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     BETWEEN TWO WORLDS: TENSIONS OF PRACTICE ENCOUNTERED BY  SECONDARY SCHOOL MUSIC TEACHERS IN  AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND        A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the degree of  Doctor of Philosophy in Education at  Massey University, Manawatu Campus, New Zealand          Judith Diane Donaldson  2012
 Copyright is owned by the author of this thesis. Permission is given for the thesis to be downloaded or copied by an individual for the purpose of research or private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the author.  
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Abstract 
This qualitative study examined the tensions of practice encountered in the daily working lives of secondary school music teachers who hold the responsibility for music in their school. The analysis used data from semi-structured interviews with nineteen participants, including current and former practitioners and music advisors in Aotearoa New Zealand. The participants represent a range of musical traditions, teaching experiences, and demographics. Data were analysed thematically in terms of four research questions: (i) the expectations attached to the role of secondary school music teacher; (ii) the tensions of practice encountered; (iii) the manner in which teachers experienced their working lives; and (iv) their efforts to resolve the tensions they encountered. Major tensions of practice were found to arise from the boundary positions which teachers occupied at the interface of two worlds ? the inner world of music and the outer world of the school ? and from the complex demands of working in the three different areas of classroom, extra-curricular and itinerant music. Further tensions stemmed from changes brought about by national policy changes from the mid-1990s to a broad, practically-based official curriculum and standards-based assessment in senior secondary school credentials. Within their roles, teachers experienced conflict, ambiguity and overload which had an impact on personal well-being and their identities as musicians. They derived satisfaction from drawing students into the inner life and meaning of music. The study addresses a major gap in the understanding of secondary teachers? work. It contributes to local and international research literature into the lives of teachers, the position of music in schools, and the nature of music education. It has practical and theoretical implications for policy makers, school leaders, teachers and researchers.   
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Acknowledgements 
There is an adage that it takes a community to raise a child. In the years spent bringing this thesis from the germ of an idea to fruition, I have received love, guidance and encouragement from colleagues, family and friends within many communities.   This study could not have been undertaken without the nineteen participants who so generously gave of their time and shared their experiences of music and music teaching with me. It was a privilege to listen to their stories and I hope that I have done justice to them. I hope too, that this thesis will help to make more visible the work that these dedicated teachers undertake in the service of our young people. My sincere thanks go to every participant in this study.  Professor John O?Neill, my chief supervisor, and Dr Sally Hansen have provided me with expert and timely guidance throughout. Thank you John for the belief you have shown in me since my first tentative suggestion in 2004 that I might undertake doctoral studies. I have learned much from your scholarly approach and the clarity of your thinking. I have appreciated your dry humour, and your challenge to avoid ten words when two will do. Adverbs, adjectives and ?throat clearing? have taken on a whole new meaning! Thank you Sally for the insights provided by your deep understanding of teachers and teaching, your wisdom, and for your encouragement and confidence in me. They have meant a great deal. I count myself very fortunate to have been guided by supervisors who have worked so cooperatively in my interests.  I am grateful to Massey University and particularly to Dr Kama Weir and Dr Alison Kearney and the Schools of Arts, Development and Health Education and Curriculum and Pedagogy for the support and encouragement provided to me. My sincere thanks are also due to my colleagues, who, particularly in the latter stages of the project, have helped to make space and time available. I am also grateful to Massey University for assistance provided by a research award in 2011, which enabled me to create blocks of time for writing. My thanks go, too, to Philippa Butler, for her proof-reading expertise.  I have very much appreciated the support of friends and close colleagues also engaged in doctoral studies. It has been encouraging to celebrate the successes and know that it is possible to reach the end of the journey. To the ?7.30 am Moxies Ladies? ? Jenny, Kama, Karen, Rowena, and Zoe ? thank you! Wednesday morning breakfast 
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at Moxies has been a weekly highlight, with an opportunity to take stock, compare notes, laugh and re-charge for the next leg of the journey. I treasure too, the love and friendship of the BMWs, the encouragement of my fellow arts ?PhD Pilgrims? ? Jenny, Rosemary and Tracey-Lynne ? and the guidance and life lessons learned with Nigel and the Process. All have contributed to this project.  Many of the sacrifices necessitated by part-time doctoral studies have been borne by my family. There aren?t enough words to thank them for the love and understanding they have so unstintingly offered. To my dad Ken, and step-mum Jill, husband Guy, sisters Sue and Penny, to my UK and Chicago-based sons ? Lee and Gavin ? their wives Sandy and Janet and their children, to Owen and Xiaodan, and to all the members of our rich extended and blended family ? thank you, from the bottom of my heart.     
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Dedication 
This thesis is dedicated to:  My Dad, Ken Gregory, whose inner life and love of music still shine through in his ninety-third year, and in loving memory of my mother, Joan. Their shared vision of a family bach at Kuratau on the shores of Lake Taupo, furnished a tranquil and often solitary retreat where much of the gritty work for this project was undertaken.  And to my husband Guy, expert musician and master teacher, who walked the journey at my side, giving support when the going got tough and celebrating with me the small successes along the way.  
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Table of Contents 
Chapter 1  Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Context and rationale for the study ..................................................................... 1 1.2 The study ............................................................................................................ 3 1.3 Personal story: From practitioner to researcher ................................................. 5 1.3.1 Exploration of my values and motivations .................................................... 6 1.3.2 My position as the researcher ...................................................................... 9 1.4 Structure of the thesis ....................................................................................... 10 
Chapter 2  Music education and compulsory schooling ......................................... 13 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 13 2.2 Nature, value, and purpose of music and music education .............................. 14 2.2.1 Development of music education ............................................................... 15 2.2.2 Justifications for music in the school curriculum ........................................ 16 2.3 Approaches to secondary school music education from the mid-twentieth century ....................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Traditional approach .................................................................................. 18 2.3.2 Progressive approach ................................................................................ 20 2.3.3 Broader-based approaches ........................................................................ 21 2.3.4 Impact of contemporary cultural forces on school music education ........... 21 2.4 New Zealand school music education traditions and contemporary practice ... 23 2.4.1 The contemporary New Zealand schooling context ...................................... 23 2.4.2 Origins of classroom music ........................................................................ 24 2.4.3 Development of music as a secondary school subject in New Zealand .... 24 2.4.4 Status of music as an academic subject in New Zealand .......................... 27 2.4.5 Itinerant music ............................................................................................ 28 2.4.6 Extra-curricular music ................................................................................ 29 2.5 Contemporary policy context ............................................................................ 30 2.5.1 Socio-political context of the curriculum ..................................................... 30 
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2.5.2 The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum ................................................... 32 2.5.3 Senior school music components and credentialing requirements ............ 35 2.5.4 Assessment in senior music ...................................................................... 36 2.6 Chapter summary ............................................................................................. 38 
Chapter 3  Teachers? work and music education .................................................... 41 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 41 3.2 Secondary school music teaching and teachers .............................................. 42 3.2.1 Large scale studies of secondary school music teaching .......................... 42 3.2.2 New Zealand studies of music teaching and teachers .............................. 45 3.2.3 Secondary school music teachers? lives ........................................................ 49 3.3 Teachers? workload .......................................................................................... 50 3.3.1 Expansion and intensification of teachers? roles ........................................ 50 3.3.2 Workload of New Zealand teachers ........................................................... 51 3.3.3 Explanations of work overload ................................................................... 53 3.4 Emotional aspects of teaching ......................................................................... 53 3.4.1 Teacher motivations and satisfactions ....................................................... 54 3.4.2 Teacher stress ........................................................................................... 55 3.4.3 Burnout ...................................................................................................... 58 3.5 Teachers, identity, and community ................................................................... 59 3.5.1 Personal and professional identity ............................................................. 59 3.5.2 Identity and community in teaching ........................................................... 61 3.6 Contexts of teaching ......................................................................................... 64 3.6.1 Teachers? professional knowledge landscapes ......................................... 64 3.6.2 Codes of knowledge .................................................................................. 65 3.6.3 Organisational stress: Role conflict, overload and ambiguity .................... 67 3.7 Chapter summary ............................................................................................. 69 3.8 Summary from Chapters 2 and 3 ..................................................................... 70 
Chapter 4  Methodology ............................................................................................. 73 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 73 
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4.2 Philosophical foundations of this research ....................................................... 73 4.2.1 Research paradigm .................................................................................... 74 4.2.2 Qualitative research ................................................................................... 75 4.2.3 The postmodern mood ............................................................................... 76 4.2.4 Bricolage and the bricoleur ........................................................................ 77 4.3 Issues of accountability ..................................................................................... 79 4.3.1 Reliability or dependability ......................................................................... 80 4.3.2 Internal validity or credibility ....................................................................... 80 4.3.3 External validity, generalisability and transferability ................................... 81 4.4 Research design ............................................................................................... 82 4.4.1 Research aims and questions .................................................................... 82 4.4.2 Methodological bricolage ........................................................................... 82 4.4.3 Ethical action .............................................................................................. 86 4.4.4 Research method: Semi-structured interview-conversations ..................... 88 4.4.5 Participants ................................................................................................ 89 4.4.6 Sampling process ....................................................................................... 91 4.5 Fieldwork .......................................................................................................... 94 4.5.1 Informed consent ....................................................................................... 94 4.5.2 Data collection ............................................................................................ 94 4.6 Data analysis, presentation and interpretation ................................................. 96 4.6.1 Data analysis .............................................................................................. 96 4.6.2 Data presentation ....................................................................................... 98 4.6.3 Interpretive bricolage ................................................................................ 100 4.6.4 Development of the two worlds metaphor ................................................ 100 4.7 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 104 
Chapter 5  Teachers and their role expectations ................................................... 105 5.1 Introduction to the five data chapters .............................................................. 105 5.1.1 Introduction to Chapter 5 .......................................................................... 105 5.2 Musical backgrounds of the participants ......................................................... 105 
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5.3 Motivation to become a secondary music teacher ......................................... 112 5.4 Teachers? beliefs about the value of music .................................................... 116 5.5 Core expectations of the teachers? roles ........................................................ 118 5.5.1 Classroom teaching ................................................................................. 118 5.5.2 Head of music department ....................................................................... 119 5.5.3 Additional responsibilities ........................................................................ 121 5.5.4 Teacher in charge of music ..................................................................... 121 5.6 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 122 
Chapter 6  The music classroom and junior music ............................................... 125 6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 125 6.2 Teaching music as a classroom subject ......................................................... 125 6.2.1 Nature of the music curriculum ................................................................ 125 6.2.2 Nature of learning in music ...................................................................... 128 6.2.3 Resourcing the music classroom ............................................................. 131 6.2.4 Teaching spaces ...................................................................................... 132 6.2.5 Teaching materials and resources ........................................................... 133 6.2.6 Classroom computers .............................................................................. 134 6.3 Position of music as one of ?the arts? .............................................................. 137 6.4 Teaching music in the junior school ............................................................... 139 6.4.1 Nature of year 9 music classes ................................................................ 139 6.4.2 Time available to teach junior classes ..................................................... 140 6.4.3 Prior learning in music ............................................................................. 145 6.4.4 Primary school music ............................................................................... 146 6.5 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 147 
Chapter 7  The senior music classroom ................................................................. 149 7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 149 7.2 Course design ................................................................................................ 149 7.2.1 Course design for small numbers of students ......................................... 151 7.2.2 Multi-level classes .................................................................................... 151 
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7.2.3 Individual learning programmes ............................................................... 153 7.2.4 Management of individual learning programmes ..................................... 155 7.2.5 Role of the teacher ................................................................................... 155 7.3 Assessment .................................................................................................... 157 7.3.1 Tensions between learning and assessment ........................................... 158 7.3.2 Focus on credits ....................................................................................... 158 7.3.3 Gaps in learning ....................................................................................... 159 7.3.4 Internal assessment ................................................................................. 161 7.3.5 Manageability of performance assessments ............................................ 161 7.3.6 Manageability of performing arts unit standards ...................................... 163 7.3.7 Assessment workload .............................................................................. 164 7.3.8 Student workload ..................................................................................... 164 7.3.9 Moderation ............................................................................................... 165 7.4 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 166 
Chapter 8  Beyond the Classroom ........................................................................... 169 8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 169 8.2 Management and administration ....................................................................... 169 8.2.1 Role of head of music .............................................................................. 169 8.2.2 Role of teacher in charge of music ........................................................... 171 8.2.3 Extra-curricular administration ................................................................. 173 8.2.4 Management of instrumental music resources ........................................ 173 8.3 The itinerant programme ................................................................................ 176 8.3.1 Itinerant instrumental music scheme in state schools .............................. 176 8.3.2 Funding and prioritising of lessons in state schools ................................. 177 8.3.3 Music lessons in private and state integrated schools ............................. 180 8.4 Extra-curricular activities ................................................................................. 181 8.4.1 Music groups ............................................................................................ 181 8.4.2 Role of music in the corporate life of the school ...................................... 184 8.4.3 Musical productions ................................................................................. 186 
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8.4.4 Relationship between curricular and extra-curricular music .................... 189 8.5 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 190 
Chapter 9  Teachers? working lives ......................................................................... 191 9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 191 9.2 Rhythms of the music teachers? days ............................................................. 191 9.2.1 Lunch time and morning break ................................................................ 194 9.2.2 Form time ................................................................................................. 194 9.2.3 Duty ......................................................................................................... 195 9.3 Collegial support ............................................................................................. 197 9.3.1 Professional isolation ............................................................................... 197 9.3.2 Other arts colleagues ............................................................................... 198 9.3.3 Collegial role of itinerant teachers ........................................................... 199 9.3.4 Other music colleagues ........................................................................... 200 9.3.5 Senior management ................................................................................ 201 9.4 Personal impacts and subsequent decisions ................................................. 203 9.4.1 The choice to remain ............................................................................... 203 9.4.2 Personal impacts of music teaching ........................................................ 205 9.4.3 Impacts on the teachers? musical lives .................................................... 208 9.4.4 The decision to leave ............................................................................... 210 9.5 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 210 9.6 Summary of the five data chapters ................................................................. 211 
Chapter 10  Discussion ............................................................................................ 213 10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 213 10.2 What are the expectations attached to the role of secondary school music teacher? .................................................................................................................. 214 10.2.1 Teachers? expectations .......................................................................... 215 10.2.2 Expectations of school management ..................................................... 218 10.3 What do secondary school music teachers perceive to be the tensions of their practice? .................................................................................................................. 220 
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10.3.1 Primal tension of practice ....................................................................... 220 10.3.2 Classification .......................................................................................... 221 10.3.3 Framing .................................................................................................. 224 10.4 How do secondary school music teachers experience their working lives? . 225 10.4.1 Connection: Satisfactions ....................................................................... 226 10.4.2 Disconnection: Stressors and their impacts on identity .......................... 228 10.4.3 Contexts that exacerbated pressures and stress ................................... 233 10.4.4 It?s different for the music teacher .......................................................... 236 10.5 How do secondary school music teachers go about resolving their tensions of practice? .................................................................................................................. 237 10.6 Chapter summary ......................................................................................... 238 
Chapter 11  Conclusions .......................................................................................... 243 11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 243 11.2 The two worlds metaphor ............................................................................. 243 11.3 Research findings ......................................................................................... 244 11.3.1 What are the expectations attached to the role of secondary school music teacher? ............................................................................................................... 244 11.3.2 What do secondary school music teachers perceive to be the tensions of their practice? ....................................................................................................... 245 11.3.3 How do secondary school music teachers experience their working lives? 246 11.3.4 How do secondary school music teachers go about resolving their tensions of practice? ............................................................................................ 246 11.4 Strengths and limitations of the study ........................................................... 246 11.5 Contributions to knowledge .......................................................................... 249 11.5.1 Knowledge of teaching and teachers? lives ............................................ 249 11.5.2 Music education ..................................................................................... 250 11.6 Implications for policy ................................................................................... 250 11.7 Implications for practice ................................................................................ 252 11.8 Recommendations for further research ........................................................ 253 
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11.9 Final thoughts ............................................................................................... 254 
References ................................................................................................................ 255 
Appendix A: Participant information sheet ............................................................ 271 
Appendix B: Interview schedule - current practitioners ....................................... 274 
Appendix C: Interview schedule - former teachers ............................................... 275 
Appendix D: Interview schedule - advisors ........................................................... 276 
Appendix E: Participant consent form ................................................................... 277 
Appendix F: Access letter ........................................................................................ 278 
Appendix G: Access consent form ......................................................................... 280 
Appendix H: Transcriber confidentiality ................................................................ 281 
Appendix I: Example of an Evidence Table ............................................................ 283      List of Tables 
Table 1: Participant details ........................................................................................... 93    
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Glossary 
ANZ Aotearoa New Zealand The name for New Zealand which recognises M?ori as the people of the land ANZC The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum Curriculum document for the arts. Published in 2000 and replaced by the NZC in 2007 ANZAAE The Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Art Educators The professional association of visual art educators in ANZ ATCL Associate of Trinity College of London A music qualification at diploma level ERO Education Review Office Government body which reports publicly on the quality of education in NZ schools HOD Head of Department A middle management position HOF Head of Faculty A middle management position usually encompassing several departments IEP Individual educational plan A term used in special education but used here by music teachers to indicate individual learning programmes IRMT Institute of Registered Music Teachers Professional organisation of music teachers ITM Itinerant teacher of music Instrumental and vocal teachers who provide lessons to secondary students during the school day MENZA Music Education New Zealand Aotearoa National subject association for music education MERC National Centre for Research in Music Education Partner organisation of MENZA METANZ Music Education Trust Aotearoa New Zealand A charitable trust for music education advocacy 
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NCEA National Certificate in Educational Achievement National qualification for secondary school students with 3 levels NZ New Zealand  NZC New Zealand Curriculum Official NZ school curriculum published in 2007 and mandated from 2010 NZCF New Zealand Choral Federation National choral network in NZ NZQA New Zealand Qualifications Authority Has a range of roles in secondary and tertiary education. Administers NCEA. NZSME New Zealand Society for Music Education National music education society which was replaced from 2004 by MENZA, METANZ and MERC PPTA Post Primary Teachers? Association Secondary teachers? professional association TIC Teacher in Charge of Music An assistant teacher with responsibility for music