. 118 Table 40 T-test results (P - values) for energy footprint by each purpose of visit ..... 118 Table 41 T-test results (P - values) for built-up land by each purpose of visit.. .... ... .. 119 Table 42 T-test results (P - values) for housing category by travel style .. ..... ... .. .. ..... 121 Table 43 T-test results (P - values) for goods category by travel style ................ .. .... 122 Table 44 T-test results (P - values) for built-up land by travel style ........ .. ............... 123 Table 45 Daily EF of resident in New Zealand, Japan, and the world compared with the Japanese travellers in New Zealand ........................................................ 129 Table 46 Daily EF of New Zealand resident and Japanese travellers in New Zealand by consumption category ... ...................... .... .... .. .................... .. .................... 129 Table 47 Travel choice within the transport and accommodation sub-sectors that characterise international tourists in New Zealand ........................ .. .......... ... 138 Table 48 A checklist of energy-efficiency options developed by Environmental Hotels of Auckland and South Pacific Tourism Organisation ............ ........... ..... ...... 15 5 Table 49 Percentage of energy saved if the products were recycled ......................... 155 xv