Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. Running Head: TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION i Teachers’ Perceptions of their Ongoing Implementation of the Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Programme A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Educational Psychology at Massey University, Albany New Zealand Evanni McGovern 2018 TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION ii Abstract Children’s challenging behaviour has the potential to have long-term and widespread detrimental impacts on their academic success and wellbeing (Church, 2003). In order to manage and prevent the occurrence of challenging behaviours, teachers require evidence-based strategies that are culturally responsive. The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management programme (IYT) is an example of teacher PLD and a programme to be implemented to manage challenging behaviour. This research focused on exploring teachers’ perceptions of their ongoing implementation of IYT, with particular focus on the supports and barriers for IYT’s sustainability, and the cultural responsiveness of IYT to the New Zealand context. The study employed a qualitative approach, gathering data through semi-structured interviews with five teachers. Through the thematic analysis, the supports and barriers to teachers’ ongoing implementation of IYT were identified, along with the positive outcomes of IYT. The main findings showed that teachers were positive about IYT overall, and universally felt it aligned with their values, and their schools’ culture. The teachers felt supported by their peers and other professionals, particularly in the collaborative context of the Modern Learning Environment (MLE), and by the Positive Behaviour for Learning (PB4L) framework (Ministry of Education, 2015b). Additionally, the findings also provided in-depth and unique examples of how teachers were able to reflect on their practice to ensure they were continuing to use IYT in a culturally responsive way. Key words: Incredible Years Teacher, classroom management, challenging behaviour, professional learning and development, modern learning environment TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION iii Acknowledgements Thank you to my supervisors, Dr Elizabeth Doell and Dr Vijaya Dharan, for sharing your extensive knowledge and expertise with me. Your guidance and thoughtful feedback has been invaluable. Thank you to the incredible teachers who dedicated their time to share their experiences and thoughts with me. You each provided valuable and insightful contributions, and this research would not have been possible without you. To my whānau and friends, thank you for your unwavering support. Ehara taku toa i te toa takitahi, engari he toa takitini – My strength is not mine alone, it comes from the collective. TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION iv Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 Challenging Behaviours .................................................................................. 1 The New Zealand Context .............................................................................. 2 The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Programme ............. 2 Purpose and Nature of the Study .................................................................... 3 Researcher Background .................................................................................. 3 Summary of Chapters ..................................................................................... 4 Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................. 5 The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Programme ............. 5 Effective Teacher Professional Learning and Development .......................... 7 Efficacy of The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Programme .................................................................................................... 15 The New Zealand Context ............................................................................ 21 Summary ....................................................................................................... 25 Chapter Three: Methodology ...................................................................................... 26 Introduction ................................................................................................... 26 Research Questions ....................................................................................... 26 Research Design ........................................................................................... 26 Research Paradigm ....................................................................................... 27 Participants ................................................................................................... 28 Data Collection ............................................................................................. 30 Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 32 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................. 34 Chapter 4: Results ......................................................................................................... 36 Supports and Barriers to Ongoing Implementation ...................................... 36 Positive Outcomes of IYT ............................................................................ 43 Summary ....................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................... 50 Supports and Barriers to Ongoing Implementation ...................................... 51 Positive Outcomes of IYT ............................................................................ 54 Summary ....................................................................................................... 57 Chapter Six: Conclusion .............................................................................................. 60 Practice Implications .................................................................................... 60 Strengths and Limitations ............................................................................. 61 Areas for Future Research ............................................................................ 62 TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION v Final Thoughts .............................................................................................. 63 References ...................................................................................................................... 64 Appendix A: IYT Pyramid of Strategies ....................................................................... 75 Appendix B: Information Sheet for Principals .............................................................. 76 Appendix C: Consent Form for Principals .................................................................... 78 Appendix D: Information Sheet for Teachers ................................................................ 79 Appendix E: Interview Protocol .................................................................................... 81 Appendix F: Consent Form for Teachers ...................................................................... 83 Appendix G: Transcript Release Form .......................................................................... 84 Appendix H: Example of Transcript Coding ................................................................. 85 Appendix I: Ethical Approval ........................................................................................ 89 TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION vi List of Tables and Figures Table 1. Participant Pseudonyms, and Teacher, IYT Training and School Details ....... 29 Figure 1. Thematic Network of Supports and Barriers to Teachers’ Ongoing Implementation of IYT. .................................................................................. 37 Figure 2. Thematic Network of Positive Outcomes of IYT. .......................................... 44 Figure 3. Thematic Network of Teachers' Ongoing Implementation of IYT. ............... 50 TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 1 Chapter One: Introduction This study investigated New Zealand (NZ) primary school teachers’ perceptions of their ongoing implementation of the Incredible Years Teacher (IYT) Classroom Management programme. This research focused on the fit between IYT, the teachers, and their schools, and the teachers’ perspectives regarding the cultural responsiveness of IYT to NZ. This chapter begins with an overview of challenging behaviours among children and young people, and how such behaviours are addressed in NZ. The IYT programme is then described, followed by the consideration of how IYT as professional learning and development (PLD) for teachers can be effective for managing challenging behaviour. Finally, this chapter outlines the purpose and nature of this study, presents the researcher’s background, and a summary of chapters. Challenging Behaviours Children’s challenging behaviour is an internationally recognised issue that can have long-term and detrimental impacts on the social, emotional and academic functioning of an individual and their peers (Church, 2003; Kauffman & Landrum, 2013; Ministry of Education (MoE), 2014; Webster-Stratton, 2011). In the classroom context, teachers require evidence-based classroom management strategies to reduce the occurrence of challenging behaviours, and increased prosocial and desired behaviours. Prosocial and desired behaviours (e.g. children’s compliance with instructions, learning engagement, and positive social interactions) have the potential to contribute to improving educational outcomes (Church, 2003). As unresolved poor educational outcomes are linked to poor health outcomes and a low quality of life (Ministry of Health, 2018; Ministry of Social Development, 2015), teachers require effective strategies to both manage and prevent challenging behaviour. Challenging behaviour can refer to a broad range of behaviours, commonly including disruptive, defiant, aggressive and delinquent behaviours, which tend to deviate from the behavioural norms of a particular context (Church, 2003; Kauffman & Landrum, 2013). This thesis draws on ecological theory which attributes behaviour as the function of the interaction between individuals and their environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Lewin, 1936). This conceptualisation of challenging behaviour aligns with Webster-Stratton’s (2011), who is the author of the Incredible Years (IY), a series of programmes for teachers, parents and children aimed at managing challenging behaviour. Throughout the literature, there is no general consensus on the terminology used to refer to challenging behaviours (Kauffman & Landrum, 2013), therefore this TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 2 thesis uses the term challenging behaviour to define these behaviours with similar characteristics, for example aggression and non-compliance. However, when reporting research findings, the term published by the authors will be used. The New Zealand Context In NZ, it is estimated that between 6 and 25% of primary-aged children exhibit challenging behaviour (MoE, 2014). Therefore, high quality effective interventions must be available and culturally appropriate, as Māori are disproportionately overrepresented in statistics of low educational achievement (Macfarlane & Macfarlane, 2013; MoE, 2011). Based on various reports by the Government Advisory Group on Conduct Problems regarding effective evidence-based strategies to target challenging behaviour (Blissett et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2011), the NZ MoE devised the Positive Behaviour for Learning (PB4L) framework to support positive behaviour in schools (MoE, 2015b). Implemented nationally since 2011, the components of PB4L include: The Incredible Years Teacher and Parent programmes (IYT and IYP), and School- Wide, a systemic support (MoE, 2015b). Evidence suggests that effective strategies to prevent and remediate challenging behaviour generally include early intervention, social skills training, and consistency between settings - that is, home and school (Blisset et al., 2009b; Church, 2003). School-Wide, IYT and IYP work together within the PB4L framework to provide a holistic intervention and prevention strategy to promote positive behaviour and learning outcomes for children in NZ. The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Programme The Incredible Years series of programmes for parents and teachers of children aged three to eight years aims to develop the skills and strategies required to reduce target behaviours and promote positive social interactions (Webster-Stratton, 2011). Developed in 1994, IYT focuses on improving teachers’ classroom management in order to increase children’s prosocial behaviour and school readiness, and decrease the occurrence of challenging behaviour (Webster-Stratton, 2012). IYT involves the use of positive behaviour management strategies, designed to promote teachers’ self confidence in managing behaviour, with a focus on building strong positive relationships with students and whānau (family). Although IYT is underpinned by a prescriptive approach, it also allows for contextual and cultural adaptation (Webster- Stratton, 2016). Due to the potential detrimental outcomes of challenging behaviour, and the associated low educational outcomes, a common focus for teacher PLD is classroom TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 3 management strategies for challenging behaviour (Anthony & Kane, 2008; Johansen, Little & Akin-Little, 2011; Woodcock & Reupert, 2017). Although it is widely accepted that teacher PLD has the potential to have a widespread positive impact on student learning and teaching quality (Kennedy, 2016; Timperley, Wilson, Barrar & Fung, 2007), various interrelated factors can contribute to PLD’s efficacy (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). These factors will be discussed in the following chapter, organised into a three- subsystem framework proposed by Opfer and Pedder (2011), which acknowledges the interaction between teacher, school and activity level variables. The current study positions IYT as PLD, as the MoE refers to IYT as such (Wylie & Felgate, 2016c). Therefore, specific examples of IYT will be incorporated into the discussion of literature related to PLD. Purpose and Nature of the Study The focus of this study was to understand what aspects of IYT primary school teachers were continuing to implement in their practice, and why. The emphasis on the ‘why’ relates to investigating teachers’ perceptions of the cultural appropriateness of IYT to the NZ mainstream classroom context; and IYT’s fit with the values of the teachers and their schools. By understanding teachers’ perceptions, the aim is to provide a practical set of suggestions about the ways in which teachers’ sustained implementation of IYT can be supported. The study was located in the central northern region of NZ. Researcher Background According to Mills (2014), when undertaking qualitative research the researcher should outline their background and positionality to enhance the confirmability of the findings. By explicitly stating this positionality, the readers of this research may be able to ascertain the degree to which the researcher’s values have influenced the data collection and analysis. Therefore, the researcher’s background is now outlined. After completing a bachelor’s degree majoring in Psychology, I decided to pursue a Master of Educational Psychology, as throughout my undergraduate learning I recognised the potential for high quality and inclusive education to be a mediating factor for many social issues. I am currently working as an Education Support Worker within the Early Childhood sector, and as such, I am increasingly understanding how important the early years are for setting up our tamariki (children) for lifelong learning. TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 4 The values that underpin my worldview, and thus may influence this research are related to social justice and culture. I believe that every child has the right to access the supports they need to succeed in education to the best of their ability, and that these supports should be culturally responsive. Although I am a NZ pākehā, I have a great interest in expanding my understanding of Māori tikanga (culture and custom); and understanding the ways in which we can ensure the educational and behavioural strategies we employ (such as IYT) help to empower both Māori and non-Māori to fulfil their potential. The potential for my values to bias this study was managed by firstly, transparently presenting my positionality; and secondly, using a process of peer review for the data analysis, which will be discussed in chapter three. Summary of Chapters This thesis has been presented in six chapters. Chapter two reviews the literature related to effective teacher PLD, and the efficacy and appropriateness of IYT internationally and in NZ. Chapter three outlines the methodological approach employed in this study, and provides a justification for using a qualitative approach and thematic analysis. Chapter four presents the findings of the study, based on the thematic analysis of interview data. Chapter five provides a discussion of these findings in relation to the reviewed literature and the research questions. Finally, chapter six concludes this thesis and considers the strengths and limitations of this study and areas for future research. TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 5 Chapter Two: Literature Review This chapter reviews the literature regarding effective teacher PLD, with a particular focus on the IYT programme. Firstly, IYT is described, including details of the underlying theoretical principles. Secondly, the factors contributing to effective teacher PLD are presented within Opfer and Pedder’s (2011) framework. The international and NZ literature regarding IYT is then reviewed. The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Programme The Incredible Years Teacher classroom management programme is an evidence-based PLD approach which aims to support teachers’ development of classroom management for challenging behaviours (Webster-Stratton, 2011; Wylie & Felgate, 2016c). By managing behaviour, IYT aims to improve the social, emotional and academic functioning of children in the classroom. The IYT course content is divided into sections as a focus for six sessions (Webster-Stratton, 2011), as shown below: Workshop 1: Building positive relationships with students; Preventing behaviour problems – The proactive teacher Workshop 2: The importance of teacher attention, coaching, and praise Workshop 3: Motivating children through incentives Workshop 4: Ignoring and redirecting Workshop 5: Follow through with consequences Workshop 6: Emotional regulation, social skills and problem solving. (p. 148) The IYT strategies are presented in a pyramid format (Appendix A), in which the strategies to be used most often (praise, encouragement, attention) are situated at the base, and strategies to be used selectively (warnings, consequences) are situated at the top (Webster-Stratton, 2011). The pyramid reflects the need for frequent positive interactions to build a strong foundation of positive behaviours; whereas the least used interactions focus on reducing target behaviours. This pyramid strategy is underpinned by Patterson’s (1982) coercion theory, which communicates the process of mutual reinforcement, in which negative reactions from parents or teachers inadvertently reinforce challenging behaviour. Webster-Stratton (2011) presents the IY strategies as a method to interrupt this coercive cycle by focusing on the occurrence of positive behaviours. This focus on positive behaviour is linked to IYT strategies such as praising desired behaviours, and using descriptive feedback to draw attention to particular behaviours (to highlight behaviour expectations without attaching value terms). TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 6 Theoretical underpinnings. IYT employs strategies that aim to draw students’ attention to the occurrence of positive behaviour, for example through praise or proximal praise. Such strategies are linked to Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory, which posits that children learn behaviour through observations of their environment. By drawing attention to positive behaviours, IYT strategies aim to influence children’s observational learning of positive behaviours. This approach reinforces the occurrence of positive behaviours using the principles of operant conditioning (McGilloway et al., 2012; Skinner, 1938), a behaviourist theory which states that rewarded or reinforced behaviour will increase in frequency. IYT’s focus on positive behaviours also emphasises the importance of building positive relationships between teachers, students and whānau, which Webster-Stratton (2011) considers an important aspect of managing behaviour. According to Webster-Stratton (2011), positive relationships are a prerequisite for building students’ compliance, motivation, and thus, their learning. To build students’ intrinsic motivation, Webster-Stratton advocates for the use of praise and positive attention to desired behaviours to encourage children to build their skills, persist in difficult tasks, and build self-efficacy. She also advocates the use of tangible rewards (e.g. stickers, tokens, access to special activities) to “sustain a child’s motivation until a positive relationship has been developed with the teacher that will make praise and attention more motivating” (Webster-Stratton, 2011, p. 154). The impact of external rewards on intrinsic motivation has been debated in the literature over many years. For example, various authors suggest that external rewards decrease intrinsic motivation (Deci, Ryan & Koestner, 2001; Jovanovic & Matejevic, 2014; Stipek, 2002), whereas others have found external rewards have no effect on internal motivation (Cameron & Pierce, 1994, 2002). However, Webster-Stratton (2012) argues that the use of extrinsic rewards has no impact on children’s internal motivation, and that extrinsic rewards can be a useful strategy to employ while building a positive relationship, which is a prerequisite for encouraging children’s intrinsic motivation. IYT training delivery. The IYT training for teachers consists of six whole-day sessions, over six months, delivered by trained IYT group facilitators to groups of 15 to 18 teachers (Webster-Stratton, 2011). An additional follow-up workshop is delivered three months later. Between workshops, the teachers are given assignments to strengthen their learning, and help to translate theory into practice. These assignments include activities such as practising IYT strategies in the classroom. The monthly TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 7 timeframe allows teachers time to reflect on their learning (Webster-Stratton, 2011). The group facilitators are encouraged to meet with the teachers between sessions to provide support for goals and behaviour plans, and to provide feedback on observations of classroom practice (Webster-Stratton, 2011). Throughout the training sessions, the group facilitators encourage the teachers to practise strategies through role plays, small group discussions and activities. In the sessions, the IYT content is illustrated through DVD vignettes, which feature modelling of teachers interacting with students, accompanied by the facilitator’s scripted narration (Webster-Stratton, 2011). The use of modelling in PLD content delivery is underpinned by Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory, which attributes learned behaviours to observational learning in the environment. In addition to opportunities for observational learning, Webster-Stratton (2011) recommends that the vignettes be used to facilitate collective discussion within the group, for teachers to share their experiences and ideas, and promote problem solving. The training sessions are based on a collaborative group process, to encourage teachers to interact with each other and the content in a meaningful way. Evidence of this collaboration in practice was found by Hutchings and colleagues (2007), who interviewed 21 IYT trained teachers in the United Kingdom (UK). They found that 81% of the teachers reported benefiting from the sharing of experiences and strategies with other participants. Effective Teacher Professional Learning and Development Wylie and Felgate (2016c) describe IYT as “a research-based teacher development programme” (p. 4) which aims to treat children’s behaviour problems, and promote social, academic and emotional competence. Teacher PLD refers to the complex integration of professional knowledge, values, and practice; and the effect it can have on student learning (Timperley et al., 2007). IYT is considered PLD by the MoE (Wylie & Felgate, 2016c) because IYT provides teachers with the opportunity to undertake additional learning; with the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of managing challenging behaviours and transferring their learning into classroom practice to improve student outcomes (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman & Yoon, 2001). As teacher PLD has the potential to have a widespread positive impact on student learning, it is important that the content, methods and application of PLD be evidence-based and contextually appropriate. Despite its importance, throughout the literature many PLD activities are often considered ineffectual due to the lack of resulting changes to teacher practice and student outcomes (Hanushek, 2005; Opfer & TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 8 Pedder, 2011). Research suggests this may be a result of employing PLD approaches with little regard for the context that the teacher and student learning occurs within (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Guskey, 2002; Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Stoll, Bloam, McMahon, Wallace & Thomas, 2006; Timperley & Alton-Lee, 2008). Opfer and Pedder (2011) reviewed the international literature regarding teacher PLD to illustrate the various factors that contribute to its effectiveness. The review integrated literature from various fields, including “professional development, teaching and learning, teacher change, and organizational learning” (Opfer & Pedder, 2011, p. 376) in order to highlight the complex interactions between teacher, school and activity variables related to PLD. Their review considers these variables from a complexity theory perspective (Weaver, 1948), which highlights the interaction between and within variables. According to various studies (Borko, 2004; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Timperley & Alton-Lee, 2008), much of the existing PLD literature focuses on evaluating contributing factors in isolation from each other and the context, which does not accurately reflect the contextually situated process of teaching and learning. Opfer and Pedder’s (2011) framework for evaluating the factors contributing to effective PLD provides an opportunity to understand the ways in which each of the factors may interact. The framework groups the variables related to effective PLD into three subsystems: the teacher; the school; and the learning activity. In the next section, the literature on teacher PLD will be reviewed, guided by Opfer and Pedder’s (2011) subsystem framework, with specific reference to IYT as an approach to PLD regarding behaviour management. Subsystem 1: The teacher. Teacher experiences, beliefs and self-efficacy. According to Richardson (2003), teachers’ past experiences and beliefs have a reciprocal relationship with teaching, as they inform teaching practice, but are also shaped by it. Therefore, the strategies that teachers employ and the degree to which teachers integrate PLD into their practice are largely determined by teachers’ experiences and how well the PLD fits within their beliefs and values (Opfer and Pedder, 2011). An in-depth qualitative case study by Coburn (2001) in California found that when the dissonance between PLD and teachers’ experience, knowledge, values, and practice is too great, teachers are likely to regard the PLD as inappropriate to their context. A longitudinal study by Desimone and colleagues (2002) involving 207 teachers across 30 United States (US) schools TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 9 investigated the effect of mathematics- and science-based PLD on teacher practice. They found that for effective changes to practice, teachers needed a coherent connection between the PLD content and activity, their existing knowledge and beliefs, and its relation to practice. This demonstrates the connections between the subsystems, in this case, the teacher and activity factors. Han and Weiss (2005) postulate that teachers’ beliefs about the acceptability of PLD is closely related to the teachers’ self-efficacy and their perception of the PLD’s effectiveness. Research regarding the impact of IYT on teachers’ self-efficacy suggests that IYT has the potential to enhance teachers’ confidence to manage challenging behaviour (Fergusson, Horwood and Stanley, 2013; Hutchings et al., 2007; Leckey et al., 2016). Yet, none of these studies investigate in-depth the teachers’ perceptions of the acceptability of IYT in relation to their own teaching values. In contrast, Wheatley (2002) suggests that a lack self-efficacy may in fact be beneficial to the process of teacher learning, as teachers’ doubts may provide motivation for learning and change. These contrasting findings demonstrate that effective PLD is a result of various interacting conditions (Opfer & Pedder, 2011), which may vary between contexts and individuals. Teacher engagement with PLD content. An extensive review by Timperley and colleagues (2007) of NZ and international literature found that there was no clear distinction in student and teacher outcomes between teachers whose PLD participation was voluntary or mandatory. For example, mixed method studies by Timperley (2005) and Timperley and Phillips (2003) investigated teacher and student literacy outcomes related to teacher PLD in NZ. Timperley’s (2005) study involved 261 students in years 0 and 1, from schools which volunteered to participate in a literacy PLD programme. The study found that as a result of integrating teacher literacy PLD and school leadership distribution, the students’ reading scores significantly increased compared to controls, with a large effect size of 0.88. Timperley and Phillips’ (2003) study involved 193 students in years 0 to 1, however, the teachers’ participation in a six-month literacy PLD programme was mandatory. Despite the teachers’ mandatory participation, significant effects were found in students’ reading levels when compared to a control group, with a medium effect size of 0.53. Timperley and colleagues (2007) argue that rather than voluntary or mandatory participation, a more important factor was the teachers’ continued engagement with the PLD content throughout the learning process, which had the greatest impact on both teacher and student learning outcomes. TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 10 Donovan and colleagues (1999) frame the concept of teacher engagement as the process of negotiating the meaning of new knowledge in relation to existing knowledge and frameworks. As highlighted by Timperley and Phillips (2003), teachers’ engagement is linked to their self-efficacy. Specifically, teachers’ beliefs that they may be able to improve student outcomes may act as an incentive to engage with PLD that provides an opportunity to improve their practice, and thus student outcomes. This reinforces the aforementioned relationship between teachers’ PLD implementation, their experiences, values and beliefs, self-efficacy and their engagement in learning. Besides the values and beliefs of individual teachers, and their schools, continued teacher engagement with PLD (and its sustained implementation) may also be related to various school-level factors, and will be discussed in the following subsystem. Teacher culture. The cultural context is an important variable when considering teachers’ acceptance of PLD, as culture is embedded within teachers’ experiences, values and beliefs (Kennedy, 2016). As a specific example of teacher PLD, IYT was designed to be employed across cultures (Webster-Stratton, 2011). According to Webster-Stratton (2016), the basic principles of IYT are effective for use between various contexts, but it is recommended that culture specific experiences and metaphors be infused into the training. The extent to which IYT fits with the culture of teachers outside of the US (where it was developed) was investigated by Baker-Henningham and colleagues (2012, 2009) in Jamaica. Their findings suggested that IYT was appropriate for use in the cultural context of Jamaica as a developing country. Within NZ, the fit between IYT and teachers’ cultural values has not been widely researched. Wylie and Felgate (2016b) reported no differences between Māori and non-Māori teacher reports of practice change related to IYT, however, many of the Māori teachers reportedly would have liked more connection with Māori tikanga (ways of doing). As culture can be considered a factor related to individuals and also a contextual variable, it furthermore becomes evident the ways in which the factors between the subsystems can interact to influence the sustainability of PLD outcomes. Subsystem 2: The school. School leadership. Active school leadership has been described as an important aspect of supporting teacher PLD (Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Philips, 2003; Taylor, Pearson & Rodriguez, 2005; Timperley et al., 2007); and refers to supportive and proactive leaders who facilitate the creation of learning cultures in schools (Timperley et al., 2007). A school learning culture may involve the schoolwide TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 11 promotion of PLD opportunities, support to transfer learning into teaching practice, promoting reflection and self-evaluation, and developing an organisational vision that aligns teacher PLD and student outcomes (MacBeath & Mortimer, 2001; MacGilchrist, Myers & Reed, 2004; Timperley et al., 2007). Learning cultures in schools can be considered a prerequisite to providing teachers with the supports needed to sustain their engagement with PLD to effect practice change. At the school level, these supports may include creating opportunities for teachers to engage with PLD alongside teachers across the school or within a professional community. Throughout the literature, there is evidence that teacher learning is an ongoing process, influenced by individual factors (such as teaching experiences, values) and contextual variables (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006; Opfer, Pedder & Lavicza, 2011). According to Leithwood and Jantzi (2006), recognising that teacher learning and practice change is socially constructed and culturally and contextually situated is important when considering the potential for teachers to effectively transfer their PLD into classroom practice. As mentioned in the previous subsystem, ongoing teacher engagement with PLD is related to both teacher and school level factors. The school level variables relate to the ways in which teachers are supported by practical factors to continually engage with the PLD for effective implementation. According to Han and Weiss (2005), school leaders are generally responsible for the allocation of resources, time, and incentives to teacher PLD; which would affect the practicality of teachers’ sustained engagement and implementation of PLD. Timperley and colleagues (2007) bring together findings from various studies, which suggest that school leaders have an important role in supporting teachers to continue to engage with PLD. Montes (2002) reported teachers’ responses detailing the need to find a balance in providing teacher release time for PLD, as many of the teachers reported concerns about the impact their absence would have on student learning. Additionally, Kam, Greenberg and Walls (2003) found that principal support significantly improved PLD outcomes, but only when there was also a high level of teacher implementation of PLD learning in the classroom. This finding suggests that although leadership support is one aspect of supporting teachers’ ongoing engagement with PLD, other factors are also needed to ensure there is a fit between the PLD content, the teacher, and the context. When considering NZ teachers’ experiences in implementing IYT, 29% of the primary school teachers involved in a study by Wylie and Felgate (2016b) reported that they experienced challenges in sustaining their implementation of IYT due to a shortage TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 12 of time and their heavy workload. Some of the teachers reported that inconsistency between IYT and their school behaviour management plan or other teachers’ practices were a challenge for implementation. Additionally, some of the teachers reported requesting an additional refresher of IYT, however the percentage of teachers is not reported. These factors hindering teachers’ sustained implementation of IYT may, to some extent, be alleviated by supports implemented by active school leaders (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). School culture and collective beliefs. Similar to the impact that teachers’ experiences, beliefs and self-efficacy can have on their acceptance and sustained implementation of PLD, the wider school culture (beliefs about teaching and learning) also impacts teachers’ collective orientation to PLD. According to Bowers and Nickerson (2001), although teachers each have individual beliefs and practices, schools have collective identities which underpin teaching and learning. Coleman’s (1985) social theory of normative control refers to the ways in which a group will influence the behaviour of an individual, in order to maintain the social norms related to the context (Bowers & Nickerson, 2001). Based on this theory, Opfer and Pedder (2011) postulate that “a group of teachers will sanction an individual teacher’s practice when that practice violates group pedagogical beliefs” (p. 392). Coleman’s theory highlights the importance of creating a collective school culture that is conducive to learning and evidence-based practice change. As school culture interacts with (creates and is created by) teachers’ beliefs about learning capacity (Opfer & Pedder, 2011), these two variables need to align. However, according to Wheatley (1999), disequilibrium in organisations (i.e. differences between the individual and collective beliefs), can provide an important catalyst for change. In NZ, PB4L is an example of a systemic support for the development of positive learning cultures across schools. As stated in the introduction, IYT and School- Wide are two of the specific supports within the PB4L framework. School-Wide is specifically focused on supporting schools to develop a learning culture, with shared values and clear behavioural expectations (MoE, 2015b). Boyd and Felgate (2015) evaluated the implementation of School-Wide in NZ, which involved responses from teachers, curriculum leaders and coaches from 242 schools. Overall, the participants reported that School-Wide contributed to the development of a positive, safe and inclusive school culture, and major behaviour incidents had decreased. However, there is currently little evidence to understand the specific ways in which School-Wide and TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 13 PB4L may support teachers’ ongoing engagement and sustained implementation of IYT. Professional learning community. A professional community is built on the concept of collaboration, which involves individuals and communities of teachers collectively building context specific understanding (Opfer & Pedder, 2011). According to Lassonde and Israel (2009) various factors contribute to teachers’ effective engagement in collaboration; the most important involving the group members developing respectful relationships built on trust, and a safe environment in which each group member is supported to make their contributions towards the groups’ common goals. Professional communities established in this way support participation, and provide an opportunity for teachers to discuss and reflect on new understandings, access and provide support, and address challenging beliefs associated with their PLD (Birman, Desimone, Porter & Garet, 2000; Guskey, 2002; Lassonde & Israel, 2009; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). This process of ongoing support and collaboration may also be a core factor in the sustainability of PLD (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009; Korthagen, 2016), which Guskey (2002) argues is a commonly neglected aspect of PLD. IYT aims to help teachers to build professional communities by employing collective and collaborative approaches. Specifically, the use of group sessions and discussions about the teachers’ engagement with the IYT content, their experiences, and implementation allows for the development of collective knowledge (Webster-Stratton, 2016). Wylie and Felgate (2016b) found that the NZ IYT trained teachers who reported effective changes to their practice were more likely to have also reported valuing the collective group discussions throughout the IYT training. Additionally, they note that these teachers were also more likely to discuss the IYT related changes to their practice with other teachers in their school. Various studies have indicated the importance that an opportunity to participate in a professional community may have for the sustained outcomes of teacher PLD. Birman and colleagues (2000) surveyed a representative sample of over 1,000 teachers in the US who participated in a science and mathematics PLD programme. They found that, along with considerations about the duration and form of the PLD, teachers’ collective participation increased the likelihood of active engagement and implementation of PLD. Collective participation refers to the participation of teachers from the same year level, subject or department being involved in the same PLD; and TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 14 contributes to the development of a shared professional culture. According to these researchers, collective participation is advantageous for various reasons. Firstly, it allows teachers the opportunity to discuss their learning and problems that may arise; which contributes to active engagement and sustainability. Secondly, it allows for teachers to share resources, strategies and experiences related to implementation within their collective context. Thirdly, collective participation may also contribute to the development of a shared professional culture, based on a common understanding related to the PLD they undertake. This concept of a shared professional culture is similar to the development of a school culture and collective beliefs as previously discussed. Collective participation, or involvement in a wider professional community is considered an important factor for effective PLD throughout the literature (Birman et al., 2000; Desimone et al., 2002; Garet et al., 2001; Guskey, 2002). However, as previously established, participation in a professional community as one aspect in isolation does not necessarily guarantee that PLD will have the desired outcomes (Timperley & Robinson, 2001), as effective PLD is the product of various interrelated teacher, school and activity level factors. In NZ, the MoE’s (2018) Communities of Learning, or Kāhui Ako, are an example of an emerging systemic support focused on raising student achievement through collaboration across the education sector. However, as 80% of the 148 Kāhui Ako currently set up in NZ are still in the development stage (Education Review Office, 2017), there is yet to be any evidence of their actual impact on supporting and sustaining PLD or IYT. Subsystem 3: The learning activity. Duration of PLD. While Opfer and Pedder (2011) argue that the effectiveness of teacher PLD (i.e. improved teacher practice and student learning) cannot be validly determined by the sum of PLD activity aspects (e.g. duration, location), they do accept that many of these activity-related variables contribute to effective PLD. It has been widely supported that effective PLD commonly occurs over an extended period of time, as opposed to one-off events (Garet et al., 2001; Guskey, 2000; Timperley et al., 2007). Garet and colleagues (2001) investigated 1,027 teachers’ PLD experiences in the US, and found that the duration of contact hours of PLD approaches (in addition to the form of the activity, and collective participation) had a significant positive effect on teachers’ self-reported learning and practice change. It is suggested that the longer duration provides ongoing opportunities for teachers to deeply engage with the PLD content, try out new practice in the classroom, and receive feedback (Garet et al., 2001). TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 15 This long-term duration for deep engagement is also referred to by Webster-Stratton (2011) in regards to IYT. By spacing the IYT training workshops over six months, teachers have the opportunity to reflect on their learning, implement their learning into classroom practice, and receive feedback from the group facilitators (Webster-Stratton, 2016). According to a study by Wylie and Felgate (2016b) in NZ, 31% of the primary teachers involved reported that they were using the IYT designed self-reflection inventories between the sessions, which aim to support teachers to reflect on their learning and practice, and plan personal goals. Content and activities. Effective PLD relies on coherence between the content of the PLD, and the teachers’ and schools’ orientation to learning and practice. It follows, then, that the content of PLD should also be coherent with the activities associated with its delivery, ongoing implementation and evaluation (Birman et al., 2000; Garet et al., 2001; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Coherence between activities relates to conceptual and practical coordination between the specific activities, the content and learning goals. Activities that are designed to facilitate ongoing engagement with the PLD content may also increase the potential for practice change, as previously discussed (Timperley & Phillips, 2003; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Effective activities to deliver and maintain PLD may include mentoring and collaboration within and between professional communities (Garet et al., 2001.); and it is these ongoing responsive activities which may also support the sustainability of PLD. According to Webster- Stratton (2011), the IYT workshops are delivered in a way that emphasises the development of collective knowledge between the teachers, and uses strategies such as role plays, discussions, and opportunities for coaching and feedback. The use of these responsive activities may support teachers’ continued engagement and sustained implementation of PLD. Efficacy of The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Programme The efficacy and outcomes of IYT as a behavioural intervention has been widely researched. However, many of the studies must be interpreted in a way that recognises the context of the individual studies; as commonly, IYT has been evaluated in combination with IYP or IY Classroom Dinosaur (IYCD), with other interventions, or by studies with various methodological limitations. In this section, the international literature evaluating the efficacy and appropriateness of IYT is presented, organised into two broad themes: student behaviour outcomes; and teacher classroom management TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 16 outcomes. However, much of the literature assesses various other outcomes associated with IYT. Student behaviour outcomes. A study by Baker-Henningham, Walker, Powell and Gardner (2009) investigated the efficacy of IYT in Jamaica, a developing country. The study explored the efficacy of IYT for targeting problem behaviours and social skills, involving 27 preschool classrooms across five schools. Following the intervention, teachers reported a significant reduction in problem behaviours, and increased teacher promotion of children’s social and emotional skills. They undertook another study in 2012 that involved 225 children ages three to six years, across 24 classrooms, using a cluster randomised design. They found that children taught by IYT trained teachers displayed significantly less conduct problems (effect size 0.42), increased social and friendship skills (effect size 0.74), increased attendance (effect size 0.30), and decreased teacher and parent reported behaviour problems (effect size 0.47 and 0.22), when compared to the control group (Baker-Hennignham, Scott, Jones & Walker, 2012). The two studies reiterated the relevance of IYT in the Jamaican context, a context with a culture that differs greatly to the US. As this study has a high level of validity, due to reported effect sizes, sample size, replicability and design, it supports the claim that IYT is culturally transferrable (Webster-Stratton, 2011). In Wales, Hutchings, Martin-Forbes, Daley and Williams (2013) used a single- blind stratified randomised controlled trial to investigate the impact of IYT on teacher practice and students’ problem behaviour, or risk of problem behaviour. They found that IYT was associated with a significant decrease of negative interactions between teachers and target children, and a significant decrease in off-task behaviour. However, these results must be interpreted with caution due to the lack of objective measures of IYT programme fidelity (Hutchings et al., 2013). In contrast, different results were found by Kirkhaug and colleagues (2016), who conducted a quasi-experimental pre and post study to assess the efficacy of IYT for improving behaviour, social competence, teacher-student relationships and academic performance. The study involved 83 children ages six to eight years, across 43 different schools in Norway. For the intervention group, they found significant improvements to teacher reported student- teacher conflict, and academic performance. No significant differences were found regarding social competence, teacher-student relationships or behaviour. However, as this study used a quasi-experimental design, there is a low level of internal validity. Kirkhaug and colleagues (2016) suggest that IYT may be more effective when TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 17 combined with other strategies to manage challenging behaviour and promote positive relationships; a suggestion which is supported by various studies which found positive results when IYT was combined with other approaches (Herman et al., 2011; Raver et al., 2008; Reinke et al., 2014; Webster-Stratton, Reid & Hammond, 2004). Herman and colleagues (2011) investigated the combined use of IYT, IYCD and IYP for reducing children’s internalising behaviour. The study of students in Washington pre- and primary schools found that children involved in the intervention group receiving all three IY supports had the largest significant decrease in target behaviours. Additionally, the IY components still had significant effects when used independently. Similar results of the additive effect of the IY components were found in a study by some of the authors (Webster-Stratton et al., 2004), which suggested that IYT was most effective at reducing problem behaviour when combined with IYP or IYCD. However, when considering the value of these studies, it is important to consider the potential conflict of interest that one of the common authors (Webster-Stratton) has with the studies, as the developer of the IY series. According to Mills (2014), potential researcher bias (such as Webster-Stratton’s potential impact on participants’ recruitment and data analysis) can negatively impact the generalisability of the research findings. Nevertheless, the consideration of the additive effect of combining the IY components (specifically IYT and IYP) may be of relevance to the NZ context, given that IYT and IYP are both accessible through the MoE’s PB4L strategy. Reinke and colleagues (2014) independently evaluated the efficacy of combining IYT with behaviour support planning. The US study employed a quasi- experimental design, involving 68 teachers and 1,080 students. The behaviour support planning consisted of IYT trained mentors providing individual coaching sessions to the teachers, focused on developing behaviour plans for target students. The results suggested that this combination of supports significantly improved observed and teacher reported disruptive student behaviour and pro-social behaviour; and significantly decreased teachers’ use of reprimands. The authors did not consider whether this may be due to the nature of the behaviour support planning acting as an extended version of the IYT group facilitator coaching that is already embedded within IYT. This study was conducted with a diverse population (76% African American), which provided an opportunity to evaluate the appropriateness of IYT for use with an indigenous group. Although this study has a low level of internal validity due to the quasi-experimental TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 18 design, these results are similar to those found by Baker-Henningham and colleagues (2012, 2009), who also evaluated the use of IYT with an indigenous group in Jamaica. Summary. When considering the effectiveness of IYT for improving student behaviour outcomes, there appears to be little difference between the efficacy of IYT when it is employed in isolation (Baker-Henningham et al., 2012; Baker-Henningham et al., 2009; Hutchings et al., 2013; Kirkhaug et al., 2016) and when it is combined with other components of IY or other interventions (Herman et al., 2011; Reinke et al., 2014). However, the degree to which IYT is implemented with fidelity may be more important than whether it is used in conjunction with other behaviour management approaches. According to Webster-Stratton (2016), fidelity in implementation is paramount to the efficacy of IYT, and can be achieved by adhering to the standardised guidelines for the number of sessions, the session content, the use and discussion of vignettes, role plays, and the selection and training of motivating group leaders. The studies by Baker-Henningham and colleagues (2012, 2009) in Jamaica involved the use of IYT according to the standardised procedure. However, additional examples relevant to the Jamaican context were also incorporated in the IYT content and delivery. According to Webster-Stratton (2016), incorporating such cultural examples into the existing standardised programme allows for the content to be used across cultures. The studies of IYT in isolation by Hutchings and colleagues (2013) and Kirkhaug and colleagues (2016) also reported implementing IYT with fidelity, however each study had different findings. Hutchings and colleagues (2013) found a significant reduction in off-task behaviour related to IYT, while Kirkhaug and colleagues (2016) found no significant differences of an IYT intervention group for behavioural outcomes compared to a control group. Teacher classroom management outcomes. Raver and colleagues (2008) investigated the impact of IYT and concurrent teacher coaching on children’s risk of behaviour difficulties and school readiness. This randomised controlled trial involved 602 children and 94 teachers across 35 Head Start classrooms in Chicago. They found that the intervention classrooms had a significantly higher level of teacher sensitivity, behaviour control, and positive classroom climate compared to the control group. This study had various methodological strengths. The large sample size gave the results a high level of statistical power, and the randomised controlled trial design maximised the validity of the results (Raver et al., 2008). However, the authors note that as this intervention involved the combination of IYT with mentoring provided by mental TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 19 health experts, there is no evidence of the effects that IYT may have had in isolation. Additionally, the authors state that the IYT programme delivered was adapted, however the details of these adaptations are not given (Raver et al., 2008). This study was undertaken in a high poverty neighbourhood, which, according to Raver and colleagues (2008), had two main implications. Firstly, it suggested that this combination of IYT and coaching is effective for this context; but secondly, that these findings need to be replicated in order to determine their generalisability to other low income areas. It may be important to also consider context specific factors related to the participating teachers in this study. Similarities can be drawn between the participants in Baker-Henningham and colleagues’ (2012, 2009) studies in Jamaica and those in Raver and colleagues’ (2008) study in Chicago. The Jamaican teachers commonly volunteered their time in the school holidays to participate in the IYT training, in similarity to teachers in Chicago investing their weekend time in IYT. Many of the teachers in Jamaica had a low level of formal teacher training (Baker-Henningham et al., 2012; Baker-Henningham et al., 2009;), as did many of the teachers serving the low income community in Chicago (Raver et al., 2008). According to the authors, these factors suggest that the teachers in both settings appeared to be committed to meeting the needs of the children facing high levels of disadvantage in their communities, and welcomed the collective model of IYT which emphasised collaboration and coaching (Baker-Henningham et al., 2012; Baker- Henningham et al., 2009; Raver et al., 2008). These participant and contextual factors may be of relevance to aspects of the NZ context, given that IYT was prioritised for use in low socioeconomic areas and with Māori, an indigenous culture which emphasises collective values (MoE, 2015a). A study by Hutchings and colleagues (2007) investigated the first use of IYT in the UK, in Wales. The study consisted of two parts: the first involving 23 teachers who received the IYT standardised training completing teacher satisfaction questionnaires, and 21 of those teachers participating in semi-structured interviews. The second part involved blind observations of teacher classroom behaviour, in 10 intervention classrooms (IYT trained teachers), and 11 control classrooms (non-IYT trained teachers). The intervention teachers reported high levels of satisfaction and improvements to student behaviour. Observations found that the intervention teachers used significantly clearer instructions, and had more compliant students when compared to the control group. Although this study had a small sample size, these statistically TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 20 significant results indicating the positive effect that IYT had on teachers’ classroom management practice are strengthened by the inclusion of the teachers’ perspectives. In addition to the previously reported observed effect that IYT had on reducing problem behaviours and promoting children’s social and emotional skills, Baker- Henningham and colleagues (2009) found that IYT significantly impacted teacher practice. Practice changes included a 50% decrease to negative teacher behaviours (e.g. negative/critical comments, warnings), and a significant increase of teacher positive behaviours (e.g. use of praise, incentives, descriptive feedback). Similarly, Reinke and colleagues (2014) found a significant decrease in teachers’ use of reprimands as a result of IYT, in a context involving an indigenous group in the US. According to Baker- Henningham and colleagues (2009), these reported significant changes to teacher practice suggest that IYT can “benefit teachers with little prior training and in a setting with limited resources” (p. 629), which is an important consideration for the applicability of IYT to the context of a developing country, or a low socioeconomic area. Similar changes to teachers’ use of negative behaviour were also found by Hutchings and colleagues (2013), in conjunction with the previously reported significant improvements to student behaviour. Hutchings and colleagues (2013) found that IYT trained teachers used significantly fewer negative behaviours with target students, who had been identified for challenging behaviour pre-intervention. There were no significant differences found for IYT teachers’ behaviour towards the whole class. However, the authors posit that this may be due to the intervention teachers’ knowledge that the independent observers were specifically observing the target children, rather than the class as a whole (Hutchings et al., 2013). In Ireland, Leckey and colleagues (2016) explored the longer-term outcomes of IYT on child and teacher behaviours, and teachers’ perceptions of the utility of IYT. This mixed-methods study involved 11 teachers who undertook the IYT training according to the standardised procedure. Another study in Ireland by Hickey and colleagues (2017) employed a randomised controlled trial involving 217 primary-aged children to investigate the effectiveness of IYT for improving child adjustment and teacher competencies. Although Leckey and colleagues’ (2016) study had a small sample size, it provided a valuable opportunity to gain an in-depth understanding of the teachers’ experiences and perceptions of implementing IYT long-term, one of the few studies to do so. TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 21 Leckey and colleagues’ (2016) quantitative results showed that teachers used significantly more positive classroom management strategies at the 12-month post- baseline follow up, compared to the baseline measurement. Hickey and colleagues (2017) found no significant differences regarding observations of child behaviour, but found similar positive changes to teacher-reported use of positive classroom management strategies (effect size 0.56), and decreased teacher-reported use of negative classroom management strategies (effect size 0.43). These positive effects commonly referred to classroom environment, teacher-student interactions, and teacher confidence, self-efficacy and wellbeing; responses which also align with those reported by Hutchings and colleagues (2007) also in the UK. However, an additional factor to consider in the context of this study, compared to Hutchings et al (2007) and Leckey et al (2016), is that the sizes of the classes involved is larger than often found in other parts of the UK (Hickey et al., 2017), which may be an additional challenge for managing challenging behaviour. The New Zealand Context The international literature generally indicates the effectiveness of IYT as an independent or combined behavioural intervention across various contexts (US, Ireland, Norway, Wales, Jamaica); however, it is important to consider the generalisability of these findings to the NZ context. Given that the IY series was designed for use between different cultures (Webster-Stratton, 2011), it is especially important that an evidence- base is developed to understand the appropriateness of IYT for NZ. Given the detrimental impact that poor educational outcomes can have in the long term, as previously outlined, it is important that behavioural interventions employed in NZ are culturally appropriate for use with Māori and non-Māori. According to the MoE (2018), the education system reflects NZ’s “unique and diverse society, which welcomes different abilities, religious beliefs, ethnic groups, income levels and ideas about teaching and learning” (para. 1). The NZ education system reflects this commitment to indigenous Māori culture (tangata whenua), through policy specifically aimed at ensuring Māori are supported to succeed (MoE, 2018). Ka Hikitia – Accelerating Success (MoE, 2015c) is a strategy for children in primary school, which promotes Māori educational achievement. Ka Hikitia is underpinned by the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi, a guiding document in NZ, which emphasises the importance of partnership, protection and participation in the crown’s relationship with Māori. The implications of the Treaty for education in NZ relates to the Crown’s TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 22 (represented by the MoE) joint responsibility with whānau, iwi (tribe/people) and hapu (community) to ensure Māori students achieve and enjoy success in education (MoE, 2015c). According to Durie (2001), partnership between the people surrounding the child is of paramount importance to best support children in education. Within the school context, te reo Māori and Māori tikanga are valued and embedded into the NZ curriculum and Te Whāriki (the Early Childhood curriculum) (MoE, 2012). This takes the form of encouraging teachers and education staff to nurture positive, collaborative relationships with students and their whānau, iwi and communities, in order to best support student learning. Such relationships are a foundational aspect of IYT (Webster- Stratton, 2011). IYT in New Zealand. IYT and IYP were first implemented nationally in NZ in 2011 under the MoE’s (2015b) PB4L strategy. The delivery of IYP and IYT is coordinated by the MoE regional offices, who allocate resources, funding and courses to providers. The delivery of the IYT training is undertaken by Resource Teacher of Learning and Behaviour (RTLB) clusters, MoE staff (such as psychologists, advisers and early intervention teachers) and non-government organisations, such as kindergarten associations (MoE, 2015b). The current priority groups to receive IYT training includes Early Childhood centres serving Māori and Pasifika students, and low- decile schools (MoE, 2015a). In 2009, Fergusson, Stanley and Horwood (2009) reported preliminary data of the efficacy of IYP in NZ. The study involved 214 parents attending the IYP course throughout NZ, who had completed at least nine sessions. They found significant improvements in behaviour and social competence scores with effect sizes ranging from 0.50 to 0.77. Additionally, the overall effects and parent satisfaction reports were similar between Māori and non-Māori. This research, one of the few NZ studies evaluating a component of the IY series, suggests that IY is an effective intervention to target challenging behaviour, and is culturally appropriate to NZ. Although this study makes a valuable contribution to NZ research regarding IY, various limitations in this study highlight the need to further substantiate the cultural relevance of IY to NZ. The participants included in the final data collection only include those that completed at least nine sessions (out of the 12-14 provided). Therefore, these results may be positively skewed. The methodology involved a pre and post-test design, with no control comparison. As a result, the results may again be overly optimistic, and their generalisability to the wider population is diminished. Finally, when considering the TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 23 implementation of IYP on a national scale, the sample size of this study appears limited. Although the percentage of participants who completed the IYP programme identified as Māori is comparable to the percentage of Māori in the wider population, it is arguable that the representation of Māori in a sample for this type of research should be higher to account for the overrepresentation of Māori in low educational and behavioural outcomes (MoE, 2015c). Similar to the preliminary research on the implementation of IYP, Fergusson, Horwood and Stanley (2013) evaluated the efficacy of IYT and its acceptability to NZ primary school teachers. This study involving 239 teachers took place over 2010/2011 when the national delivery of IYT was first being implemented. Overall, the IYT training was linked to an increase in teachers’ use of positive behaviour management strategies (e.g. use of praise, proactive strategies, limit setting). Teachers also reported an increased sense of self-efficacy, and an increase in their confidence for overall classroom management of challenging behaviour. These findings suggested that IYT is linked to high levels of self-efficacy and teacher satisfaction, in similarity to the overseas findings by Hutchings and colleagues (2007) and Leckey and colleagues (2016). However, the limitations of this study should be considered. As the methodology of this research used measures of teacher self-report, there is no objective data (e.g. observations) to signify the impact that IYT may have had on actual teacher practice change. This study uses a pre- and post-test design, meaning the participants’ responses are not compared to a control group. Additionally, ethnicity data for the participating teachers was not collected, meaning it is not possible to compare the responses between Māori and non-Māori teachers; which may be a valuable aspect of evaluating the cultural relevance of the IYT programme to the NZ context, and teacher’s perceptions of said relevance. On a larger scale, Wylie and Felgate (2016c) evaluated the implementation and efficacy of IYT in NZ, based on questionnaires conducted in 2014. This research involved 1,103 IYT trained teachers of primary school or Early Childhood, and 97 group facilitators. The study focused on changes to student and teacher behaviour immediately after the IYT programme, and then 8-9 months later; and the factors that supported or inhibited positive change. Immediately following the IYT programme, 100% of primary teachers reported praising students’ positive behaviour, a strategy reportedly well maintained 8-9 months later, with 98% of the teachers reporting TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 24 continued use of praise. After praise, the most commonly used IYT strategies reported were good commands and clear limit setting, use of incentives, social/emotional coaching, ignoring and redirects/distractions, and problem-solving training. However, teachers reported a large decline in the use of a clear discipline plan and social/emotional coaching. When considering the delivery of the IYT training, the workshop strategies the teachers were most positive about were: group discussion and sharing of ideas, support from other teachers, group facilitators’ lectures, and the IYT resource book (Wylie & Felgate, 2016b). The most common form of support provided by group facilitators between workshops was discussion of target child progress, and observations of classroom teaching practice with feedback. Only 25% of the teachers reported receiving feedback on videos of their practice, which is part of the IYT training as prescribed by Webster-Stratton (2011). A challenge reported by 20% of the primary teachers related to the implementation of IYT into practice, most commonly due to time concerns or a lack of consistency with other staff. In terms of appropriateness, 91% of the primary teachers found the IYT content compatible with the NZ Curriculum, and those teachers who did, also reported more gains for their practice and students. However, Wylie and Felgate (2016b) reported that Māori teachers’ comments indicated they “sought more linkage between IYT and Te Mātauranga” (p. 76) (teaching and learning in the Māori medium). Additionally, some teachers reported concerns about the applicability of the American- made video vignettes to the NZ context, while others felt that the cultural differences in the vignettes allowed the group to focus on the content of the social interactions rather than the video itself. When considering the contribution of Wylie and Felgate’s (2016a, 2016b, 2016c, 2016d) research to understanding the ongoing implementation of IYT in NZ, it is important to consider the strengths and limitations of this study. Firstly, the main data collection method was the use of teacher and group leader self-report through questionnaires and surveys. Although this qualitative method allows for the opportunity to investigate the perceptions of the respondents, the results from this method have a low level of internal validity. However, these findings have a high level of ecological validity, as they provide insight into the context in which teacher practice occurs. This will provide a valuable platform for future research and the current study to investigate teachers’ perceptions in-depth. As there is limited research detailing the efficacy of IYT TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 25 in NZ, Wylie and Felgate (2016a) make a valuable contribution to the literature, particularly given this study involves the use of an 8-9 month follow up. Summary This literature review highlights the links between teacher PLD, challenging behaviour, classroom management, and IYT. Throughout the literature, there is widespread support for the positive effect that IYT has on children’s challenging behaviour and teacher practice; however, much of this research is quantitative and involves IYT being used in combination with other forms of PLD or behaviour management approaches. Although some of the studies include examples of the applicability of IYT to diverse contexts (Baker-Henningham et al., 2012; Baker- Henningham et al., 2009; Fergusson et al., 2013; Reinke et al., 2014), there is little evidence documenting teachers’ perceptions of the cultural relevance of IYT to the NZ context. As addressed in the literature regarding effective teacher PLD, the NZ MoE policies and the NZ Curriculum, it is especially important that PLD and classroom management are culturally relevant. As a result, the overarching objective of this study is to gain an in-depth understanding of IYT trained teachers’ perspectives of their ongoing implementation of IYT in NZ primary school classrooms. TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 26 Chapter Three: Methodology Introduction This chapter outlines the methodological approach of the study. Firstly, the research questions that guided the study are presented. Qualitative methods are then discussed, with a particular focus on the study’s use of a qualitative phenomenological approach, and the justification for using this approach. The positionality of the researcher is considered, to provide an account of the factors that may have influenced the analysis of the data. This chapter then describes the recruitment and selection of participants, the participants’ demographic information, and the process of data collection and analysis. Finally, the ethical considerations that underpin this research are then discussed. Research Questions The literature review highlighted the paucity of NZ research focusing on how and why teachers are continuing to implement IYT. Considering the NZ context, there was also an imperative to investigate teachers’ perceptions regarding the cultural appropriateness of IYT to NZ. The following research questions guided the study: 1. What aspects of IYT do teachers continue to implement in their practice? 2. Why do teachers continue to implement these aspects, and what factors support or hinder this? 3. How culturally responsive do teachers find the IYT aspects they are continuing to implement? Research Design Qualitative approaches to research are a form of social enquiry, which focus on individuals’ and groups’ experiences and perceptions (Paley, 2017). Commonly used in the social sciences, qualitative methods allow the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon, in a way that quantitative methods may not (Paley, 2017). The current study employed a qualitative phenomenological approach to address the above research questions. Phenomenology is a research method which aims to describe the essence and meaning of an experienced phenomenon (Paley, 2017). Developed by Husserl and Heidegger (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2012), phenomenology is commonly used in education, psychology and health research (Paley, 2017). Phenomenology involves the collection of data from several individuals who have experienced the phenomenon, and subsequent analysis of the data, by describing identified themes about the essence of the TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 27 experience (Cresswell, 2015). In the present study, the phenomenon in question refers to the teachers’ lived experience of the IYT training and their ongoing implementation, with the inquiry focusing on the teachers’ perceptions about this experience. A phenomenological approach was chosen with the purpose of gaining an in-depth understanding of the teachers’ perceptions and experiences of implementing IYT. The aim of gaining an in-depth understanding of these teachers’ perceptions of IYT is to highlight the factors that can support teachers’ ongoing implementation of IYT in NZ. Although alternative methodologies, such as positivist-based experimental methods, can allow for the gathering of objective data, such approaches have the potential to misrepresent the context in which a phenomenon occurs. Therefore, the current study used a qualitative design to understand teachers’ perceptions of implementing IYT, and how their perceptions and implementation shape, and are shaped by their environments. Additionally, as this thesis conceptualises challenging behaviour as being a function of the interaction between individual factors and various contextual variables (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Lewin, 1936), this approach allows the researcher to draw on ecological theory and the associated disciplinary knowledge. Research Paradigm The present study is underpinned by an interpretivist paradigm, a theoretical perspective which aims to understand the experiences and perspectives of participants by using an inductive approach to interpret the meaning of the data (Creswell, 2015). By using a phenomenological approach, the current study considered how the participants interpret their own experiences (Kahlke, 2014; Merriam, 2002). Phenomenological research generally relies on observations and participant responses (Kalhke, 2014), meaning that the collected data are often subjective in nature. Additionally, an interpretivist paradigm recognises the key role of the researcher in interpreting the meaning of subjective data, based on their knowledge, values and beliefs (Merriam, 2009). According to Kahlke (2014) in order to minimise the potential for the researchers’ knowledge, values and beliefs to bias the interpretive analysis of qualitative data, the researcher should explicitly identify their own positionality. Cresswell (2015) considers transparent positionality important for identifying the factors that may shape researchers’ interpretation, with the aim of enhancing the credibility of the study. The subsequent sections will therefore consider the positionality of the researcher, and the inductive approach to data analysis. TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 28 Positionality. As the researcher, my worldview is underpinned by a strong sense of social justice. In the context of education, this means that I believe every child has the right to access the supports that they need to succeed in education to the best of their ability. Additionally, from an ecological perspective, I understand that these supports will be different for each child, based on the interaction of their individual factors and unique environments. The effect that these views have in the context of this study relates to my potential predisposition to support evidence-based teacher PLD strategies and programmes (such as IYT) that have the potential to positively impact the educational and behavioural outcomes of our tamariki. By explicitly stating this potential bias towards supporting IYT, I am aiming to enhance transparency to allow others to ascertain the degree to which my data collection and interpretation has been influenced or biased by my positionality (Thorne, Kirkham & O’Flynn, 2004). Additionally, this bias was also mitigated by using a process of peer review throughout the data analysis, which will be discussed subsequently. Participants Recruitment. Information Sheets (Appendix B) detailing the nature of the study were sent to the principals of various schools in the central North Island of NZ. The school principals were asked to provide informed consent (Appendix C) for the teachers in their schools to be voluntarily involved in the study. The principals were then asked to distribute the provided information sheets for teachers (Appendix D). The information sheets for teachers provided details of the study, an invitation to participate, and instructions on how to contact the researcher directly should they wish to be involved or had additional questions. Selection. The selection of participants was made using purposeful sampling, which involves the researcher intentionally selecting participants to investigate a phenomenon (Creswell, 2015). In order for teachers to participate, the initial intention was that they had to meet the following eligibility criteria: - Have completed the IYT training between 2014 and 2016 - Be currently teaching a class with children between ages 5 to 8 (years 1 to 4) These criteria were chosen to ensure that the teachers involved had at least one full school year to implement IYT. However, due to the shortage of potential participants for recruitment, this timeframe was expanded to include teachers who had completed the training prior to 2018. The revised criteria still ensured that the participants had a minimum of one year to implement IYT following the conclusion of the training, which TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 29 was the rationale for the original training dates. The age range of children the teachers must be teaching relates to the target age range specified by the IYT programme (Webster-Stratton, 2011). The study involved five primary school teachers. This number of participants was deemed adequate due to time constraints and location considerations. Participant information. The five teachers who participated in this study were assigned the following pseudonyms: Kim, Katherine, Laura, Kayla and Jessica; were all female and had completed the IYT training between 2010 and 2017. The teachers all stated that they were given the opportunity to participate in the IYT training voluntarily. They were currently teaching children in years 1 to 4 (ages 5 to 8). Four of the teachers (Kim, Katherine, Kayla and Jessica) teach at a decile 4 school, which has implemented the PB4L framework, and has a roll of 300 students. Laura teaches at a decile 7 school, with a roll of 443 students, where the school has not implemented PB4L. All of the teachers were currently teaching in what they termed Modern Learning Environment (MLE) classrooms. The MoE’s (n.d.) concept of Innovative Learning Environments (ILEs) aligns with the teachers’ use of the term MLE, relating to a holistic philosophy of collaborative teaching, and working together in a flexible space. Therefore, throughout this thesis, the term MLE is used to describe this collaborative teaching space as identified by the teachers in the current study. The teachers’ profile information is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Participant Pseudonyms, and Teacher, IYT Training and School Details Teacher Year completed IYT Voluntary or mandatory IYT participation Years teaching Year level teaching - currently Teacher : student ratio in classroom PB4L school Kim 2017 Voluntary 42 Year 1 3 : 57 Yes Katherine 2012 Voluntary 10 Year 2/3 3 : 70 Yes Laura 2012 Voluntary 30 Year 3/4 2 : 61 No Kayla 2010 Voluntary 9 Year 3/4 2 : 54 Yes Jessica 2016 Voluntary 10 Year 1 3 : 57 Yes TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 30 Data Collection Semi-structured interviews. As is common with a phenomenological approach in qualitative research (Creswell, 2015; Hinckley, 2014; Paley, 2017), data were collected through semi-structured interviews with individual participants. Although potentially time consuming, interviews can allow the researcher to gain in- depth responses from participants and target specific information (Punch, 2014; Wengraf, 2001). Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured (Wengraf, 2001). Semi-structured interviews involve the use of predetermined questions for all participants, however, in contrast to more structured interviews the interviewer is able to guide the interview according to the responses. For example, the interviewer may ask the interviewee to provide more information or an example regarding a particular response. In contrast, an unstructured interview does not use a set of predetermined questions, and the direction of the interview is determined by the interviewees responses (usually to some general introductory questions) (Punch, 2014). The current study used semi-structured interviews for two reasons. Firstly, the set of guiding questions allowed the researcher to gather the same information about aspects of the experiences from each participant, to allow for comparisons between their responses. Secondly, it allowed for a deep understanding of the participants’ responses, as the interviewer was able to probe for further information (Punch, 2014). The purpose of conducting interviews was to gain an understanding of the ways teachers perceive their experiences; which represents their subjective responses rather than requiring objective data. Creswell (2015) states that interview responses of participants are ‘filtered’ through their worldviews, and therefore may not provide objective representations of the experience. However, in the current study the aim was not to objectively measure the participants’ ongoing implementation of IYT, but rather understand their perceptions related to their experience. As interviews rely on self-report, there is the potential for the participants’ responses to be biased (Creswell, 2015). This bias may be related to the participants’ feeling that they need to represent the views of a particular group or organisation; or response bias, in that the participant attempts to provide responses that they believe the interviewer wants to hear (Creswell, 2015). In the current study, several precautions were taken to avoid the potential for bias through the interview process. Firstly, the participants were informed of their rights to privacy, and it was explained to them that any information that had the potential to identify them, or their school, would not be TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 31 included in written reports. By excluding identifying data, the aim was to assure the participating teachers that they were free to respond openly and honestly without any concern that their responses could be linked to themselves or their schools. In order to control for potential response bias, the participants were made aware that the researcher had no link to the schools or the delivery of IYT. The aim of this was to establish the researcher as an independent individual with no vested-interest, to control for the potential for coercion, so that there was no expectation that the teachers were required to participate. Additionally, the interview protocol also included considerations for building rapport in a culturally appropriate way, which is an important aspect of ensuring interviewees feel relaxed and comfortable when providing responses (Creswell, 2015; Punch, 2014). Interview process. Each interview was guided by a set of open-ended questions detailed in an interview protocol (Appendix E). The time and location for the interviews was negotiated between the participants and the researcher. The teachers provided their written informed consent (Appendix F) to be involved in the study. The interviews were audio recorded (with informed consent) for the purpose of transcription. The interview questions were derived from the overarching research questions and the literature review. Additionally, extra care was taken to consider the applicability of the interview protocol for use with Māori and non-Māori. This involved seeking consultation from an IYT trained teacher not involved in the study, and a Māori cultural advisor. The interview questions included a range of perceptual and behavioural-based questions (Patton, 2015), which provided the opportunity to gather specific examples of the teachers’ experiences related to the implementation of IYT. For example, teachers were asked to provide examples of when a strategy they had used was effective, and what changes they perceived in their classroom as a result. The interview protocol began with an opportunity to build rapport with the participants, by allowing time for culturally appropriate greetings and a reminder of the participants’ rights (e.g. privacy, recordings). The first questions focused on the teachers’ backgrounds, namely their teaching background, and role responsibilities. According to Wengraf (2001), beginning the interview with easily answered fact-based questions allows for the building of rapport, and for the interviewee to feel comfortable in their responding before the questions become more in-depth and opinion-based. Therefore, the questions then began to get deeper, focusing on how and why the teachers were implementing IYT in their classroom practice. The theme for the final TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 32 questions regarded the teachers’ perceptions of the cultural appropriateness of IYT to the NZ context. Following the transcription of the interviews by the researcher, participants were offered the opportunity to review and edit their transcripts before these were finalised, with the aim of enhancing the credibility of the findings. The participants then provided written consent for the transcripts to be used for the purpose of this study (Appendix G). Data Analysis The current study employed thematic analysis, a foundational method for data analysis in qualitative research (Braun & Clarke, 2006). General thematic analysis is a flexible approach to analysing qualitative data, and can provide a rich and detailed account of the phenomenon in question. Thematic analysis is distinguished by its utility in “identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79). Its flexible nature refers to the potential to use a thematic analysis approach either in conjunction with a theoretical framework, or within a realist or essentialist method (which describes the reality and experiences of participants) (Aronson, 1995; Roulston, 2001). In the current study, thematic analysis was used to illustrate the participants’ perceptions of their ongoing implementation of IYT. The results produced by thematic analysis are commonly accessible to the educated general public (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This accessibility is of particular importance in the current study, given part of its aim is to identify the factors that may support teachers’ ongoing implementation of IYT. Within the thematic analysis, the current study employed a dual inductive and deductive approach to understanding the data. An inductive reasoning, or bottom-up approach involves the identification of themes based solely on the data; whereas a deductive approach uses a pre-determined thematic or theoretical framework to guide analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The aim of using an inductive approach was to accurately reflect the perceptions of the teachers and preserve their voices; as the purpose of the study relates to understanding these perceptions, rather than making sense of them in regards to theory. An inductive approach was employed as much as possible, however, as the process of inductive data analysis is undertaken by a researcher who holds their own values, beliefs and prior knowledge, the analytical process will inevitably not be free from the influence of the researcher’s subjective interpretation (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Creswell, 2015). Therefore, the current study terms the process of data analysis a dual approach, as the process of data coding and TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 33 interpretation was not guided by a pre-determined thematic or theoretical framework, however, it was guided by the researchers’ prior knowledge resulting from the literature review. The researchers’ positionality, as suggested throughout the literature (Kahlke, 2014; Mills, 2014), was therefore explicitly stated to provide others insight into the factors that guided the identification of themes, and to enhance the credibility and transferability of the findings. Analysis procedure. Following the interview transcription, the data were analysed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step guide. The first step involved familiarisation with the data, undertaken by repeated readings of the transcripts, in what Braun and Clarke (2006) term an ‘active way’. This involved considering initial thoughts about patterns and meanings across the data. The second step involved generating initial codes. The process of coding involves identifying the simplest aspects of the data, and deriving codes that will allow easy access and recognition of their broader meaning (Braun & Clarke, 2006). According to DeCuir-Gunby and colleagues (2011), inductive or data-driven codes require “repeated examination of the raw data” (p. 138) in order to develop a codebook. Initial codes were developed in this way, and recorded in a codebook, which detailed the code name, definition and examples from the data. The codebook was used in an iterative way, as it guided the coding of the transcripts, and was edited to best represent the meaning of the codes. For example, Opportunity for Reflective Practice (ORP), was a derived code, defined as teachers’ perceptions of their opportunity to be reflective in their practice through IYT. An example of this code from the data was Kim’s statement: “It was a chance to be reflective about your teaching practice.” Further examples of the transcript coding and codebook are provided in Appendix H. The codebook was then peer reviewed by the researcher’s supervisors, who provided feedback to ensure that the data codes were consistently applied, accurately reflected the meaning of the data, and that the data was not over or under interpreted. Following the data coding, the third step was to search for potential themes across the codes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This interpretive process involved identifying the underlying patterns across the codes, and grouping them into basic categories or themes. The next step involved reviewing and refining the initial themes. This was guided by the concept of external and internal homogeneity, which refers to ensuring that clear distinctions are evident between themes, and that the coded data within each theme accurately reflects the theme’s broader meaning (DeCuir-Gunby, Marshall & TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ONGOING IYT IMPLEMENTATION 34 McCulloch, 2011). A diagram was drawn to depict the possible connections between themes. Step five and six were to define and name the final themes, and report them (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This process involved situating the themes within organising themes and ensuring that the theme names accurately reflected the embodied data. The findings of this study were then reported (in chapter four), guided by the themes from the thematic analysis as a framework. The results were reported in a way that would provide a coherent and interesting account of the participants’ perceptions of their experience of implementing IYT, with regards to relevant literature and the research questions. Ethical Considerations The Massey University Human Ethics Committee (Northern) approved this research project on the 30th May 2018, application 18/27 (Appendix I). The key ethical issues identified to consider were informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, conflict of interest, and cultural considerations. Informed consent. Ensuring that participants provide informed consent to participate in research is an important part of human research ethics (Punch, 2014).