Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis.  Permission is given for 
a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and 
private study only.  The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without 
the permission of the Author. 
 



 

An investigation into culture shock and its effect on 

international students in a tertiary environment in New 

Zealand. 

 

 

A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the 

requirements for a 

Master of Education 

 

 

Massey University, Albany Campus,  

New Zealand 

 

 

Selena Anne Coburn 

2020 

 

Word Count 27,957  



ii 
 

Abstract 
Culture shock is a term associated with the adjustment that one experiences when exposed to 

a culture different to one’s own. In the context of this research, culture shock experienced by 

international students travelling to New Zealand for the purpose of education is examined. The 

research questions explored are: What are the components of culture shock, and how does 

this affect the learning experience for international students? What is the gap between 

student expectations and reality in the teaching and learning environment? What are the 

tensions for academics and other key institutional staff in supporting international students? 

A mixed method approach was adopted with a questionnaire used to inform the questions for 

a small focus group. The key findings showed that although students were generally satisfied 

with their international education experience, there were areas which created challenges for 

both students and academics. Different expectations about how education occurs and the job 

role of academic staff, along with challenges settling into a new community impacted on 

feelings of anxiety and dissatisfaction experienced due to culture shock. Finance and English 

language challenges were the most prominent components of culture shock experienced by 

international students. The need to find a part time job to reduce financial pressure; 

challenges created by translating information between mother tongue and English; and 

cultural distance were experienced by many students. Students experienced freedom of 

expression which was new for them, and unexpected in their learning sojourn. The practical 

element of teaching and the use of business examples exceeded student expectations. Aspects 

of Fanghanel’s three types of academics – productive, reproductive and transformative were 

all present in the minds of the students, which, on some level created tensions between staff 

and students over the role of an academic. Aspects of culture shock such as accommodation 

and financial pressures were noted as tensions affecting the educational experience for 

international students.  

Components of culture shock were experienced to some degree by all students in this study. 

Differences in the expectations of the role of academics were experienced by students, 

particularly by those from an Asian cultural background where the teaching and learning 

environment in their home country is quite different from New Zealand. Students felt that 

academic staff on the programme showed traits of all Fanghanel’s categories reinforcing gaps 

in expectations and reality within the student experience in the programme and perceived 

ambiguity of the role of an academic in postgraduate education.        



iii 
 

Preface 
 

This thesis looks at the issue of culture shock for international students studying in rural New 

Zealand. A questionnaire and focus group provided the raw data for this analysis. It has been 

written to fulfil the final requirements of a Master of Education from Massey University, and 

was researched and written between July 2019 and June 2020. Ethics approval was sought and 

approved by the Massey University Human Ethics Committee in September 2019. 

 

This project was an area of personal interest for the researcher and was completed with 

support and guidance from supervisors Associate Professor Sally Hansen and Dr Genaro 

Oliveira. 

 

To my husband Nathan and daughter Roseanna who put up with me working nights and 

weekends to complete this research, thank you both for your love and support. You are my 

motivation!  



iv 
 

Contents 
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii 

Preface .......................................................................................................................................... iii 

List of tables ................................................................................................................................. vii 

List of figures ............................................................................................................................... viii 

List of Appendices ......................................................................................................................... ix 

Glossary .......................................................................................................................................... x 

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Setting the scene ................................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 The issue of culture shock ................................................................................................... 2 

1.3 International Education Environment: the global market and the New Zealand 

environment ............................................................................................................................. 4 

1.4 The International Student Market in New Zealand ............................................................ 4 

1.5 International Students at the Southern Institute of Technology ........................................ 6 

1.6 Academic roles in teaching international students ............................................................ 6 

1.7 Rationale for study .............................................................................................................. 7 

1.8 Potential benefits of the study ........................................................................................... 7 

1.9 Research Design – exploratory research............................................................................. 8 

1.10 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 9 

RQ1 ...................................................................................................................................... 10 

RQ2 ...................................................................................................................................... 10 

RQ3 ...................................................................................................................................... 10 

1.11 Research Thesis Profile ................................................................................................... 10 

2. Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 11 

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 11 

2.2 International Student ........................................................................................................ 11 

2.3 Culture ............................................................................................................................... 12 

2.4 Culture Shock Definition ................................................................................................... 12 

2.5 Theories of Culture Shock ................................................................................................. 14 

2.6 The Effects of Culture Shock on International Students ................................................... 14 

2.7 International Students in the New Zealand Tertiary Environment ................................... 16 

2.8 Academic Challenges for International Students.............................................................. 17 

2.9 Evidence of Changes in the Classroom ............................................................................. 18 

2.10 Gaps in Student Expectations in Education .................................................................... 19 

2.11 Interaction of Sojourners with Institute Support Staff ................................................... 20 

2.12 The Role of an Academic ................................................................................................. 21 



v 
 

2.13 Challenges for Academics ............................................................................................... 21 

2.14 Being an Academic – Fanghanel ..................................................................................... 22 

2.15 Culture Shock experienced by Students and the Role of an Academic .......................... 24 

2.16 Complex Role of an Academic ........................................................................................ 24 

2.17 Gaps in the Literature ..................................................................................................... 25 

2.18 Limitations to Previous Research .................................................................................... 25 

2.19 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 26 

3. Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 27 

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 27 

3.2 Research strategy .............................................................................................................. 27 

3.3 Research approach............................................................................................................ 27 

3.4 Mixed Method Approach .................................................................................................. 28 

3.4.1 Reason for Mixing Methods ....................................................................................... 29 

3.4.2 Procedural Diagram of Mixed Methods ..................................................................... 30 

3.5 Research Design ................................................................................................................ 31 

3.6 Data collection and tools .................................................................................................. 31 

3.6.1 Quantitative Research................................................................................................ 31 

3.6.2 Qualitative Research .................................................................................................. 32 

3.7 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 33 

3.8 Sampling ............................................................................................................................ 34 

3.9 Pilot study ......................................................................................................................... 34 

3.9.1 Quantitative – Questionnaire Pilot ............................................................................ 34 

3.9.2 Qualitative – Focus Group Pilot ................................................................................. 35 

3.10 Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 35 

3.11 Ethical considerations ..................................................................................................... 36 

3.12 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 37 

4. Results ..................................................................................................................................... 38 

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 38 

4.2 Quantitative Results .......................................................................................................... 38 

4.2.1 Demographic Information .......................................................................................... 38 

4.2.2 Studying at SIT ............................................................................................................ 39 

4.2.3 Preparation prior to leaving home ............................................................................. 39 

4.2.4 Emotions experienced in first few weeks .................................................................. 39 

4.2.5 Enjoyment of study .................................................................................................... 41 

4.2.6 Source of enjoyment .................................................................................................. 42 

4.2.7 Experiences after studying 3-4 months ..................................................................... 44 



vi 
 

4.2.8 Recommending New Zealand as a good place to study abroad ................................ 46 

4.2.9 The experience of tertiary study ................................................................................ 47 

4.2.10 Feelings of culture shock .......................................................................................... 49 

4.3 Qualitative Results ............................................................................................................ 51 

4.3.1 How can international students better prepare for study abroad? .......................... 51 

4.3.2 Qualitative Results: Focus group ............................................................................... 53 

4.3.3 Why did you choose to study abroad? ...................................................................... 53 

4.3.4 What have you found challenging in New Zealand?.................................................. 54 

4.3.5 Differences between education in home country and New Zealand ........................ 55 

4.3.6 Role of the lecturer .................................................................................................... 55 

4.3.7 Surprising aspects of study ........................................................................................ 56 

4.3.8 Areas lacking from lecturing staff .............................................................................. 57 

4.3.9 Preparation for students coming to SIT ..................................................................... 57 

4.4 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 58 

4.5 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 59 

5. Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 61 

5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 61 

5.2 International student market in Invercargill ..................................................................... 61 

5.3 Culture shock for international students .......................................................................... 61 

5.4 Components of culture shock ........................................................................................... 63 

5.5 Learning Experience .......................................................................................................... 65 

5.6 Gaps between expectation and reality ............................................................................. 65 

5.7 Tensions for academic staff .............................................................................................. 66 

5.8 Being an academic – evidence of Fanghanel’s framework ............................................... 68 

5.9 Institutional support for international students ............................................................... 69 

5.10 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 71 

6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 72 

6.1 Future Research ................................................................................................................ 73 

6.2 Research Limitations ......................................................................................................... 73 

7. References .............................................................................................................................. 75 

8. Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 84 

 

  



vii 
 

List of tables 
Table 4. 1: Tells us why you chose to study at SIT ...................................................................... 39 

Table 4. 2 What emotions did you feel when you started your study? ...................................... 40 

Table 4. 3 Content analysis themes why students are enjoying / not enjoying their study ....... 43 

Table 4. 4 Would you recommend New Zealand as a good place to study abroad? ................. 46 

Table 4. 5 Student experience of the teaching discipline using Fanghanel’s criteria ................. 49 

Table 4. 6 What are some of the feelings of culture shock you have experienced since starting 

your study? ................................................................................................................................. 50 

Table 4. 7 How to better prepare international students before they leave home ................... 52 

Table 4. 8 Focus group details .................................................................................................... 53 

  



viii 
 

List of figures 
 

Figure 3. 1 Methodological Approach ......................................................................................... 28 

Figure 3. 2 Explanatory Design of Culture Shock Experienced by International ......................... 30 

 

Figure 4. 1 Tell us about your academic study experience. Are you enjoying your study? ........ 44 

Figure 4. 2 How do you feel about studying after 3-4 months? ................................................. 45 

Figure 4. 3 Comparison of culture shock experienced by students ............................................ 51 

 

  



ix 
 

List of Appendices 

 

Appendix 8. 1 Questionnaire Participant Information Sheet ..................................................... 85 

Appendix 8. 2 Focus Group Participant Information sheet ........................................................ 87 

Appendix 8. 3 Questionnaire Pilot test Information for Participants ......................................... 90 

Appendix 8. 4 Questionnaire Instrument Pilot test .................................................................... 93 

Appendix 8. 5 Focus Group Confidentiality Form ....................................................................... 99 

Appendix 8. 6 Focus Group Consent Form ............................................................................... 101 

Appendix 8. 7 Focus Group Questions ...................................................................................... 103 

 

  



x 
 

Glossary 
 

The definitions noted below provide clarity regarding key terms used in this study. They give 

context to the terms used in the New Zealand environment. They have been taken largely from 

Ward’s (2001, p.2) work in the New Zealand educational context: 

 

Cross cultural  involving more than one culture 

Cultural distance the amount of perceived similarity / dissimilarity between two 

cultures 

Host national’s individuals who are nationals of a country that accepts (and hosts) 

international students 

Sojourner a person who temporarily relocates to another country, generally for a 

specific time and purpose (e.g. education, work) with the intention of 

returning to his/her home country. 

Culture shock the feeling of disorientation experienced by someone when they are 

suddenly subjected to an unfamiliar culture, way of life, or set of 

attitudes (Oxford Dictionary, 2019) 

Acculturation exposure to and the possible adoption and assimilation of customs 

and culture of host country, in order to ‘settle’ in their chosen 

population is the process of acculturation (Hartwell, Edwards & 

Brown, 2011, p.1393) 

 

 



 

1. Introduction 

An investigation into culture shock and its effect on international students in a tertiary 

environment in New Zealand.  

1.1 Setting the scene 
This research looks at the postgraduate international student experience at the Southern 

Institute of Technology (SIT) in Invercargill, specifically focusing on culture shock and its effects 

within this population. The researcher is an academic within the School of Business at SIT and 

has noticed a gap in the expectations of international students around the teaching and 

learning environment on arrival to study in New Zealand. This study explores the distance 

between student’s expectations prior to coming to SIT and once they have been here for one 

semester or more. The study also posed the question if there is a missed opportunity for 

tertiary institutions and academic staff to better prepare international students for the 

teaching and learning environment in New Zealand. In gaining a better understanding of the 

teaching and learning environment, the role of an academic is considered using the categories 

proposed by Fanghanel (2012) – production, reproduction and transformation. 

The Southern Institute of Technology (Te Whare Wananga o Murihiku) is a regional tertiary 

institution based in the Southland province of New Zealand. Tertiary education was 

established in the Invercargill area in 1885 and the main SIT campus resides in the city, with 

smaller campuses in Gore, Queenstown and Christchurch (Studyinnewzealand, n.d). SIT offers 

over 160 programmes at master’s, postgraduate, graduate, degree, diploma and certificate 

levels (SouthlandNZ, n.d).  International students are an important part of the fabric of SIT, 

with over 1,800 international students (964 EFTS) from various parts of the world studying in 

2018, out of a total pool of 13,131 students (4168 EFTS) (SIT, 2019, p.5). As an Institute of 

Technology, SIT is one of 16 Institute of Technology and Polytechnics (ITP) in New Zealand. The 

New Zealand Qualifications Authority defines an ITP as an institute that “delivers technical, 

vocational and professional education. They also promote research, particularly applied and 

technological research, that aids development” (NZQA, n.d, para4). The ITP sector is separate 

to the University sector with a more vocational focus to their subject offerings. Since 2008, in 

an attempt to address labour shortages in Southland, SIT adopted new strategies to encourage 

international students to Invercargill (SIT, 2019a).  

The Southland Regional Development Strategy (SoRDS) has been a key promoter of the 

importance of international students in the region to attract a “working age population with 

young families to complete post-graduate qualifications and take up employment in 



2 
 

Southland” (SoRDS, 2015, p.45). SIT’s growth in international student numbers aligns to the 

International Education Strategy for Southland which is forecasting the enrolments to grow to 

“over 2800 International students by 2025” (SIT, 28 March 2019b, para9). The growth in the 

international student market is also in line with the recently published international education 

strategy, where the New Zealand Government is actively seeking to market international 

education for social, cultural and economic benefits (New Zealand Education, 2018). 

International students are seen by SIT and the Southland community as a means to bolster 

population and the workforce (SoRDS, 2015), and enhance the cultural diversity of this rural 

community and ensure its ongoing longevity (Southland Chamber of Commerce, 2017). It is for 

this reason that the current study will be of both economic value to the institution and 

scholarly value to address the gap in the literature.  

1.2 The issue of culture shock 
The Oxford English Dictionary defines culture shock as “the feeling of disorientation 

experienced by someone when they are suddenly subjected to an unfamiliar culture, way of 

life or set of attitudes” (Lexico, 2019, para1). Culture shock is a concept which explains the 

disconnect between expectation and reality which can be hard to cope with (Cummins, Catling, 

Hogan & Homer, 2007). It is a phenomenon which can be experienced by international 

students arriving in New Zealand to start their study. Zhou, Jindal-Snape, Topping and Todman 

(2008) suggested that “the notion of culture shock has been transformed into contact-induced 

stress accompanied by skill deficits that can be managed” (p.65). This can be seen in the 

challenges international students face because they are not aware of the social norms in a host 

country. Cultural nuances, coupled with a second language, and studying in a new 

environment can impede a student’s ability to acclimatise to a new environment. Feelings of 

culture shock have been described as stresses related to attempts to achieve psychological 

adaptation - loss of role, friends, and prized possessions; fear of rejection by the members of 

the new culture; confusion in the attempts to forge a role in the new culture; anxiety or 

disgust in response to cultural differences; and general feelings of helplessness, including 

confusion, depression, and frustration (Pyvis & Chapman, 2005 cited in Egenes, 2012).  

Research by Chapdelaine & Alexitch (2004) showed that a lack of culture-specific social skills 

impeded the ability of international students to have effective interaction with hosts and this 

created social difficulty. The U-shaped curve proposed by Lysgaard (1955) to understand cross 

cultural research, notes culture shock as one of the four stages of the model. A review of this 

model conducted by Lewthwaite (1997) indicates that the following four elements are present: 

“(1) The honeymoon high, followed by (2) a bottoming out resulting from cultural 



3 
 

maladjustment (culture shock stage), and finally a climb up and out to (3) cultural acceptance 

and (4) adaptation” (p.168). An investigation of the literature around the use of Lysgaard’s 

theory by Black & Mendenhall (1991) suggested that generally the U-shaped curve hypothesis 

is supported, but that different methodologies makes the ability to generalise results of the 

studies reviewed problematic. In this review it was suggested that culture shock happens more 

often when the cultural distance is further between the home and host culture (Hofstede, 

1980 cited in Black & Mendenhall, 1991). With an increase in students from an Eastern or Asia 

Pacific context where cultural differences are more marked, it is expected that students from 

these areas are more likely to suffer from culture shock. The cultural distance between Eastern 

and Asian Pacific and New Zealand culture is greater than students from other Western 

cultures, such as America and the UK. 

While there has been research related to various aspects of international students studying in 

New Zealand (Ward, 2001), there is very little which deals with the aspect of culture shock. It is 

this gap in the research literature that has encouraged the researcher to explore some of the 

aspects of an emerging intercultural approach to the learning environment. According to 

Selvarajah (2006) “Culture is a complex phenomenon. There is no universally accepted means 

of measuring culture, nor has there been any satisfactory method to examine the interaction 

between cultural elements and other factors which may be at play” (p.143). Culture shock 

recognises the importance of social interactions for international students in their education 

journey and institutes are active in reaching out to students about the feelings they may 

experience as students in a new culture (Exeter University, n.d). Research suggests that the 

main adjustments common to international students are language, academic, social and 

cultural, and financial areas (Cheung, 2013). It is these aspects which have been explored in 

greater detail in this study. 

New Zealand was one of the first Western countries to permit open access to study for Chinese 

nationals, and education providers experienced an exponential rise of students from this area, 

with China being the largest source of international students (NZ Foreign Affairs & Trade, 

2018). The business of international education became a global phenomenon, and statistics 

show that the number of international students increased rapidly, with 83% of students from 

Asia in 2017 (Ministry of Education, 2017), with an estimated eight million international 

students worldwide by 2025 (Bjandari, 2009 cited in Cheung, 2013).  The economic value of 

international education is high, with over $5 billion attributed to this export earner (Beehive, 

30 Oct 2018).  



4 
 

The New Zealand Education Strategy 2018-2030 was recently launched by the NZ Government 

to acknowledge the expectation of international education in its contribution to a thriving and 

globally connected New Zealand (NZ Government, 2018). The role of internationalisation in 

education is noted in the literature as one of contrasts; on one hand a variety of benefits, on 

the other, a steady stream of challenges (see Rennick, 2015; Cadman & Song, 2012; Skyrme & 

McGee, 2016; Skyrme, 2005; Ting, 2012; Williams et al, 2013). Research into the area of 

culture shock experienced by international students, and how this influences the interaction 

with academic and institutional support staff will be of significant value in this challenging 

environment. 

1.3 International Education Environment: the global market and the New Zealand 

environment  

 Competition for international students has increased markedly since the 1950s when 

systematic research about this phenomenon first appeared in the literature. Globalisation has 

increased competition in the international education arena, with universities looking to better 

accommodate the diverse needs of the international student (Chavan, Bowden-Everson, 

Lundmark & Zwar, 2014). Global citizens are important to better understand issues such as 

sustainability and climate change in the future, making international education an attractive 

avenue for policy makers (New Zealand Government, August 2018, p.22). However, the 

challenges of attracting well-qualified international students is complex (Hemsley-Brown & 

Oplatka, 2015, p.254). With an estimated “five million internationally mobile students, 

expected to increase to 7-8 million by 2025” (New Zealand Government, August 2018, p.11), a 

piece of the global education pie is an important trade commodity for many countries and an 

important strategy for tertiary institutes (Muthaly, Lobo, & Jen-Yuan, 2013; Yean, 2012). 

In New Zealand international education has increased in the past five years, particularly in the 

Chinese and Indian student markets making up 50% of all international students in New 

Zealand (New Zealand Government, August 2018). The benefits to hosting international 

students are not only economic, although this is often a key driver (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 

2004; Yean, 2012; Selvarajah, 2006; Lipura & Collins, 2020). Greater understanding of other 

cultures, contribution to the advancement of knowledge, and improved global relationships 

are also key elements to international education (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004).  

1.4 The International Student Market in New Zealand 

New Zealand was one of the first Western countries to permit open access to student visas by 

Chinese nationals (Ministry of Education, June 2014), and China remains one of the top five 



5 
 

source countries for students along with India, Japan, South Korea, and America (Ministry of 

Education, 2013). In the 1950s as the rest of the world was also experiencing a boom in 

international education, New Zealand introduced the Colombo Plan where students from the 

Asia-Pacific region attended New Zealand universities (New Zealand Government, August 

2018). Since then, the international student market has gained momentum, and in the last 25 

has become a large export industry contributing $5.1 billion to the economy in 2018 (New 

Zealand Education, 31 October 2018). Students from China and India are key source markets 

for the ITP sector (Ministry of Education, June 2014), with over 26% of international students 

studying at tertiary level (i-Graduate, 2011). The value of international education has been 

recognised in the literature for some time, along with its significance as an overseas revenue 

earner (Selvarajah, 2006).  

It is interesting to note, that 75% of international students to New Zealand didn’t apply to any 

other countries (i-Graduate, 2011), showing a positive outlook in the market. The reasons why 

students choose a particular country for their educational sojourn include: reputation, price, 

subject offerings, applied orientation, recommendation, personal contacts with academics, 

pathway and articulation arrangements, location and speed of response, and the opportunity 

for study in an unfamiliar culture to prepare themselves more effectively for an international 

career (see Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011; Hemsley-Brown & Oplatka, 2015; 

Muthaly, Lobo, & Jen-Yuan, 2013; Kaur & Singh, 2015). They aim to seek a perceived higher 

quality of education than in their home country, making them more likely to gain jobs with 

multinational employers (see Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011; Zhang & Brunton, 

2007).  

The New Zealand Government recognises the value to the economy and culture as “it 

generates economic benefits to the NZ regional economies; supports tourism; increases global 

trade, investment links and international collaboration; enriches NZ education; enhances the 

skills and productivity of the NZ workforce; and increases cultural capital and cultural diversity” 

(New Zealand Government, August 2018, p.8). Policy documentation related to supporting 

international students has been developed showing the importance of this market from a 

national level, most recently the International Education Strategy (New Zealand Government, 

August 2018) and the International Student Wellbeing Strategy: economic wellbeing, 

education, health and wellbeing, and inclusion (New Zealand Government, August 2018). 

These reports clearly acknowledge the importance of the international student market in New 

Zealand.  



6 
 

1.5 International Students at the Southern Institute of Technology  

The international student market has been hugely important to the Southland region and was 

identified in the Southern Regional Development Strategy (SoRDS) as a key contribution to the 

economy. “International students have made a steady and growing contribution to the 

Southland economy and community over many years... predominately completing post-

graduate and business programmes” (SoRDS, 2015, p.45). The Southland community is 

supportive of the influx of international students with Venture Southland offering free 

workshops for these sojourners to get up to speed with employment rights and employment 

opportunities, and to encourage employment in the local community (Education Counts, 

2018a).  SIT values the importance of international students, not just from an economic point 

of view, but also because domestic students get an opportunity to interact with diverse 

cultural experiences which is beneficial to our society (New Zealand Government, August 

2018).  

1.6 Academic roles in teaching international students 
The role an academic plays in the experience that international students has is considered part 

of the concept of culture shock. Research by Skyrme & McGee (2016) indicates that tension 

exists for academics trying to support international students in tertiary study, and through the 

exploration of the issue of culture shock and the gap in student expectations and experience 

this present study connects the role of the academic in the student’s educational journey. 

Roberts, Dunworth & Boldy (2018) found that helpfulness of academic staff impacted on an 

international student’s perception of institutional support services and they discussed some of 

the challenges for both students and academics in an Australian environment, touching on the 

theme of gaps in expectations.  

Although international education is not a new concept, challenges remain around differing 

expectations of academics, students and institutions alike (Crossman & Bordia, 2008). Skyrme 

(2005) suggests that language remains one of the key barriers for both international students 

and academic staff. Her study of Chinese international students showed that although 

students met English language requirements to study at a New Zealand tertiary institution, this 

did not necessarily extend to their ability to make sense of lecture material or communicate 

both orally and in a written form at the required level (Skyrme, 2005). This was echoed in the 

study completed by Song (2014) which showed that language is the main challenge for 

international students with English as a second language. These finding aligns with the concept 

of ‘shock’ associated with a host culture.  



7 
 

Conflict over the role of an academic in Higher Education (HE), and uncertainty over whose job 

is it? to manage and support international student expectations is complex.  Marquis & 

Meadows (2018) noted both societal and individual expectations of HE academics contributing 

to the complex environment. Skyrme & McGee (2016) used Fanghanel’s (2012) categorisation 

of tertiary teachers to provide clarity about the differing intentions of academic staff.  

Fanghanel proposed a framework that academics operate to a large extent according to their 

values about education using three main categories – production, reproduction or 

transformation (Callow, 2013). The biggest contrast was between transformative teachers and 

reproductive teachers as noted by Skyrme & McGee (2016). Their research suggested that 

teachers with a transformative orientation were much more likely to feel that supporting 

international students was part of their role than those with a reproductive focus, who 

indicated the onus was on the students to adapt to the discipline and learning challenges were 

seen as not my job (Skyrme & McGee, 2016). 

1.7 Rationale for study 
The current study explores the difference between student expectations of tertiary study prior 

to leaving their home country and once they arrive. Alongside this, it considers the complex 

role of an academic in supporting international students to show how important culture shock 

is in the relationship, and how this affects the gap in expectations. Research by Cheung (2013, 

p.223) suggests the main adjustments common to international students are related to 

language, academic, social and cultural, and financial areas. These five aspects have been used 

to explain the effect of culture shock and identify which student group(s) were most affected. 

In addition to addressing an academic literature gap, the research is also significant because of 

the increasing competition for international students globally (see Manjet Kaur, 2015; Zhang, 

Worthington & Hu, 2017; Ross, Heaney & Cooper, 2007). It also acknowledges the importance 

of a satisfactory experience for the student in gaining good international student numbers in 

future years (Bayyurt, 2019). Aspects of academic experience for international students such 

as curriculum design, teacher knowledge, academic standards and institutional support are 

captured and related to culture shock and overall satisfaction with the education experience. 

Marketing of a positive student experience can be useful for connecting with prospective 

students.  

1.8 Potential benefits of the study 
Satisfaction of the international student group is a key driver for marketing and attracting 

prospective students (Generosa, Molano, Stokes & Schulze, 2013). Potential benefits of this 

study for the Southern Institute of Technology include opportunities for better management of 



8 
 

both staff and student expectations to improve support for international students in the 

learning environment. It is anticipated that this current study will also help to address the gap 

in the literature regarding student perceptions of international study in the New Zealand 

environment. Further, this study has the potential to have wider implications for the New 

Zealand international education environment and may be replicated in other tertiary 

environments to provide wider results and comparisons on a global scale, as we better 

understand the expectations of international students in the tertiary environment. 

1.9 Research Design – exploratory research 
This study primarily aims to explore aspects of culture shock that are experienced by 

international students, identify who experiences culture shock and why, and examine how 

culture shock influences the role of academics in HE, and how academics are components of 

and contributors to culture shock. A secondary aim is to provide recommendations to the 

institute about possible ways to mitigate culture shock, and better align the distance between 

students’ and academics’ expectations and actual experience.  

A questionnaire was conducted with the postgraduate international population within the 

School of Business at SIT, and these data were analysed to inform the direction and questions 

for the nested sample who became part of the focus group discussion. Questions for the focus 

group were constructed to explore themes from the questionnaire. It was considered that 

using a sequential approach would influence the research questions for the qualitative phase 

of the data analysis, which gives legitimacy to the second phase (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 

2007).  

A simple random sample was chosen for the quantitative phase where any international 

student studying on the postgraduate programme has an equal and independent chance of 

being chosen for the study (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007). The student experience from the 

questionnaire results was used to inform the questions for the next phase, the focus group. 

Therefore, qualitative data is the dominant research method in this study, exploring the 

difference between expectations and reality of these international students. A nested sample 

was used for the qualitative phase as this sampling method allows for further investigation and 

explanation of themes and concepts identified in the previous stage (Ibid). Students who 

completed the questionnaire were asked to advise the researcher of their interest in 

participating in a focus group to discuss their experiences further. The theory discussed by 

Creswell & Plano Clark (2011) was used to inform these decisions. 



9 
 

Johnson & Onwuegbuzie (2004) advocate the use of a mixed methods approach to provide 

greater understanding than what could be achieved by using only one method. Using a mixed 

methods approach to gather quantitative data on the student group, allows the researcher to 

identify themes and patterns from within their responses. The focus group adds the student 

voice to the results and greater level of depth to the statistics. Using a focus group, themes in 

the statistics are explained through content analysis, descriptive summaries and quotes 

(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016). The study gathered data to answer the research questions 

separately and then combine them to “maximise the strengths and minimise the weaknesses 

of each type of data to answer the research aim” (Creswell, Klassen, Plano Clark & Smith, 2010, 

p.5). Therefore, the research questions which guided this study (noted over the page) were 

developed to align with the respective strengths of each method to investigate the same 

underlying phenomenon as suggested by Onwuegbuzie & Leech (2006).  

1.10 Research Questions 
The quantitative method is the initial phase of the study to gather the student experience, 

with the qualitative method allowing greater explanation of the quantitative data and to make 

connections with the role of an academic. A focus group can be defined as “composed of a 

small number of participants, facilitated by a ‘moderator’, in which the topic is defined clearly 

and precisely and there is a focus on enabling and recording interactive discussion between 

participants” (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016, p.716). Strengths of the qualitative approach 

include a variety of aspects, but for this research this method is designed to get an 

understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of the phenomena (culture 

shock) (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The use of a focus group in this way overcomes the 

weakness of the quantitative questionnaire which will tell us where the problem is, but not 

necessarily why there is a problem. In this study the focus group was used to discuss pre-held 

views on the issue (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016). The researcher was the moderator. The 

focus group participants were selected from a nested sample of the questionnaire sample. 

The research questions were constructed to investigate key elements of the research aim. 

They were devised after considering the literature around the subject area and identified gaps 

in knowledge. Stage one of the research, the questionnaire, looked to gather data about RQ1 

and RQ3. The second stage, consisting of the focus group, added value to RQ1 and sought the 

student voice for RQ2.  



10 
 

RQ1  

What are the components of culture shock, and how does it affect the learning experience for 

international students?  

RQ2 

What is the gap between student expectations and the reality in the teaching and learning 

environment? 

RQ3 

What are the tensions for academic staff and other key institutional staff in supporting 

international students? 

1.11 Research Thesis Profile 
The following chapter investigates the literature themes which underpin the study, focusing on 

the key areas of culture shock, international students and the challenges that academics and 

support staff face in a complex tertiary educational environment. The methodology chapter 

will give specific detail about the research design, sample, analysis and objectives to support 

the research. A mixed methods approach will be used, incorporating both questionnaire and 

focus group methods to investigate the research questions. This will be followed by a chapter 

to present the findings and analyse key areas of the primary research. Interpretation of the 

findings will incorporate theory and the participants’ voices to answer the research objectives. 

Finally, the research will be concluded, with a discussion of limitations and opportunities for 

further research uncovered.    

 

  



11 
 

2. Literature Review 

This chapter reviews seminal and contemporary literature related to the area of culture shock 

for international sojourners in the global HE context, with a specific focus on literature 

relevant to the New Zealand tertiary situation. The review explores the theoretical grounding 

for culture shock and look at how this informs our knowledge of the current environment. 

There has been a growth in New Zealand based literature since the early 1990s (Hartwell, 

Edwards & Brown, 2011) and this will be a key consideration to develop a contextualised 

discussion of the topic. This review seeks to consider the available literature to gain a better 

understanding of key concepts and research conducted to date. 

2.1 Introduction 

There is a wide variety of research which looks at the journey of the international student, 

their educational sojourn and the influence of culture shock. Yet the issue of culture shock has 

retained the interest of researchers in the field of academia. Research shows that international 

students must adjust to their new surroundings and encounter more cultural and language 

issues than domestic peers (Cheung, 2013). Globalisation continues to increase the numbers of 

educational sojourners, and cross-cultural human capital is gaining more recognition (Murdoch 

& Kaciak, 2011; Shafaei, Nejati, Quazi & von der Heidt, 2016). Although various authors have 

noted that there is a huge amount of literature related to the international student 

experience, there is still room for added value (Ward, 2001; Selvarajah, 2006; Saravanan, 

Mohamad & Alias, 2019). Abdullah, Aziz & Ibrahim (2014) noted that “the silver lining …. is 

increased ethical awareness among countries and higher education in hosting and 

safeguarding the student throughout their international higher education experience” (p.235). 

With the numbers of international students arriving into New Zealand rising, and the benefits 

of export education highly sought after (Ward, 2001), the way that institutions accommodate 

students from diverse cultural backgrounds will be of increasing importance (Skyrme, 2007 

cited in Soontiens, Kerr, Ang & Scully, 2016).  

2.2 International Student 

An international student is “loosely regarded as a student holding foreign nationality who is 

pursuing post-secondary education outside of his/her country of origin” (Abdullah, Aziz & 

Ibrahim, 2014, p.236). Other terms we see being used interchangeably with this are “foreign 

student”, “overseas student” and “sojourner” (Ibid). Literature about the international student 

appeared after the 1950s when there was a greater recognition of movement of students for 

education and the social and psychological problems which accompanied them (Araiza & 



12 
 

Kutugata, 2013). The move towards global citizenship in business, accelerated the push for 

study abroad, with a widening emphasis on the skills that could be gained from an 

international sojourn (New Zealand Government, August 2018). This saw the beginning of a 

body of knowledge to explore the impacts of studying abroad with students who are learning 

the host culture from a position of an outsider (Greatrex-White, 2008). In the context of this 

research, sojourners are defined as “from other countries who are in New Zealand temporarily 

for tertiary study” (Lewthwaite, 1997, p.167). 

2.3 Culture 

According to Selvarajah (2006) “culture is a complex phenomenon” (p.143), cultures differ in 

terms of expectations, cultural norms, distance, customs, traditions and language (Basarab, 

2015; Vromans & van Engen, 2013). Culture is a set of control mechanisms – plans, recipes, 

rules, instructions for governing behaviour (Geertz, 1973) or a patterned way of thinking, 

feeling and reacting (Kluckhohn, 1954 cited in Chung, Fam & Holdsworth, 2009). Research 

suggests that culture determines behaviour, and that the motivation for acculturation depends 

on the willingness to learn about the new society and the willingness of society to open to 

different cultures (Nayar, 2015). Culture determines how an individual reacts and responds to 

the challenges in their new environment (Basarab, 2015). Often students choose international 

education to learn a new culture and experience different business environments, taking steps 

towards becoming global citizens. In the context of HE and the sojourner, culture is very 

important because many students perceive that they are leaving behind traditional learning 

and teaching experiences to embrace a new, more challenging style which they perceive to be 

superior (Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014).  

2.4 Culture Shock Definition 

Culture shock is a phenomenon “experienced by people who spend an extended period of 

time (usually more than three months) in a foreign country. This phenomenon takes the form 

(state) of stress (unfolding through a process) caused by the transition of an individual 

between culturally different climates” (Murdoch & Kaciak, 2011, p.89). There is a wide range 

of literature about culture shock and a range of different terms which have been used to 

describe the adjustment that someone goes through when experiencing a new culture. Terms 

such as culture shock, adjustment, cross-cultural adaptation, acculturation, cultural distance, 

reality shock or sojourner adjustment can all be found in the literature to describe this 

phenomenon (Ward, 2001; Cummins, Catling, Homer & Hogan, 2007; Black & Mendenhall, 



13 
 

1991; Zhou, Jindal-Snape, Topping & Todman, 2008), with the term culture shock repeatedly 

refined and renamed (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004).   

Similarly, the concept of ‘shock’ is debated widely, and some academics indicate that the shock 

which comes from stressful life changes, may be more accurately portrayed as part of an 

adaptation process rather than shock itself (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013). The dominant theory 

suggests that this is a universal phenomenon, where ‘shock’ occurs because there is a 

“disconnect between expectation and reality which can be hard for an individual to cope with” 

(Cummins, Catling, Hogan & Homer, 2007, p.271). Although Kealey (1989) cited in (Murdoch & 

Kaciak, 2011) provides a contrary argument, suggesting that it is not inevitable that shock will 

occur. The literature is united in recognition that culture shock doesn’t affect everyone the 

same, and the variety of models show diversity of thinking within the academic community. 

This research will use the term culture shock as the dominant term to describe the adjustment 

someone goes through when experiencing a new culture. Although the term is being 

constantly discussed and adapted in the literature, ‘culture shock’ is still seen as the most 

common explanation of this phenomenon in the body of literature. 

Seminal theorists are many, as the body of knowledge has gained traction since the first 

studies in the late 1950s. Kalervo Oberg, anthropologist, is recognised as an important 

contributor to early literature introducing the term ‘culture shock’ in his work in 1960. 

According to Oberg, culture shock results from the changes to cultural signs and symbols which 

create anxiety, frustration or helplessness (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004; see also Furnham, 

1992). Originally, Oberg referred to culture shock as an occupational disease (Murdoch & 

Kaciak, 2011), but over the course of time this term has been adapted as more research is 

conducted and the term is debated in the literature. Disciplines such as social psychology and 

education have studied the concept of culture shock (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013), and cross-

culture literature in sociology uses culture shock often to present the negative feelings which 

are described in research (Greatrex-White, 2008). Terms such as adaptation and acculturation 

are being increasingly used instead of culture shock as the academic debate recognises the 

ability to manage and improve the effects and symptoms of culture shock (Araiza & Kutugata, 

2013).  

Norwegian sociologist Sverre Lysgaard contributed to this body of knowledge with his U-

shaped curve (1955), a formal model to describe the unfolding of culture shock (Murdoch & 

Kaciak, 2011). Variations of this model remain a dominant point of discussion around culture 

shock theory in contemporary literature today. 



14 
 

2.5 Theories of Culture Shock 

There are numerous theories of culture shock which expand on the seminal work by Lysgaard 

(1955) and Oberg (1960). These theories provide conceptual frameworks within which 

research can be conducted, and predictions can be made about the amount of distress caused 

by the change of culture (Furnham, 2012). The U-curve model proposed by Lysgaard (1955) 

was found to be the most commonly used theoretical framework for culture shock in a review 

by Black & Mendenhall (1991), and researchers were generally supportive of the U-shaped 

curve. However, this review also noted that most used Lysgaard’s model as a “description of 

phases of adjustment (rather) than a theoretical framework of how and why individuals move 

from one stage to the next” (Black & Mendenhall, 1991, p.232).  

2.6 The Effects of Culture Shock on International Students 

International students choose to move away from their home culture to study abroad for a 

variety of reasons, and the stressors that they are likely to experience often fall into two 

categories: academic and educational environment, and socio-cultural and personal (Araiza & 

Kutugata, 2013). The literature discusses a number of the different ways which students might 

be affected by culture shock: withdrawal (Selvarajah, 2006; Cheung, 2013); stereotyping 

(Ward, 2001), homesickness (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011); difficulty 

adapting to cultural norms (Sherry, Thomas & Chui, 2010); language issues in day to day life 

(Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011); lack of local exposure and experiences 

(Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014); lack of social networks and support 

(Zhou, Jindal-Snape, Topping & Todman, 2008; Chong & Razek, 2014); lack of confidence in 

English language at an academic level (Lewthwaite, 1997); stress related to academic 

achievement (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013); loneliness (Chong & Razek, 2014); 

underrepresentation racially on campus (Chong & Razek, 2014); and financial considerations / 

difficulties (Lorz, Netz & Quast, 2015). 

Living away from one’s home country requires an adjustment in a sociocultural, environmental 

and physiological way (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013), and there is a strong theme in the literature 

of anxiety and anticipation which comes with living independently in a new country (Chavan, 

Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014). A mismatch of expectations is a key part of the 

literature related to culture shock and the international sojourner, with research suggesting 

that many students were unprepared for the differences (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & 

Reese, 2011). Students, particularly from Asian countries are reported in the literature as 

having the most challenges, with differences in Western (Individual) and Confucian (Collective) 



15 
 

based societies providing extra challenges for this group (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & 

Reese, 2011; Lewthwaite, 1997). Often students are unsure how to operate within the new 

culture, Berry (1998) indicates the crucial issue is “whether to (1) keep their original identity 

and behave in accordance with their original cultural values (attachment) or (2) adapt to the 

host mainstream culture and behave in line with the host cultural value system (adjustment)” 

(cited in Shafaei, Nejati, Quazi & von der Heidt, 2016, p.654). Individuals tendencies towards 

either the attachment or the adjustment orientations form their identification with the 

respective culture.  

Social learning theory suggests that adjustment is part of the learning process when exposed 

to a new culture (Black & Mendenhall, 1991), yet this can be stifled by ethnocentricity. If a 

sojourner believes that their own culture is superior to that of the host country, then research 

indicates that these students will be more likely to experience culture shock (Black & 

Mendenhall, 1991). However, it is a complex process, and Greatrex-White (2008) propose “a 

sense of being tied to the home culture; moving back and forth like an object caught on the 

edge of a wave – neither in the sea or on the beach. The host culture might be seen but not 

always understood, whilst the home culture, previously invisible and taken for granted, 

suddenly becomes very visible” (p.535). It is these differences in behaviours and expectations 

at a host university that can challenge students, leading to effects of culture shock (Rienties, 

Heliot & Jindal-Snape, 2013). This difference can be distressing for students with language 

issues who have difficulty expressing themselves in social and academic situations (Daglish, 

Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011). 

Positive experiences expressed in the research often stem from students who have greater 

levels of participation in social interaction with host nationals, for example, peer mentoring 

programmes (Soontiens, Kerr, Ang & Scully, 2016); authentic prearrival information e.g. videos 

of a typical lecture, previous student experiences (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 

2011); matching expectations with reality regarding performance (Chavan, Bowden-Everson, 

Lundmark & Zwar, 2014); and social interactions with hosts (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). 

Positive peer interactions or having host national friends alleviates some of the negative 

aspects of culture shock and research shows that students who have positive experience with 

peers are likely adjust more quickly to their environment both academically and socially 

(Chong & Razek, 2014). In the academic environment this adjustment differs according to the 

skills and abilities of individual students (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013). Matching the psychological 

contract between sojourners and institutions is seen to be key to reducing culture shock on 



16 
 

campus (Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014, p.155). Something the literature 

suggests could be better managed by institutions. 

2.7 International Students in the New Zealand Tertiary Environment 

Although there have been international students in New Zealand since the 1950s, most of the 

recent literature is written in American, UK or Australian contexts (Abdullah, Aziz & Ibrahim, 

2014). However, there is some good evidence-based research which has been conducted in 

several tertiary education settings in New Zealand (see Ward, 2001: Lewthwaite, 1997; 

Selvarajah, 2006; Chung, Fam & Holdsworth, 2009; Nayar, 2015; Skyrme, 2007; Skyrme & 

McGee, 2016). There is a clear focus on providing for the diverse needs of international 

students, as research shows that institutions need to meet student expectations and avoid 

feelings of disappointment or exploitation among the sojourner (Sherry, Thomas & Chui, 

2010). The recent Government policy around the International Student Wellbeing Strategy 

indicates the direction and expectations from a regulation level (New Zealand Government, 

June 2017). Research shows that the first year of study is particularly stressful for sojourners 

(Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014), and the onus on tertiary institutions has 

always been clear to provide the resources to cater for both academic and social needs of 

students (Lewthwaite, 1997).  

New Zealand was the first country in the world to introduce pastoral care requirements for 

international students (in 2002) (New Zealand Government, June 2017). This initiative has 

been supported by the implementation of the Education (Pastoral Care of International 

Students) Code of Practice which updated requirements and focused on the outcomes 

expected from agents and education providers. These documents are in line with the aims of 

the International Education Strategy (New Zealand Government, August 2018). There are 

examples of institutions with good support systems for international students, including the 

Southern Institute of Technology.  

The International Student Barometer Survey indicated that tertiary institutions provide 

orientation sessions to help international students settle into their new campus life (i-

Graduate, 2011). New Zealand has an international reputation for being safe, but research 

shows that international students are often young, living away from support systems and can 

be vulnerable leading to negative experiences in our country (New Zealand Government, June 

2017). The importance of the international student market underpins the policy 

documentation at Government level, and the participation of individual institutions at grass 

roots level (New Zealand Government, August 2018). 



17 
 

Financial factors strongly influence international students in New Zealand, and they are acutely 

aware of the higher fees they pay (Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014). 

Research shows that financial expenses, travel costs and strong family pressure to succeed can 

add to culture shock (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013), and the decision-making process to study 

abroad (Lorz, Netz & Quast, 2015). Although superiority of host country education is seen as 

an influencer of student choice, research in the Australian context indicated that there is little 

evidence to support this as research often comes from an institutional context (acceptance 

rate, completion rates, institution rating), rather that the student’s point of view (Chavan, 

Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014). This lack of shared expectations may compound 

cultural differences and lead to varying degrees of culture shock (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, 

Nelson & Reese, 2011). Although there is much Government support for international students 

in the New Zealand tertiary environment, student numbers on campus, in itself is not a 

predictor to develop intercultural interactions or understanding (Ward, 2001). Institutions 

need to provide adequate academic support for students such as cross-cultural 

communication, study skills and English language skills (Selvarajah, 2006; see also 

Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011). For students who aren’t part of the dominant culture in a 

tertiary classroom they can be misunderstood as under-prepared, unmotivated or 

unintelligent (Ward, 2001), which further exacerbates cultural distance and culture shock.  

2.8 Academic Challenges for International Students 

International students who come to New Zealand have four main adjustments: “language, 

academic, social and financial” (Cheung, 2013, p.223) to contend with in their sojourn. 

International students also come to New Zealand to experience a new culture, and although 

this is not a new situation, the differences can create transition and adjustment difficulties 

(Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011). There are a range of studies which have been conducted on 

the level of interaction between domestic and international students. Generally international 

students want greater interaction with host students, and this is particularly visible between 

countries with a high level of cultural distance, especially Asian cultures who report low levels 

of interaction with host students (see Ward, 2001; Greatrex-White, 2008; Soontiens, Kerr, Ang 

& Scully, 2016). Of course, those students who have strong friendship networks and support 

systems are more likely to adjust quicker, with less stress (Soontiens, Kerr, Ang & Scully, 2016; 

see also Ward, 2001; Lewthwaite, 1997).  

Language is an important aspect of the discussion in the literature, with language proficiency 

noted as a key challenge (Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011; Cheung, 2013). The English proficiency 

tests that students complete before acceptance into a tertiary programme (such as Test of 



18 
 

English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) or the International English Language Testing System 

(IELTS) or similar) do not guarantee success, and many sojourners still have difficulty with the 

language (Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011; Skyrme & McGee, 2016).  Although English language 

tests are being refined all the time (Newton, Yates, Shearn & Nowitzki, 2010), the scores 

students gain in these tests may not reflect their true abilities (Cheung, 2013), causing 

contradictions between expectations and ability (Skyrme & McGee, 2016). Research suggests 

that many sojourners experienced difficulties in listening, speaking, reading, and writing 

(Cheung, 2013), this carries through to challenges in communication in everyday life (Rudolph, 

1994 cited in Lewthwaite, 1997: Kramsch & Uryu, 2012). 

Research by Selvarajah (2006) showed different cultures often preferred different assessment 

methods (see also Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011). Each student will bring their own 

expectations about education, formed from their home education experience (Daglish, Haker, 

Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011), adjusting to a new educational system is complex 

(Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011). This complexity may present in the classroom in a variety of 

academic challenges, such as: anxiety around examinations (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & 

Reese, 2011; Lewthwaite, 1997); lack of participation in classroom activities because of 

different learning practices, differences in expectations around critical analysis, oral 

presentations and participation (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011). Some of these 

behaviours can be misunderstood by teaching staff, and training may help to better support 

the learning needs of international students (Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011). 

2.9 Evidence of Changes in the Classroom  

“The educational environment is a microcosm of the larger society and reflects its values, 

traditions and practices” (Ward, 2001). As more research is conducted, a better understanding 

of the needs of international students has seen changes to curriculum and pedagogy (Shafaei, 

Nejati, Quazi & von der Heidt, 2016; Ward, 2001). Current research indicates that institutes 

and the social networks of students have a large impact on how international students adjust 

in an international learning environment (Rienties, Heliot & Jindal-Snape, 2013; Cheung, 2013). 

The literature refers to institutions moving towards internationalising their offerings, where 

both content and the process of education are considered (Ward, 2001). Studies in the 

Australian environment looked at how to include a more Asian teaching and learning culture, 

for example group assessment (rather than individual) (Selvarajah, 2006). Yet other studies 

have shown how students appreciate the skills they learn in a Western style classroom 

(Cheung, 2013). However, international students often report differences in expectations 

versus classroom reality (Yean, 2012; Shafaei, Nejati, Quazi & von der Heidt, 2016). Evidence 



19 
 

also suggests that internationalisation still largely occurs within the dominant Western 

context. Business classrooms traditionally use a range of Western teaching and learning 

strategies that focus on critical analysis, oral discussion, problem solving, case studies and 

discussion groups that can be unfamiliar to international students (Daglish, Haker, Lawson, 

Nelson & Reese, 2011). 

Active learning or team-learning has increased in HE and the use of technology is on the rise to 

provide a more student-centred environment (Rienties, Heliot & Jindal-Snape, 2013). Studies 

have shown that Chinese students preferred to work with other Chinese students, over other 

cultures because of cultural differences or unspoken norms which mean they don’t feel they 

can express their views freely in a classroom (Ibid). Group work was also seen as an area of 

concern in the literature, where students (particularly from Asian cultures) felt high levels of 

anxiety because of their preconceived language deficiency (Lewthwaite, 1997; Cheung, 2013). 

In summary, the literature shows that although there have been some efforts made to 

understand the diverse needs of international students, very little of this has consistently been 

adopted at a classroom level.  

2.10 Gaps in Student Expectations in Education 

There is a lot of discussion in the literature regarding gaps in sojourners expectations of 

cultural differences, of academic expectations, of behaviours, customs and social skills (Zhou, 

Jindal-Snape, Topping & Todman, 2008). Furnham & Bochner’s (1982) model suggests that 

sojourners experience difficulties because they do not know the implied social rules that 

regulate interactions with peers (cited in Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004). Where there is high 

cultural distance between home and host culture, this is further exacerbated (Lewthwaite, 

1997). Research into satisfaction levels of the sojourner in New Zealand suggest that positive 

interaction with academic staff, has a direct bearing on satisfaction (Lewthwaite, 1997).  

Students’ ability to adapt to their new environment was noted in the literature as an 

incremental and reiterative process following the principles of Andersons (1994) model 

(Lewthwaite, 1997). 

A common theme in the literature was the evidence of culture shock at a variety of levels of 

the sojourn experience. The four stages of Lysgaard’s (1955) U-shaped curve were repeatedly 

reported in the literature to describe gaps in expectations and their effects on culture shock 

(Arunasalam & Burton, 2018; Greatrex-White, 2008). This culture shock also links to 

expectations around unethical academic behaviours such as plagiarism (Ting, 2012; Skyrme & 

McGee, 2016), and was backed up in the study by Sharaei, Nejati, Quazi & von der Heidt (2016) 



20 
 

which found that students’ level of acculturation to the host country attributed to unethical 

plagiarism intentions.  

English proficiency was again dominant in the literature, and the impact language skills have 

on both academic and social adjustment (Sherry, Thomas & Chui, 2010). The quality of 

information that sojourners gather before leaving home, has a direct relationship to 

expectations of education in the host country and the gaps that are experienced (Muthaly, 

Lobo, & Jen-Yuan, 2013). However, research from Australia contrasts with this view and 

indicates that sojourners adapt well over time and can successfully complete their education 

goals, much the same as domestic students (Volet, Rensha & Tietzels, 1994 cited in Ward, 

2001). 

2.11 Interaction of Sojourners with Institute Support Staff 

The literature showed that there was a wide variety of support services on campus for 

sojourners, helping to manage expectations, close gaps and reduce culture shock (see 

Hemsley-Brown,2015; Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011; Chavan, Bowden-

Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014; Llurda & Cots, 2014). Orientations for students with clear 

cultural expectations were reported as successful initiatives in the literature including 

counselling, multicultural societies, Writing and Academic Centres, and social clubs (see 

Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014; Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 

2011; Lewthwaite, 1997; Yean, 2012; Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011; Sherry, Thomas & Chui, 

2010; Cheung, 2013). Research from Australia suggested that the most important aspect of an 

institute’s support for students was clear information about …” not just content, but the 

learning processes, the social activities, and the links to potential employment. International 

students are looking at the world from a different perspective, assessing the relevance and 

quality to fit into a context quite different from the one in which they decide to study” 

(Daglish, Haker, Lawson, Nelson & Reese, 2011, p.168). 

Pre-entry information material is an aspect which, although reported in the literature, is not 

done so in detail. Most research has been conducted when students arrive the country, very 

little examines what happens pre-arrival. Crossman & Bordia (2008) talked about the 

importance of the psychological contract and making sure expectations are set in advance of 

arrival to ensure fulfilment of expectations.  Studies have shown that cultural information is 

important (Lewthwaite, 1997). Open days with a physical presence from an institute can help 

to manage expectations of prospective students (Chung, Fam & Holdsworth, 2009), and the 



21 
 

need for improved intercultural competency of staff (Abdullah, Aziz & Ibrahim, 2014). This gap 

in the literature is investigated in more detail in the following study. 

2.12 The Role of an Academic 

There is a good body of knowledge in the literature about student expectations of academics, 

and about academic experiences with students. The challenge appears to be about where the 

role of ‘teacher’ starts and ends? Skyrme & McGee (2016) discussed the tensions of scaffolding 

and support for students versus student autonomy and the attitude of staff that ‘it’s not my 

job’. The literature notes cultural differences in expectations between Western and Asian 

learning. Pratt (1991) commented that American teachers are facilitators promoting autonomy 

in their learners, consistent with Ward (2001) findings with British teachers as organisers, but 

Chinese teachers were authority figures whom students do not question (Zhou, Jindal-Snape, 

Topping & Todman, 2008). This finding highlighted the research by Cheung (2013) who noted 

that Chinese students (used to a teacher centred model) struggled in a Western context where 

their educational background and limited English language made academic adjustment more 

difficult.  

As noted previously in the literature, most sojourners to New Zealand come from Asian 

countries, and the mismatch of expectations in cultural beliefs and values about education is 

crucial to the levels of culture shock experienced. Although numbers of sojourners have 

steadily increased in recent times, the point is made in the literature that international 

students are expected to adapt more than teachers to academic norms (Soontiens, Kerr, Ang & 

Scully, 2016). However, there is limited research about the roles and responsibilities of 

academic staff (Skyrme & McGee, 2016). Further, it is also frequently proposed in much of the 

literature that the onus of successful integration of international students to an institution 

should be at an institutional policy level (Soontiens, Kerr, Ang & Scully, 2016). 

2.13 Challenges for Academics 

According to Skyrme & McGee (2016), “tensions and complexity are not in themselves 

necessarily bad things and are not even ever avoidable. Academic staff in universities are 

accustomed to working in a complex environment” (p.766). However, increasing numbers of 

sojourners in academic classrooms presents several challenges for academics. As discussed 

previously role incongruence influences both academics and sojourners, the level of culture 

shock experienced, and satisfaction of academic experience. New Zealand research frequently 

mentions issues around English proficiency in the classroom (Yean, 2012; Skyrme, 2007). 

Ward’s (2001) research indicated a variety of gaps in expectations between teachers and 



22 
 

students, particularly in terms of classroom discussion and interaction. This pattern was 

consistent with Cheung’s (2013) findings, and a source of frustration for domestic students 

(Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014). Improved awareness of key cultural 

factors which impact on international student learning experiences need to be made 

(Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011), but this is of course challenging for individual academics to 

achieve.  

International research indicates that academics need to adapt teaching and provide additional 

support for sojourners (both in and out of the classroom) (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013). Research 

at Massey University by Selvarajah (2006) showed that staff had noted differences in the study 

objectives and behaviours of Asian students to New Zealand European students. This research 

recommended that “educational paradigm shifts in technologies, methods and perceptions are 

needed if changes in education styles are to take place” (Selvarajah, 2006, p.142). This 

recommendation is consistent with the conclusions by Skyrme & McGee (2016) about benefits 

to an institution, academics and sojourners, and they found that investigations of teachers’ 

practice and attitudes suggest that these benefits are not always fully realised. It has been 

suggested that it is the role of individual institutions, and policy makers to develop policy 

frameworks to safe guard the academic and social well-being of international students 

(Abdullah, Aziz & Ibrahim, 2014). The economic gains of having international students is well 

publicised (Lipura & Collins, 2020), but the presence of international students in classes or at 

an institution rarely prompts faculty members to internationalise what they teach and until 

this happens these challenges will remain (Ward, 2001; Skyrme & McGee, 2016). This research 

suggests a move from the negative connotations of ‘shock’ to an opportunity for both sides to 

see these challenges as opportunities. 

2.14 Being an Academic – Fanghanel 

Callow (2013) reviewed Fanghanel’s book ‘Being an Academic’ where she concluded that 

academics operate according to their personal values about education. The three main 

categories are – production, reproduction and transformation. This framework provides an 

opportunity to reflect on what being an academic means today (Fanghanel, 2012). The role of 

the academic can be examined in terms of their teaching practices and defined by the 

categories noted above. Fanghanel’s ‘production’ concept focuses on developing aptitudes and 

skills relevant to the real world of work, where education is valued as economic investment 

(Fanghanel, 2012). Often seen in education in vocational areas, where the focus is more on 

links to professional practice and industry, rather than necessarily discipline specific. The 

literature gives the example of: “theoretical studies do not attain their highest development 



23 
 

until they find some application in human life” (Dewey, 1923, p.53), here the academic is a 

facilitator, preparing students for industry.  

The ‘reproduction’ category encourages learning in a different way. “Students are driven by 

curiosity, they learn for the sake of getting to know and with a view to finding their own place 

and their own voice within the discipline they have embraced” (Fanghanel, 2012, p.8). The 

discipline is important in this view, where the academic follows a teacher lead approach, such 

as the Confucian view of knowledge. In this view, teachers and books are considered 

authoritative sources in imparting knowledge. Books are seen as reliable as they are assumed 

to have been tested in practice, the purpose of the student is to refine and support taught 

knowledge (Arunasalam & Burton, 2018). The onus is on the student to investigate the body of 

knowledge in a discipline, be driven by their own curiosity, not for the academic to adjust to 

the students’ needs (Skyrme & McGee, 2016). Reproduction in the classroom environment 

aims to investigate the past to discern the nature of the forces that contribute to the 

embeddedness of current practices (McAllister, 2005). 

Finally, ‘transformation’ where the emphasis of education is on the transformation of 

individuals or of society (Fanghanel, 2012). McAllister’s (2005) review of nursing education and 

the impact on the sojourner strongly promoted a ‘transformational’ perspective, “critical 

educators believe that for students to make an impact on their world, they must have space to 

practice – articulating new knowledge and its effects on their lives, and then to share those 

interpretations with others” (p.12). Considering the sojourner, Skyrme & McGee (2016) 

examined a transformational academic’s view where the value would be for academics, 

domestic and international students to open their minds to new ways of thinking and viewing 

the world. This idea is echoed in the work of Dewey (1923) who wrote “…the more the 

scientific spirit of inquiry and love of thinking is introduced into professional teaching, the 

surer the broad and liberal intellectual interest and taste to be the product” (p.53).  

When using Fanghanel’s framework to consider the role of an academic in the sojourner 

experience, where an academic sees their fit in the three categories will directly influence the 

educational experience in tertiary education. Research by Skyrme & McGee (2016) found the 

greatest contrast in academic style was between reproduction and transformation, and this 

can be really challenging for academic staff working with sojourners, both at a pedagogical and 

practical level. The reality is certainly more complex with academics possibly exhibiting a 

combination of these categories at times.   



24 
 

2.15 Culture Shock experienced by Students and the Role of an Academic 

The literature is clear that students have differing expectations from their interactions with 

academics during their sojourn, and that lecturers can become a component of culture shock 

during this interaction. Research shows that students can experience a disconnect between 

expectations and experience in areas such as individual feedback, personal relationships, 

empathy and responsiveness (Chavan, Bowden-Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014). Academic 

staff often reported extra workload and language problems when teaching international 

students (Ward, 2001; Skyrme, 2005). 

Research by Araiza & Kutugata (2013) reported ‘shock’ from German students about having 

their attendance recorded by academic staff, because in their home university their 

attendance was voluntary, and they felt like they were back in high school. This sense of 

difference was also felt by students completing assessment which was different from their 

home education, for example multichoice versus essay (Arunasalam & Burton, 2018). The 

inevitability of difference in expectations of academics and students is clear in the research, 

and the dominant view in the literature still shows that the responsibility for adapting to and 

succeeding in study lies with the sojourner (Ward, 2001).  

2.16 Complex Role of an Academic 

Drawing on the framework that Fanghanel proposed, it is clear in the literature that the role of 

an academic is becoming more complex. Institutions may require academic staff to attend 

training to better manage sojourners in their classrooms (Araiza & Kutugata, 2013, p.3193), or 

at least for academics to become familiar with students’ backgrounds, assumptions and 

expectations (Arunasalam & Burton, 2018) particularly to avoid issues such as stereotyping of 

sojourners (Malaklolunthu & Selan, 2011). Some researchers going as far as encouraging 

academic staff to interact with students outside of class (Cheung, 2013), yet this will be 

influenced by the size of the international cohort (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004) and the level 

of study. The literature recognises the role of the academic in the reduction in culture shock 

for sojourners, but there is much debate about the best methods to do this (Soontiens, Kerr, 

Ang & Scully, 2016).  

Differences in expectations are reported in the literature, and the work of Ward (2001) sums 

up the general New Zealand classroom environment:  

“The differences were most pronounced in connection with classroom participation 

and student-teacher relationships. For example, compared to the teachers, overseas 

students generally wanted more error correction, believed that they should agree with 



25 
 

the lecturer, and more strongly favoured acceptance of authority. On the other hand, 

the educators were more likely to believe that students should have an internal locus 

of academic control and take responsibility for their own learning” (p.14).  

This theme can also be seen in the research of Selvarajah (2006) and Arunasalam & Burton 

(2018). Skyrme (2007) noted the challenges for Chinese students who meet university English 

language entry criteria but who have difficulty sufficiently comprehending and extracting 

meaning from academic material, both textbooks and lectures. Academic roles are complex, 

and a diverse educational environment will only increase the complexity for the future 

(Skyrme, 2016).  

2.17 Gaps in the Literature 

Although there is a wide variety of research related to international students in the tertiary 

environment, which has increased steadily since the seminal research of the 1950s, there are 

still gaps to be noted. Student expectations is a poorly researched area (Chavan, Bowden-

Everson, Lundmark & Zwar, 2014), as are measurement of concepts such as cultural distance 

(Vromans & van Engen, 2013) and cultural values (Chung, Fam & Holdsworth, 2009). As noted 

earlier, a large proportion of the research is conducted in America, Australia and the UK, and 

most prominently in the field of postgraduate education (Abdullah, Aziz & Ibrahim, 2014). 

Particularly important for this research is that there has been little to no direct investigation of 

how these (cross-cultural difference) impact on the international classroom (Ward, 2001). 

Although we know that culture shock exists, and can impact severely on some sojourners, the 

differences and how they are viewed in a classroom setting are not well understood, even in 

the almost twenty years since this research was published (Ward, 2001). It is this gap that the 

study addresses. 

2.18 Limitations to Previous Research 

Much of the published research has been conducted in single institutions (Hemsley-Brown, 

2015; Chong & Razek, 2014), within postgraduate programmes (Chapdelaine & Alexitch, 2004), 

and generally in a small scale (Abdullah, Aziz & Ibrahim, 2014). A review of the literature by 

Abdullah, Aziz & Ibrahim (2014) showed 66.2% of the articles reviewed were atheoretical, 

“that is, articles without explicit description, review or a re-examination or medication of 

theories/ concepts /models /paradigms in guiding the research or review concerned” (p.244). 

Vromans & van Engen (2013) also found that most research conducted in this field was cross 

sectional rather than longitudinal, with small sample sizes (Vromans & van Engen, 2013). These 

limitations will be considered in developing the research methodology for this study.  



26 
 

2.19 Summary 

The review of the literature shows that there is a diverse body of knowledge related to the 

international student education experience and culture shock, but there is very little that looks 

specifically at how culture shock affects the expectations of students, and how these impacts 

on the complex role of the academic in the classroom environment. This topic is a work in 

progress, with increasing levels of interest from institutions about the growing complexity in 

the tertiary environment, and how best to support both academics and sojourners. 

 

  



27 
 

3. Methodology 

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter will outline the research methods, data collection, sampling and analysis. It 

provides discussion and clarification about the research process and why questionnaire and 

focus groups were chosen as the research methods. Data collection is explained, with a 

diagrammatic representation of the mixed methods research procedure. Sampling is outlined 

showing the students subset for results, with a focus on the postgraduate international 

student within the School of Business at SIT. Ethical considerations are discussed and examples 

of supporting documentation can be found in the Appendices.  

3.2 Research strategy 

An increasing number of international students and a deficiency around the effect of culture 

shock in the literature indicated the need for further attention and the purpose of this study. 

Although the focus of this research is in the postgraduate study of international students at 

the Southern Institute of Technology, the methodology and results have a good level of 

transferability to other institutions. The quantitative questionnaire occurred first and informed 

the second stage qualitative focus group to provide a sequential legitimisation of the study.  

3.3 Research approach 

The focus of this study was to investigate which aspects of culture shock are experienced by 

International students studying at postgraduate level, with an aim to provide 

recommendations to the Institute on how to mitigate culture shock and the tension this causes 

between students and academic staff. The study used an interpretive stance, with a 

phenomenological philosophy to focus on the experiences of international students. It was 

based on research models related to Culture Shock (particularly Oberg, 1960 cited in Egenes, 

2012; Lysgaard, 1955 cited in Zhou, Jindal-Snape, Topping & Todman, 2008; Anderson, 1994 

cited in Lewthwaite, 1997) and theories of academic expectations proposed in Fanghanel 

(2012).  The research investigated the student experiences grounded in current literature 

around culture shock. The flow chart following outlines the methodological approach used in 

this study. 

 



28 
 

Figure 3. 1 Methodological Approach 

 

 

 

 

 

A questionnaire was conducted within the postgraduate international student population, and 

these results informed the direction and questions for the nested sample who took part in the 

focus group. According to researchers such as Onwuegbuzie & Collins (2007) using a sequential 

approach may influence the research questions for the qualitative phase of the data analysis 

and gives legitimacy to the second phase. Because of the small size of the student population, 

the whole population was included in the sample in the quantitative phase where any 

postgraduate International student studying in the School of Business has an equal and 

independent chance of being chosen for the study. A nested sample was used for the 

qualitative phase, as this sampling method allows for further investigation and explanation of 

themes and concepts identified in the previous stage.  

3.4 Mixed Method Approach 
Although there is much discussion in the literature about the merits of a mixed method 

approach in research design (Feilzer, 2010), the overall aim of mixing quantitative and 

qualitative methods is to produce better results than a single method could (Johnson & 

Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The study used a mixed methods approach to gather data on the student 

group to identify themes and patterns within questionnaire responses, with the focus group 

adding student voice and a greater level of depth to the statistics. Using a focus group, themes 

in the statistics could be explained through content analysis, descriptive summaries and 

quotes. Gathering data to answer the research questions separately and then combine them 

to maximise the strengths and minimise the weaknesses of each type of data (Creswell, 

Klassen, Plano Clark & Smith, 2010) was the aim of using a mixed method approach. The 

research questions for this study (noted earlier) were created to focus on the strengths of each 

method to investigate the same underlying phenomenon as suggested by Onwuegbuzie & 

Leech (2006).  

The important part of analysis, relating to this study, included the use of words and narrative 

to add meaning to numbers; using sequential design where the quantitative results inform the 

 
Research 

design 

Explanatory 

Research 

philosophy 

Phenomenological 

Research 

approach 

Interpretive 

 

Methodological 

choice 

Mixed method 

Time 

horizon 

Cross 

Sectional 

Methods 

Questionnaire  

Focus group 



29 
 

questions for the qualitative focus group; adding insights which might be missed using one 

approach; and increasing the generalisability of results. Weaknesses inherently occurred 

during this study through a lack of experience by the researcher, time constraints and expense. 

Measures were taken to reduce these weaknesses by the design and completion of this study.   

3.4.1 Reason for Mixing Methods 
The procedural diagram presented by Ivankova & Stick (2001, p.9 cited in Creswell & Plano 

Clark, 2011, p.121) shows the integration and flow of each phase of research. 

  



30 
 

3.4.2 Procedural Diagram of Mixed Methods 

 

Figure 3. 2 Explanatory Design of Culture Shock Experienced by International  

 

PHASE 
 

 PROCEDURE PRODUCT 

 
QUAN data collection 
 

  
Cross sectional 
questionnaire 

 
Numeric data 

 
 
 

   

 
QUAN data analysis 

 Data screening (multivariate) 
Factor analysis 
Frequency 
Qualtrics 

Descriptive statistics, 
missing data, linearity 
Factor loading 
 

 
 
 

   

  Selecting participants i.e. 
convenience 
Nested sample 
Develop focus group 
questions 

Cases (N= 6) 
 
 
 
Focus group protocol 

 
 
 

   

 
qual data collection 
 

 Focus group 6 participants Record data 
Transcribe 

 
 
 

   

 
qual data analysis 

 Coding and content analysis 
Cross-content analysis 
Quotes of key issues 

Codes, themes, 
frequencies 
Identify key quotes 
Descriptive summaries 

 
 
 

   

  Interpretation and 
explanation of which 
students experience culture 
shock the most and why? 

Discussion 
Implications 
Future research 

Focus group 

selection 

Integration of 

QUAN and qual 



31 
 

3.5 Research Design 

The first stage of the study, the questionnaire, identified those students most affected by 

culture shock. Use of an explanatory sequential approach, as described by Creswell, Klassen, 

Plano Clark & Smith (2010), the second phase incorporated a qualitative approach to gather 

rich data from questioning in the focus group. This two-phase approach further enhanced the 

reliability of both types of data, where multiple regression analysis was complemented with 

qualitative reviews of student perception to give a broader perspective of the topic (Topping, 

1998).  

The timing for the research was sequential, with the qualitative research taking place before 

the quantitative, rather than occurring concurrently.  

3.6 Data collection and tools 

The first phase of data collection was via a questionnaire with the total population of 

postgraduate international students studying in the School of Business at SIT. The second 

phase was a nested sample of volunteers from the questionnaire who were chosen based on 

when they responded, and to ensure an even mix of female and male participants, four female 

and two males were selected (N=6). The tools and process used are described in more detail 

below.  

3.6.1 Quantitative Research  

The quantitative method was the main method used in this stu