Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. PARENT - TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS AT A SECONDARY SCHOOL : PARENT AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR OWN AND EACH OTHER'S ROLE IN THE FUNCTIONING OF THE SCHOOL. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education. Department of Education Massey University Nadas Narismaloo Naidoo 1991 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of the following people: Dr David Corson and Professor Don McAlpine for their assistance and guidance. Owen Hoskin and The Board of Trustees for their support and permission to carry out this research. Neil Pilkington for his generous assistance with the computer work and encouragement. The teachers and parents of Massey High School for agreeing to be part of this study. Julia Westera for her constructive criticism, generous assistance and encouragement. Ken Havill for checking the language. Mary Hammonds and Leata Tipi for helping with the distribution of the questionnaires. Katy Ma'ilata for translating the questionnaire into the Samoan Language. My wife Savathri for the typing and, together with my daughters Kamini and Shirvani for the sacrifice they have made over the years to enable me to complete this work. And the many other people who contributed in some way to this project. And above all, God who has given me the strength to bring this thesis to its final completion. ABSTRACT This study compare the perceptions of parents and teachers on parent-teacher relationships at a secondary school. A random sample of 320 parents were drawn on the basis of their ethnic classification. All the teachers at the school participated in the study. The findings were analysed by comparing: (1) The total parent responses with the teacher responses. (2) Within the parent group according to ethnicity and (3) within the parent group according to socio-economic status. The results indicate that there was a general agreement between and within the groups but also some important differences concerning how they perceive their own and each others' role within the school. One of the most significant findings was that the teachers' willingness to participate in the specified school activities was lower than their actual involvement. The opposite result was obtained for the parents. The reason for this could be traced to the parents' and teachers' attitudes. A survey and analysis of their attitudes are also included. It was generally concluded that although the school structures are efficient there needs to be an evaluation of their effectiveness in realising the objectives they were designed to achieve. CHAPTER ONE CHAPTER TWO COINll'IENl'S ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS INTRODUCTION Overview 1 Principles Governing Parent - Teacher 2 Relationships Objectives of this Research 3 Operational Definitions 4 Organisation of this Thesis 5 Response To A Felt Need 5 LITERATURE REVIEW 6 Trends Towards Greater Parent 7 Involvement In The Schools Importance Of Parent-Teacher 1 O Relationships Parent Relationship with Teachers 1 1 Teacher Relationship with Parents 1 6 Parent Involvement in Secondary 1 7 Schools Contradictions in Parent-Teacher 1 8 views on Education Barriers to Parent-Teacher Relationships: 2 O Conflict Resolution in Parent-Teacher 2 5 Relationships: Aspects to Consider SUMMARY 28 CHAPTER THREE CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH DESIGN AND 30 METHOD Defining the School's Community 30 Sample Selection 30 Data Collection 33 Questionnaires 33 The Interview 35 The Pilot Study 36 The Main Survey 37 Interviews with Parents 40 Analysis of Data 40 RESULTS 41 Participation in School Activities Actual Participation 4 1 Parents' and Teachers' Declared 4 5 Willingness to Participate in the School's Activities Actual versus Declared Willingness 4 8 to Participate in the School's Activities Attitudes of Parents and Teachers Attitude Towards Report Evenings 5 3 Attitude Towards Parent Support 5 8 Group Attitude Towards Parent Involvement 6 1 in the School General Attitudes Regarding Parent- 6 3 Teacher Relationships CHAPTER FIVE APPENDICES BIBLIOGRAPHY Barriers Preventing A Closer 6 8 Parent-Teacher relationship Other Barriers To Close 71 Parent-Teacher Relationship Role of Parents In The School 7 6 Methods of Improving Parent- 7 9 Teacher Relationship DISCUSSION General Conclusions Recommendations Limitations of this Research Suggestions for Further Research A. Tables 8. Figures c. Questionnaires Interview Schedules D. Parent Support Group: Objectives Massey High School Charter E. Letters F. Data Sheets 81 81 85 87 87 88 120 123 153 155 158 168 173 242 UST OFT ABLES TABLE 1. Ethnic Classification of Form 4 to 7 Students. 2. Target Population and Sample Selection: Parents of Students in Forms 4 to 7. 3. Parent Questionnaire Returns (according to Ethnic Classification). 4. Parent Questionnaire - Percentage of total returns by Socio-Economic Status (SES). 5. Actual Participation in the School's Activities : Parents and Teachers 6. Actual Participation in the School's Activities : According to Socio-Economic Status (SES) 7. Actual Participation in the School's Activities: According to Ethnic Classification (Parent Sample). 8. Rank Order of Actual Participation : Teachers, Parents and Parents According to Ethnic Classification. 9. Willingness to Participate in School's Activities: Parent Sample. 10. Willingness to Participate in School's Activities: Teacher Sample. 11. Parents' Declared Willingness to Participate in the School's Activities. 12. Teachers' Declared Willingness to Participate in the School's Activities. 13. Rank Order of Declared Willingness to Participate : According to Socio-Economic Status. 14. Rank Order of Willingness to Participate in the School's Activities : According to Socio-Economic Status. 15. Willingness to Participate in the School's Activities : According to Socio-Economic Status Classification (Parent sample). 16. Willingness to participate in the School's Activities : According to Ethnic Classification (Parent Sample). 17. Attitude towards Report Evenings : Parents and Teachers. 18. Attitude towards Report Evenings : Parents according Socio-Economic Status. 19. Attitude towards Report Evenings: According to Ethnic Classification, 20. Attitude towards Parent Support Group Meetings : Parents and Teachers. 21. Attitude towards Parents Support Group Meetings : According to Socio-Economic Status. 22. Attitude towards Parent Support Group Meetings: According to Ethnic Classification. 23. Attitude towards Parent Involvement in the School: Parents and Teachers. 24. Attitude towards Parent Involvement in the School: Parents according to Socio-Economic Status. 25. Attitude towards Parent involvement in the School : According to Ethnic Classification (Parent Sample). 26. General attitudes regarding Parent-Teacher Relationships: Parents and Teachers. 27. General attitudes regarding Parent-Teacher Relationships: According to Socio-Economic Status. 28. General Attitudes Regarding Parent Teacher Relationships : According to Ethnic Classification. 29. Contact with Board of Trustees: Parent and Teacher Sample. 30. Contact with Teachers: Parent Sample. 31. Contact with Parents: Teacher Sample. 32. Relationship with Teachers: Parent Sample. 33. Teachers Awareness of Parent's concerns that affect children's learning. (Parent Sample). 34. Barriers to Parent Involvement in the School: Parent and Teacher Sample. 35. Barriers to Parent Involvement in the School : According to Ethnic Classification (Parent Sample). 36. Barriers to Parent Involvement in the School: According to Socio-Economic Status. 37. Level of Communication between Parents and Teachers: Parent and Teachers Sample. 38. Level of Communication between Parents and Teachers: According to Ethnic Classification (Parent Sample). 39. Level of Communication between Parents and Teachers: According to Socio-Economic Status (Parent Sample). 40. Initiating Communication between Parents and Teachers: Parent and Teacher Sample. 41. School Support for Links between Parents and Teachers: Support for this Principle: Teacher Sample. 42. School Support for Links between Teacher and Parent : Teacher Learning New Skills (Teacher Sample). 43. School Support for Links between Parents and Teachers: Changing Attitudes (Teacher Sample). 44. School Support for Links between Teacher and Parent : Courses to strengthen Relationship (Teacher Sample). 45. Length of Stay in New Zealand (Parent Sample). 46. Marital Status: Parent Sample. LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 . Actual Participation in the School's Activities : Parents and Teachers. 2. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : Parent Sample. 3. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : . Teacher Sample. 4. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : High SES Parents. 5. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : Middle SES Parents. 6. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : Low SES Parents. 7. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate: European Parent. 8. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : Samoan Parent. 9. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate: Maori Parent. 10. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : European-Maori Parent. 11. Actual verses Declared Willingness to Participate : "Other" Parent. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW ' PRINCIPLES GOVERNING -TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS OBJECTIVES OF THIS RESEARCH OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS RESPONSE TO A FELT NEED CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW The topic of this thesis is parent-teacher relationships within the education system at the high school level. There have been many studies regarding this relationship at the primary and pre-primary school but comparatively very little research at the high school level. Prior to 1983 New Zealand high schools were controlled by parents to a limited extent, through elected Boards of Governors and parent-teacher organizations. The majority of parents were, generally, relegated to the role of encouraging their children to take full advantage of what the high school had to offer. This traditional role still exists, but because of recent legislation, embodied in 'Tomorrows Schools' (1988), a new challenge has been set for parents and schools alike. Schools with their respective communities are legally committed to implementing the 'Mission Statement' which they formulated, and with which they entered into a binding agreement with the state. The Mission Statement of the school under study includes the following goals: '7'o alliFm all sll!deols sell FeSJJecf. sell esteem. self wod/J w1!/Jio a SllfJJJOdive eoVJI'oomenl I/Jal pFomoles l/Je IFadJ!ions. vallles. cllsloms and lnowledge of both Jfeaf.y ,oadnC'Fs and l/Je ol/JC'F el/Jnic ffFOllfJS. so I/Jal all sllldenls leave Jlasse_y J/Jg/J Sc/Joo! as coondeol _yol!Dff adlllls able lo stand tall 11 '7'o al/km JlaoFi sll!denls 'sell-Fes,oecf. sell-esteem and sell wod/J w1!/Jin a w/Jenl!a envkonmenl I/Jal pFomoles l/Je IFao'J!ion~ vallles. Cllsloms and .Knowledge ol l/Je lan,g-ala w/Jenl!a, so I/Jal l/Je_y leave Jlasse_y J/Jg/J Sc/Joo! sell-con/Jdenl _yol!nff adlllls able lo sland tall w1!/Jin l/Je1I' cl!!ll!Fe. 11 ''lf/JeFe l/JC'Fe is a si,tnilicanl ol!mbC'F of Pac1/ic Island OF ol/JC'F minon(y ffFOllfJ s!l!denls. the o'JllC'Fenl cl!!ll!Fes mllsl be Felleded in the Sc/Jool's JJFOffFamme and environment. ....... 11 17'0 encol!Fa,g-e paFeolal involvement w1!/Jio l/Je sc/Jool. 11 (Hassey J/Jg/J Sc/Joo! C/Jader. J98g,p1) 2 It is clear from the above objectives that a high level of community input and an urgent need for the teachers to understand all the sectors of the school's community is essential if the school is to fulfil its obligations enunciated in its charter. The upsurge of interest in the relationship between parents and teachers and the trend of enshrining this interest in various formal organisations and systems, namely Board of Trustees and the School's Charter, has set the stage for a dynamic partnership between these two interest groups. The Board of Trustees, with its enormous power to influence the politics of education, cannot be ignored. There are still pockets of resistance and anxiety among both teachers and parents about one anothers role in the high school. As a starting point it is essential that the important concerns of both parties be brought to light to enable them to interact in a manner that would enhance the educational outcomes of the children at high schools. PRINCIPLES GOVERNING PARENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS It is essential that any parent - teacher relationship be governed by some basic principles on which an effective and effiCient relationship can proceed to develop. Sackett (1987) suggested principles for home school partnership which primarily focused on evaluation of this releationship is adapted here to articulate the basic principles for parent - teacher relationships. These principles are: (1) Parents and teachers must be committed to this strong conception of parent - teacher interaction which will involve mutual trust and responsibility, and a desire to make it succeed. (2) Both parents and teachers must agree upon the division of responsibilities what each has the right to do and what each might expect from the other. (3) There must be mutual agreement by both parties on a system of operation which must be supported by the Principal, Board of Trustees and the Central Government. (4) A major effort be made to involve parents in the school through a strategy initiated by the school but developed with the parents. (5) There must be tolerance of diversity between the different sectors of the school's community to ensure that community definitions of relevance are more influential. (6) The education service as a whole must embark on a major attempt to win the hearts and minds of its clients ( both parents and pupils ) to change the perception of the role of parents in the education of their high school children in the mind of the public. OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH 3 Taking into account the general research on this topic and the circumstances surrounding the school, this exploratory study set out to realise the following objectives:- (1) to determine the existing nature of parent-teacher relationship in the sample; (2) to determine the attitudes of both parents and teachers towards the present forms of interaction in the school; (3) to ascertain the opinions of both parents and teachers on the importance of parent-teacher relationships. (4) to analyse the factors that hinder closer co-operation between parents and teachers. (5) to determine areas of consensus between parents and teachers with regard to one another's role in the school. (6) to develop methods and techniques which would facilitate greater co-operation between parents and teachers. (7) to determine why a large number of parents do not actively participate in high school activities. (8) to find an answer to the problem of why parent-teacher relationships decrease in intensity when the child enters high school. 4 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS The operational definitions used in this study are: (1] Parent Support Group: Members of this group are the parents of students attending the school. The general objective of this group was to establish a "group of caring parents to form an active part of the School's Community to help and have an input to the Total School Community". (See appendix D) A letter sent to the parents (Appendix E), stated the specific objectives of the group as : "(a) To represent the school's parents and put their views to the Board of Trustees. (b) To consult with parents on behalf of the Board of Trustees and/or the school. (c) To give and organise help for the Board of Trustees and the school. (d) To organise parents to improve the school in line with the School's Mission Statement and Objectives." This group had two meetings in 1990 but has failed to continue its work in 1991 . [2] Report Evenings: These evenings are also referred to as parent evenings. There are 4 evenings per year set aside for parents to meet teachers. Two for the senior forms (Forms 5 to 7) and 2 for the junior forms (Forms 3 and 4). Students are requested to make appointments with teachers on behalf of their parents to meet teachers. These evenings usually occur a few days after the students receive their reports. [3] Treaty: This refers to the Treaty of Waitangi. [4] Tangata Whenua: refers to the Maori people who are regarded as the "people of the land" or the first inhabitants of New Zealand. (5] Charter: This Is a document which defines the purpose of the institution and the intended outcomes for students. It is a contract between the state and institution, and between the institution and its community. [6] Mission Statement This is a statement of the objectives a particular institution (school) strives to achieve. It is a vital part of the Schools Charter. ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS 5 The thesis is divided into five chapters. The chapter following this introduction is a detailed review of the literature. Seven major areas were investigated: trends toward greater involvement of parents in schools; importance of parent-teacher relationships; parent's relationship with teachers; teacher relationship with parents; parent involvement in secondary schools; contradictions in parent and teacher views on education; barriers to parent-teacher relationships and conflict resolution in parent-teacher relationships. Chapter three describes the methodology adopted in this study in order to answer the research questions. Chapter four is a detailed account of the research findings. Chapter . five describes the conclusions, recommendations, limitation of this study and suggestions for further research. RESPONSE TO A FELT NEED The impetus of this study comes from the writer's belief that teachers and the school can only benefit from a better relationship with the home since the home and the school both constitute an important environment in which student learning occurs. Also the school can utilize this relationship to enhance the academic and social life of the student. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW TRENDS TOWARDS GREATER PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS: THE NEW ZEALAND INITIATIVE THE UNITED STATES INITIATIVE THE EUROPEAN INITIATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PARENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS PARENTS RELATIONSHIP WITH TEACHERS (SCHOOL) TEACHER RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS CONTRADICTIONS IN PARENT AND TEACHER VIEWS ON EDUCATION BARRIERS TO PARENT-TEACHER REL.A TIONSHIPS. CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN PARENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER SUMMARY 6 LITERATURE REVIEW The home, school and community are the principal forces influencing children's learning. Children can be viewed as a subset of the home, school and community as shown in the diagram below: COMMUNITY THE CHILD IN RELATION TO THE HOME, SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY If any of these sectors viz the home, school and community operates in isolation or contrary to any other, children can become confused with resulting detrimental effects on their school performance. For there to be harmony and co-operation among these sectors there must be some form of effective understanding and communication between them. To harness the various forces acting upon children and purposefully direct them toward a common goal, children's learning, each sector must understand each other's role In the education of the child. The principal actors in the home and school are the parent and the teacher respectively. This literature review explores the role of the parent and teacher in the child's education. 7 TRENDS TOWARDS GREATER PARENT INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS THE NEW ZEALAND INITIATIVE. In recent years there has been considerable interest in home- school relationships and their impact on education. The acknowledgement of the importance of this relationship was clearly stated in the Mc Combe report, 1976. It recommended that each secondary school should formulate and periodically review its aims concerning consultation between parents and teachers.(Ramsey et al,1990,p3) The acceleration of this acceptance of teacher-parent relationships as a vital factor in the New Zealand education system was enunciated in "The Curriculum Review" (1987). One of the key principles stated in this review was the development of closer relationships between parents and teachers. This recommendation stemmed from a large number of submissions which expressed dissatisfaction over the gap that existed between home and . school. This review further emphasised that "the curriculum shall be co-operatively designed" (p11). To trial the principles stated in the review the "Curriculum Review Exploratory Study" (GRES) was established. This project focused on consultation issues (Ramsey et al,1990,p3). The principle of home-school co-operation was later endorsed by the task force which reviewed educational and administration in New Zealand (Picot et al, 1988). The Picot Report stated that, "students, parents and community groups should be able to understand the structure of the system, to participate in decision making, and to influence the system so that it provides the best educational opportunities for them" (4.1 .. 1 p41 ). The official Government policy was published later in 'Tomorrow's Schools1(1988):- "In collaboration with the principal, the staff and the community, the Board will be responsible for the preparation of the institution's charter ... while the board is responsible for the overall preparation of the charter, the details, will be determined by the staff working together" (p4). 8 To further development of home-school relationships, the Curriculum Review Research In Schools Project' (1990), focused on developing collaborative decision making strategies(Ramsey et al, 1990,p4). These recent initiatives are a clear sign of the importance attached to the parent-teacher relationship in the general functioning and organisation of New Zealand's educational system. THE UNITED STATE'S INITIATIVE Wallace and Walberg (1991) traced the development of parent involvement in education in the United States. They reported that during the 1960's local advisory councils of parents were formed with the task of developing and managing federally-funded programs. The influence of these councils grew when in 1971 parent participation in district-wide councils was required; schools and district-council membership was mandated by the 1974 amendment (Public Law 93-380) and a 1976 regulation which required that the majority of council members be parents of children in the program. Also the recognition of the importance of parents in education was enhanced in the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which specified parent involvement both in general policy making and in planning for individual handicapped children. In 1986 the U.S. Department of Education made several suggestions for parents to improve their children's performance which included engaging children in conversation; enriching the 'curriculum of the home', and staying aware of the children's lives at school by discussing school events. (p 132-133) THE EUROPEAN INITIATIVE Many U.K. education reports claim that parent involvement promotes children's learning. The importance of parent - teacher relationships in Britain was clearly stated in the Plowden Report (1967) which stands as a landmark for educational policy making. It officially accepted parents as equal partners with teachers in the education of their children. The report stated that; 11J'eac/Jers are Jin.fed lo parents by !he ch;Jdren for whom !hey are bo!/J res_pons1ble. /.be triangle should be complete and a more dired rela!ionsh;jJ es/ab/is/Jed be/ween teachers and !/Je JJaren!s. /.bey s.bov/d be JJar!ners io more I.ban name,· !heir reSjJons1b1Ji!ies become join! ios!ead of several '' (Crysler, 1979,jJJ.1) 9 In the U.K. the Bullock Report (1975) endorsed the idea of mothers participating in beginning reading activities (Wallace and Walberg, 1991, p134). The Taylor Report, "A New Partnership for Our Schools" (1977) recommended that parents should be an essential facet of the decision-making process in schools (Holt, 1980,p95). The Education Act of 1981 , required parental participation in decision making (Wallace and Walberg,1991,p134). The growing influence of parents as partners in the educational enterprise was enhanced when members of the parent organisations in the U.K. and nine other Western European countries signed an accord to share information on partnership programs which dealt with parent representation on school councils and national governing agencies, home-school partnership and direct parent cooperation with educators to enhance children's education. 10 THE IMPORTANCE OF PARENT TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS There are many factors influencing children's school work. The parent factor has always been regarded as important. The Douglas longitudinal studies (1964) of children born in England and in Wales found that parents' interest in their children's school work was statistically more significant than any of the other factors used in this analysis, namely size of family, standard of home and academic record of school. This study concluded that other things being equal, the major influences on children's ability to take advantage of educational opportunity seemed to be their parent's attitude to education and interest in their school work. (Cyster,1979,p13). The "Head - Start" program in the United States provided extremely interesting insights into the value of parental involvement for parents themselves. The study indicated that extensive parental participation is associated with many beneficial results for children, parents, and communities. The best results were found where parents were highly involved in both decision-making and learning roles, but the decision making role appeared more potent and likely to affect the parents' learning role. (Cyster, 1979,p13). There does, however, exist a great deal of evidence that suggests that there are great advantages to be gained from closer contact between parents and teachers. Berger (1987) argues that this contact will give each a more complete picture of children's ability, improve consistency in working towards desired goals, and enable children to identify both the school and the home as places to learn, and parents and teachers as sources of learning. Wallace and Walberg(1991) argue that cooperative efforts by parents and teachers to modify alterable educative conditions in the home have beneficial effects on learning. They described the "alterable curriculum of the home" which consists of "informal parent - child conversations regarding the school and the day's events; encouragement and 11 discussion of leisure reading; monitoring and joint critical analysis of television viewing and peer activities; deferral of immediate gratifications to accomplish long- term human - capital goals; expressions of affection and interest in the child's academic progress and development as a person, and perhaps, among such unremitting efforts, laughter, caprice, and serendipity."(p135). They reviewed 29 studies which involved changing the curriculum and found that positive benefits were found in the areas of mathematics, reading, language and affective development. These programs were of benefit to older as well as younger students. PARENTS RELATIONSHIP WITH THE TEACHERS (SCHOOL) Parents and teachers do not fit neatly into the slots of theoretical paradigms. However, generalizations about parent and teacher attitudes can prove helpful in understanding the complexities of home-school relationships. Coleman and Husen (1985), Berger (1987) and Redding (1991) all attempted to classify parents into homogeneous groups. Coleman and Husen (1985) based their classification on 3 phases of economic development. They claim that there is a relationship between family - school relationship and economic development. 12 The three phases of economic development were matched with a specific type of family­ school relationship, namely: PHASE I PHASE II PHASE Ill Family rely on children for work. They limit the growth of children. The school's role is to free the children from their family and expand the possibilities for their development. Goals of the family and the school converge. Both the home and school seek the improvement of the child's ultimate economic situation. Parents view childrearing as an impediment to the pursuits of their adult life. They invest little time and energy in the development of their children. They expect the school to fill this void. (Redding, 1991, p150) Redding (1991) used these three phases to identify four parent types. Type I families live at a survival level and are unprepared to meet the daily demands of the world. They are caught up in the 'poverty trap'. They tend to perpetuate their childhood experiences with families and school and continue to propagate the parent-child relationships they had in their own upbringing. 13 The school reminds them of their past failures and bad feelings. They are least likely to get involved in the school's activities . . Ramsey et al's (1990) findings related to the Maori, Pacific Islanders and working class Pakeha parents in New Zealand closely matched the Type 1 family. They found that these were the slowest groups to get involved in the school. The parents from these groups often felt alienated by the school system. They felt that the forms of education provided were not wholly appropriate for their children. The school buildings and layout, and some of the people with whom they came into contact such as receptionists, deans, counsellors and senior staff reinforced the negative experiences they already had of the school. Type II families closely symbolise the ideal type for an effective horne-school relationship. They are typically child-centred families and their goals and that of the school are congruent. This type of family stands outside the mainstream of cultural trends, and they become frustrated when the school views their demand for greater involvement as bothersome. They are most likely to take their children out of public schools and place them in private schools or opt for home-schooling. If these parents' desire for involvement is unchanneled, they may produce a fractious relationship with the school. Evidence of the existence of the Type II parent in New Zealand is provided by Ramsey et al (1990). Their findings revealed that parents who became involved in collaborative decision-making more quickly were those who possessed what Bourdieu (1971) defined as 'cultural capital' that was consonant with the ideology of the schools. This group dominated discussions and committee membership. 14 Type Ill families are aptly described as,"able but disengaged" (Redding 1991 p142). These parents are more concerned with their own career and personal interests and spend very little time with their children. They have the greatest potential to assist their children and the school but refrain from doing so. Their view of the teachers is one of hired professionals entrusted with education and child rearing. Type IV parents are drawn from Type I parents who acquire skills of parenting, personal growth and satisfaction and these provide the support their children need to reap the benefits of their school education. Type I parents can be converted to Type IV by giving them positive personal experiences with the school by reaching them outside the school and bringing them in. Type IV also includes the Type II parents whose desire is for greater involvement in their children's education. These parents can be trained to become leaders or parents and surrogate parents for neglected children. In a New Zealand study, Ramsey et al (1990) claimed that greater involvement of parents in the decision - making process was achieved when teachers' knowledge, awareness and sensitivity increased, and when teachers altered their own practices and the environment. Type IV also includes the Type Ill parents who are drawn by the explicit expectations of the school community into a responsible involvement with their children's education. This can be achieved by giving them positive personal experiences with children by structuring their interaction with children. Berger (1987) identifies 5 groups of parents based on their attitudes towards the school. These groups are: (1) Parents who avoid schools. (2) Parents who need encouragement to come to the school. (3) Parents who readily respond when invited to school. (4) Parents who are comfortable and enjoy involvement in the school. (5) Parents who enjoy power and are overly active. 15 Groups 1 and 2 could fall into either the Type I or Type Ill parent group as classified by Redding (1991). Group 3,4 and 5 aptly fits into the Type II parent group. Berger(1987) also suggested a plan of how the professional staff of the school can effectively respond towards these groups. The first group will need time to overcome past negative experiences and to appreciate current circumstances that prove the school can be trusted to help their children. If the school has an inviting and responsive climate, the second, third, and fourth groups of parents will feel welcome. These three middle groups (which encompass the largest portion of parents) will soon become contributing resources to the school's activities. They can also form a supportive advocacy for future school plans. Parents in the fifth group may need to be delegated tasks that encourage them to work more cooperatively with the school. 16 Offering a variety of tasks and different degrees of involvement assures parents that they may contribute according to their talents and available time and allows all of them to be comfortable about coming to school and enjoying involvement in the educational process. TEACHER RELATIONSHIP WITH PARENTS In a U.S. study, Hulsebosch (1991) classified teachers according to their involvement with parents. She grouped them into 2 distinct categories, the high involvement teachers and the low involvement teachers. High Involvement teachers were likely to interact with parents in a positive manner and view parents as a resource in their child's education. They acknowledge the significance of what happens in the child's life beyond the school day. To achieve their goals they rely on what Bourdieu (1971) terms 'social capital' that both they and the child bring into the classroom. They see themselves as "more continuous with and related to the external world" (Chodorow 1978, p167 cited in Hulsebosch 1991, p198). This external world involves the home and the parents. High involvement teachers place emphasis on the relationship between teacher and parent rather than the rules that govern parent involvement for low involvement teachers. They relate to the child's parents in a multi­ dimensional way. They may view the mother not only as a parent but also "as a woman, a member of the community, a divorcee ... " (Hulsebosch, 1991, p198). Their priorities lie in doing the job well which includes the ability to inform and be informed by parents. Low involvement teachers view parent involvement in the school in terms of disruptions and interruptions to their work. These teachers distance themselves from parents, portray an authoritarian image and deal with parents hierarchically. These low involvement teachers hinder any effective parent-teacher relationship developing. 17 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS The emphasis on parental involvement in secondary schools has recently gained momentum although their active involvement at this level is still in its infancy. Sandler (1989) argued that British secondary schools have earned the image of remoteness and a reluctance to involve parents in their children's learning. These organisations, he claimed, are large, and have given way to subject division and specialisation, and some areas of learning have gathered their own reputation and mystique. This self-created image by secondary schools has effectively restricted parent participation at this level. Sandler also found that most parental involvement programmes, at secondary level, have reading as their main thrust, although mathematics is now a popular off shoot. Templeton (1989) gave some insight into the reason why most parents have so little contact with their secondary school. Her report on the setting up of a home school council (HSC) in a school in London revealed that for most children the transition to secondary school comes at a time when they are capable of coping independently with the day-to­ day demands made of them at school. Also the teacher may only be seen at the formal parents' evening and some subject teachers might not be seen even then. Furthermore parents' knowledge of the physical environment of the school may be limited to an initial visit when choosing the school and their general understanding of the school is almost entirely limited to what their child conveys to them about it. Templeton found that for many pupils parental involvement in what they consider to be their school is a threat to their increasing independence and identity. The pupils are also in an effective position to sabotage any potential relationship a parent might establish since communication is normally through the pupils. She claimed that the ways of working have been long institutionalised in most schools following the traditional attitude that parents are not relevant to the process of their children's education at secondary level. 18 The Johnson (1991) study of 109 working class families in England on the reasons why parents had little contact with the secondary schools their children attended revealed that parents found few rewards in meeting teachers at this stage. They wanted their children to become independent of them and negotiate with teachers themselves. Parents depended greatly on their children to keep them informed about school. These parents provided many forms of support which were unknown to teachers. CONTRADICTIONS IN PARENT AND TEACHER VIEWS ON EDUCATION Society has decided to educate its children outside the home in separate establishments and to attempt to forge links between the two. This has brought many contradictions into this relationship. Haigh (1975) has suggested that the root of all discussions about teacher-parent relationships must firstly involve what these contradictions are and, secondly, how far they can be resolved. One of the contradictions involves the conflicting expectations of parents and teachers . In a British study Cullingford (1984 ) surveyed the expectations of parents and teachers. He found extreme differences in the expectations of these two groups with regard to the role of the school and the type of discipline that should be used by the teachers. Parents saw the most important role of the school as preparing their children for better jobs. This response of the parents is not surprising because of the market dynamics infiltrating the sphere of education, with parents, together with politicians, demanding that education should be based on socio-economic principles. Teachers on the other hand did not see training for jobs as having any prominent place in education. They saw the school as being designed to give each individual child autonomy. They saw "self - reliance", "more independence" and "decision making" as the essential elements of education. Parents saw competition between children as a training 19 that would prepare them to reach the "top"; the teachers saw satisfaction and happiness of the child as being most important. The teachers essentially saw the role of the school as inculcating in children a capacity to know themselves, to collaborate in peace with their neighbours and to find fulfilment by doing whatever they are best at. This is essentially an egalitarian perspective of education which propagates the idea of positive justice for the whole community and personal, social and moral education. The parents' view can be regarded as the "service" perspective where the child's vocational future is of paramount importance. The Plowden Report (1967) brought out other contradictions in parent-teacher relationships in Britain. This report suggested that teachers must be constantly aware that ideas, values and relationships within the school may conflict with those of the home and that there will have to be constant communication between parents and the school if the aims of the school are to be fully understood.(Cyster, 1979, p15). Ojemann (1960) reinforced this view when he argued that the school may try to develop clear enunciation through its language teaching, but out-of-school experiences may reward slovenly speech and thus undo the work of the school. The home may try to build up some confidence in the child's ability to achieve, while the school may undermine this confidence by unintelligent handling or failure in the school. Clapham (1983) noted that teachers in Britain felt no need to explain, influence, or 'sell' their work to the parents. They guarded the classroom as their professional domain. Parents, however, did not consider classroom teaching a fully professional occupation, which prevented them from intervening in the professional judgement of the teacher. (Goldring, 1991 ,p225) Goldring (1991) reporting on parent-teacher interaction in Israeli schools argues that teachers are expected to render equal services for all students irrespective of ability and regardless of the compensation they receive. Parents, on the other hand, suggest that 20 they can alter this uniform relationship by direct involvement in the classroom. Teachers regard themselves as professional but parents do not perceive teachers as full professionals. Parents tend to attribute to teachers subjective and selective influences over the results of their work, for example they place the blame for students' failure on what they perceive the teacher has done. Goldring (1991) supports the notion that there are significant differences between parents and teachers in the quality and depth of their relationships with the students. She describes the parent relationship as multidimensional and diffused and touching on every aspect to which their children relate. She sees the teacher relationship in a narrower sense, concerned with only the behavioural and cognitive development of the child. She also claims that the teachers' relations with the students reflect universalised norms while parents' relations are more at the emotional level. BARRIERS TO PARENT - TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS An important barrier to parent-teacher relationships, suggested by Midwinter (1970), and also supported by Gestwicki (1987), is the fears of teachers, mindful of being swamped by parents - and of being open to criticism while on public view. But Midwinter (1970) argues forcefully that it is foolish on educational grounds to ignore parents as potential aids in the education of their children or to persist in seeing education as narrowly confined to the hours spent in school.(Cyster, 1979, p18,19). Furthermore Ramsay et al (1990) found that few teachers and parents were prepared to collaborate in decision making procedures. They claim that teachers were defensive about their present position, insecure in their professionalism and afraid of what parents might demand if they were allowed a greater say in education. The parents, however, were uncertain of what would be an appropriate role for them within the school. Goodacre (1970) drawing on her own research in Britain and other research suggest that, "because of the somewhat isolated nature of their profession, teachers have an over 21 simplified, stereotyped and out-of-date image of P;arents; parents, particularly the poorly educated, may be humbled and over deferential in the face of the teachers' image as the professional educator." (Cyster 1979, p20). Whether or not these perceptions are correct they nevertheless enable us to focus on the problems encountered in the parent-teacher relationship. The level of parental participation appears to drastically decrease at the secondary school level. Reasons for this could be found in the attitudes parents bring into the home-school relationship. Hymes (1974) argues that: "llumans of all ages gel caug.bf in a powe.rlo! web spun of two strong I.breads,· I.be wa_y I.bey we.re treated in I.be pas/, and I.be way I.be present bea.rs down upon them. 11 (cited in !Je.rge.r 1§8? p§8) Berger (1987) reinforces this idea and suggest that parents come from diverse backgrounds and if their past school experiences were pleasant and successful, they are likely to enjoy visiting schools again, but if their experiences were filled with failure and disappointments, whether real or imagined, the thought of school is foreboding and depressing and if they do approach the school, they do so with trepidation. Parents contending with unemployment, inflation and social change tend to resist any contact with the school . Berger (1987) argues that in some crises, the burden of poverty will consume parents . Parents concerned with subsistence have little energy left for self-fulfilment or for meeting their children's emotional and educational needs. Maslow's (1968) hierarchy of needs seem to be consistent with Berger's conclusions. He stresses that basic needs must be met before persons can climb to higher rungs of the ladder towards self-actualization. (Berger 1987, p78) 22 The attitude of the administrators and the teachers can either encourage or discourage the link between teacher and parents. Berger (1987) argues that each school differs in its character (usually set by the administrators and reflecting the morale and attitudes of the personnel). -··· /:Some say, 'Come, enjoy wit./J us this excitiog- busioess o/ education. ' Othe.rs say, 'You are iD/r1ng-1ng- on my te.rn!o.ry. Schools are t./Je _pro/essiona/'s busJ/Jess. Send us your children. lfe H'JJ/ return t./Jem lo you each eveDJng, but, 10 t./Je meantime, Jets each Jree_p lo our OH'll res_pons1bilities. 'Jn t./Je .first J/Jstance, the.re is a joy ;D the educational s_pinZ Jn t./Je second /ear or avoidance overrides a// sense o/ joy. // ( !Jerg-er, 1981, _p!J8) Principals, by virtue of their hierarchical position in the school, are in a strong position to influence teacher and parent relationships. Goldring (1991) argues that parental involvement is often a source of concern for some principals. They regard interaction with parents as one of their most difficult tasks and claim that parents do not cooperate in their efforts to enhance the quality and goals of the school, and are overly critical of the school's activities. She explains these principal's predicament in terms of split loyalty and dual responsibilities towards teachers and parents. Principals often find themselves in a position where they have to support their teachers in performing their tasks and also recognise the demands and expectations of parents. Problems arise where these responsibilities are in conflict with one another. For example, 'when a parent approaches the principal and claims that his/her child was unfairly penalized by a teacher, the principal may feel compelled to support the teacher's authority and judgement, while treating the parent's complaint with due consideration." (Goldring, 1991, p221). A principal who is unsuccessful in dealing with these conflicting situations can become the greatest barrier to effective parent-teacher relationship. 23 Another major barrier to effective teacher-parent relationships is the differences between social classes that we find in the increasingly pluralist New Zealand society. Educational institutions arise in response to the need to preserve the knowledge and experience gained from the past and pass it onto the next generation. In some societies education seeks to generate new knowledge. This tension is exacerbated in a pluralist society by determining which particular culture is to be reproduced. Bourdieu(1971) argues that it is the dominant group who control the economic, social and political resources whose culture is embodied in the school, and that the habitus of this group permeates every aspect of schooling. Ramsey et al(1990) argue that parents and their children from socio-economic groupings representing manual workers or the unemployed were marginalised by the New Zealand school system. They found that working class Pakeha, together with Maori and the Pacific Island parents, were alienated by the present school system and were the least involved in the school's decision making process. This is despite the evidence they found that these parents did care about their children's schooling. An explanation for this can be found in the school's demand for competence in the language and culture of the dominant group which can only be produced by family upbringing. The school does not explicitly make this culture available to its pupils and parents but implicitly demands it via its definitions of success. Thus the system becomes the monopoly of those classes capable of transmitting through the instruments (habitus) necessary for the reception of the school's messages. 24 An important barrier to parent-teacher relationships appears to be the predominantly one - way communication initiated by the school. One-way communication informs parents about the school's plans and happenings. Two-way communication allows parents to feed into the school their knowledge, concerns, and desires, and requires interaction between the participations. This one-way communication barrier is aptly stated in a British study by David Webb (1982) who argues that the contact that schools have with homes are almost exclusively determined by teachers. He took a sample of 160 parents in Britain and asked them which forms of home-school contact they preferred. When parents' preferences were compared with school practices he found considerable discrepancy in certain items between what parents prefer and what schools actually practice. Three of the four most preferred items in the parent's survey, for example, do not occur in the first ten frequently practised contacts in the school. From this survey it does seem that the school continues to try to forge links between the home and the school using some forms of contact which are not highly valued by parents. Webb(1982) also found that there were other contacts which parents prefer and which many schools do not practise. Until such consumer preferences are taken into account by teachers, who generally determine the means of contacts with parents, there seems little chance that the relationship between parents and teachers will be as close as desired. The teacher's perception of an autonomous professional may constitute an important barrier to parent-teacher relationships. Hulsebosch (1991) argues that different teachers define autonomy in different ways. Teachers who adhere to the traditional models of autonomy, which portray the autonomous person as someone who maintains a distance from others and regards autonomy and intimacy as mutually exclusive, can hinder any parent interaction with the school. 25 Goldring summarizes the structural obstacles which hinder the intensification of relations between teachers and parents as follows: "(1) the lack of flexibility, informal and spontaneous frameworks for encounters between parents and teachers; (2) disagreement between the two parties over the level of professionalism which the role of the teacher merits; and (3) the vast differences between the patterns of relating between students and their teachers, and children and their parents" (Goldring, 1991, p226). CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN PARENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS; ASPECTS TO CONSIDER Hymes (1974) eloquently describes how conflict in the parent-child-teacher relationship can be resolved when he explains that parents love their children and if the teacher: /1ee!s the same Jove, f.ben _parents are your .friends. Show your interest in a c/.;;Jd and _pa.rents are on your side. fie casual, be off-handed be cold towards the c/.;;Jd and the _parents can never wor.l closely with you. .. io touch the c/.;;Jd is to f ooc.b the _parent. io _praise the cmld is f 0 _praise the _parent. io cn'ficise the c.bJJd is to/.;;[ at the _parent. JJJe two are two, bot the two are one. 11 (Died in IJerffer !981, _p98,9/J). The success of any parent-teacher relationship depends upon each participant demarcating each other's role within the school. This would help to minimise conflict situations where one group interferes with the other's work within the school. Sackett (1987) supports the argument that a clear account of the division of responsibilities among 26 the partners are essential so that each partner knows what is right to do and what to expect from the others. He suggests that a major effort be made to bring parents in close partnership with schools through a strategy developed with an initial group of parents and developed with them and their successors. Within the school, parents may assume a variety of roles as shown below: PAFU::NTS AS TEACHERS OF OWN CHILDREN RESOURCE Parents role in the School. Diagram - Berger (1987)p103 Berger (1987) suggests that most commonly parents are spectators who merely observe what the school does with their children in the educational process. They view the school as an authority figure, best equipped to handle the education of their children. But parents may also assume other roles simultaneously. They may sometimes serve as resources in the school's instructional programme. As volunteers they may develop materials and curriculum ideas or share their expertise. Parents may also serve as policy makers. This is presently achieved through the Board of Trustees in New Zealand schools. In the School Impact Model, Gordon (19n) suggests that parents desire a part in the planning, operation, and overall evaluation and direction of the programme. (Gestwicki 1987, p66) Hess (1971) argues that the rationale for parent participation in decision making is based on the belief that people will not be committed to decisions in which they had no involvement. He also argued that parents know their own situation best, and hence must be involved in planning for their children's education. (Gestwicki, 1987, p66) 27 The ongoing debate about whether the teacher's role should be restricted to intellectual and moral development or whether it should be broader to include social training was reviewed by Musgrove and Taylor (1965) and supported by Cullingford (1984). Their study of 470 teachers in British schools revealed that generally teachers saw their role in moral and intellectual terms and were relatively indifferent to the more specifically social aims of education. In emphasising "instruction" teachers were in line with what they thought parents in fact expected. He also found that the area of discrepancy between teachers' aims and what they imagined to be parents' aims is still very large. Teachers viewed parents as being indifferent to moral training but very concerned with social advancement. This constituted a great misconception on the part of teachers because the evidence pointed to parents being substantially in agreement with teachers. These researchers argued that this area of tension might be considerably reduced if parents and teachers established more effective means of communication.(p171-178). Resolving conflicts in parent- teacher relationships will demand "an understanding of the other partner's rights and responsibilities, a common commitment, and trust and confidence" (Sackett, 1987,p35 ). Holt (1980) supports this and suggests that parents do not expect to take on the tasks of curriculum construction. They recognise the professional knowledge and judgement of the staff, but the staff must also recognise that their activities lie in the public domain, and that those with an interest in the outcomes of those activities ought to be involved in deciding their nature.(p93). The principal's response strategy in dealing with parents is an essential factor in resolving conflict between the home and the school. Gold ring (1991), drawing on her own and other research identified three strategies principals may use. The coalition collaboration strategy requires parents and principals to get together and negotiate common goals. The socialisation strategy attempts to mould parents' attitudes to approximate those of the school, by principals trying to modify parents' expectations of the school. The third response strategy, formalization, attempts 28 to diminish, delay, or relegate contact with parents to others. This is achieved through buffering and cooption. Goldring reports her earlier research (1989) among principals in Israel in which she found that the higher the percentage of low SES parents in the school the more likely principals were to use the formalization strategy. Principals in homogeneous schools, regardless of socio-economic status, are more likely to interact with parents through cooperation and those in heterogeneous schools generally opted for the socialisation strategy. The ideological demands of parents must be considered too in resolving parent-teacher conflicts. Schwartzhold (1979) argues that parental involvement represents an attempt to influence learning structures and classroom curriculum in the light of parents' personal values and perspectives on life.(Goldring, 1991, p215). Goldring (1991 }, drawing on her earlier research in Israel, reports that an alternative educational system providing stronger emphasis on Judaic studies was founded by parents whose principal motivation was ideological. She also found that there was a high correlation between the level of parental involvement and the development of alternative school programs. The intensity of parents' ideological tendencies constitutes an important area to be considered in resolving conflicts between parents and teachers. To improve home - school liaison one must change the status of parents and the nature of the relationship between parent and teacher. This needs to be based on a partnership, a sense of equality, with each contributing an essential but different ingredient. There must be an equality of concern, a reciprocal understanding of the child and a recognition of the interdependence of parent and teacher in achieving their aims. SUMMARY The recognition of the value of parents in education has gathered momentum in many parts of the world, particularly in the United States, Europe and recently in New Zealand. This is evident by th~ increasing volume of research and literature being published on this subject. Acknowledgement of the role of parents in education has also been evidenced by 29 the Introduction of legislation to increase the influence of the parents and to raise the status of parents in the administration of schools. This has resulted in interdependence of the home and the school in the education of children emerging as a central issue in education. Although each parent has their individual characteristics, some commonality can be found to classify them into homogeneous groups in order to understand the complexities of their relationship with teachers. Similarly, teachers can be classified into groups to understand their interaction with parents. The views of parents and teachers on education do overlap but there are some significant differences which must be addressed. Parent-teacher relationships in primary and secondary schools are similar in some respects but there are also many important differences between these two sectors. Any attempt to foster a closer relationship between parents and teachers involves overcoming some strong barriers between the two groups. These barriers may be inherent in the present school system or may have resulted from the experiences both parents and teachers have of their past interaction with each other. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD DEFINING THE SCHOOLS COMMUNITY (TARGET SAMPLE) SAMPLE SELECTION METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION ANALYSIS OF DATA 30 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD METHOD The sample consisted of 5 parents groups drawn from the school's community. Defining The School's Community (Target Sample}. The High School in this study is a large Secondary School in West Auckland, in the suburb of Massey. The school opened its present site in 1970. Over the last four years the school roll has risen from 1 360 to 1 590. The school's community is drawn from the Massey, Whenuapai and Riverhead areas. The community is diverse in its rural-urban, socio-economic and ethnic make-up and is at the urban-rural fringe of the Auckland Metropolitan area on its north-west boundary. This means that it is the second fastest growing area in New Zealand. The majority of the 25,000 population is made up of relatively recent arrivals i.e. over the last 10 years. The Maori percentage of the population is about 10% and Polynesian (mainly Samoan), around about the same and growing. The gender balance in the area is about 50/50 and the medium age of the population would tend to be lower than the national average. The approximate percentages of the socio-economic classification according to the Elley Irving Index would be as follows, above average 15%, average 60%, below average 25%. In many cases both parents work and approximately 25% of the pupils come from one parent families. (Massey School Charter 1989, p5,6). SAMPLE SELECTION A sample is representative of its universe if it includes all the relevant categories which exist in the universe and if it includes them in the same proportion as they are in the universe. In selecting the sample of parents from the school's community (universe), the percentage of parents selected from each ethnic group closely matched that of the universe. 31 TliE PARENT SAMPLE The 1991 ethnic classification of the school (Form 4 to Form 7) indicated that there were 31 possible ethnic groups, as shown in TABLE 1 below: TABLE 1 ETHNIC CLASSIFICATION OF FORM 4 TO FORM 7 STUDENTS European European - Maori Maori Samoan European-Samoan Chinese European - Other Pacific Islanders Indian Niuean Cook Islander Other Pacific Islander European Maori Chinese European Cook Islander Maori Other Pacific Islander European Niuean European Chinese Tongan European Fijian Samoan Tongan European Tongan Maori - Cook Islander Samoan - Cook Islander European - Indian Papua New Guinean Cook ·Islander Niuean Maori Chinese Other Asian European - Maori Samoan European Maori Tongan Chinese Malay NUMBER % 819 71 96 8 84 7 57 6 15 1 11 1 9 0.8 9 0.8 7 0.6 7 0 .6 5 0.4 4 0.3 3 0 .3 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 2 0.2 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1 The decision was made at this stage to put the ethnic groups into 5 main categories , namely, European, Maori, European-Maori, Samoan and 'Other'. All the smaller groups in the universe were put into the 'Other' category. 32 This was done to ensure that all the main ethnic groups were represented in the sample to facilitate a comparative study between these groups. Having grouped the students according to their ethnic classification (Table 2), the parent sample was selected using the stratified random sample method.Individuals in each category were used as a universe, and a sample for each category was selected by random numbers and in about the same proportion to the sample as it is to the universe. The target population and sample selected is shown below: ETHNIC GROUP EUROPEAN MAORI EUROPEAN- HA.ORI SAMOAN 'OTHER' TOTAL TABLE 2 TARGET POPULATION AND SAMPLE SELECTION PARENTS OF STUDENTS IN FORMS 4 TO 7 NUMBER IN NUMBER IN % IN TOT AL I % IN SAM PL~ POPULATION SAMPLE POPULATION 819 220 71 69 87 25 7 8 96 25 8 8 57 30 6 9 86 20 8 6 1145 320 100 100 TliE TEACHER SAMPLE The entire staff ( n = 85 ) of the school were surveyed. 33 METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION. The methods used for collecting the data were: (1) The Questionnaires (2) The interview (1) The Questionnaires The method used in the construction of the questionnaire was based on the work of Borg and Gall (1983) and on the model developed by Tuckman (1988). The following procedure was used: a. Specifying the variables to be measured. b. Choosing the question format. c. Choosing the response mode. d. Preparing the questionnaire items. e. Pilot testing and evaluating the questionnaire. The written questionnaire was selected because of the time constraints of this research and also because it allows data to be gathered from a large sample of teachers and parents . Two sets of questionnaires were drawn up, namely: A. Parent Questionnaire B. Teach er Questionnaire The Parent Questionnaire (see Appendix for copies of the questionnaires) English and Samoan questionnaires were developed because there were many Samoan parents who were not fluent in English. In wording the English questionnaire, consideration was given to the type of language suitable for translation into Samoan. The questionnaire was sub-divided into 5 sections. Each section addressed a specific issue as shown below: SECTION A: The items were structured using the 5 point Likert Scale and aimed to determine parental attitudes to various issues shown below: 1. Attitude towards Report Evenings. 2. Attitude towards Parent Support Group meetings. 3. Attitude towards parental involvement in the school. 4. General attitudes regarding teacher-parent relationships. SECTION 8 SECTION C: SECTION D: SECTION E: SECTION F: This section addressed the following issues: 1. Actual Participation in Activities 2. Level of Satisfaction 3. Willingness to participate The topics addressed in this section were: 1. Communication between parents and teachers. 2. Communication between parents and the Board of Trustees. This section aimed to determine the barriers to parent-teacher interaction using the Likert scale. The questions in this section required parents to suggest ways to improve parent-teacher relationships. Open-ended questions were constructed to elicit this data. 34 Closed questions were used to obtain data on the nature of the sample THE TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE Only two subsections (C and F) of the teacher questionnaire were different from the parent questionnaire. SECTION C: SECTION F: The issues addressed were contact between parents and teachers, communication between parents and teachers, adequacy of the teacher's relationships with parents, parent awareness of the teachers' problems, contact with the Board of Trustees. This covered the school's philosophy, learning skills, attitudes of teachers, courses that could be provided for parents, ethnic groups. 35 THE INTERVIE\N The method used in the development of the interview guide and for conducting the interviews was based on the work Tuckman (1988) and Borg Gall (1983). The major reasons for this research method were to clarity any misconceptions that may have arisen in the questionnaires and to give the parents a chance to provide explanations for the main issues addressed in the questionnaires. The interview method was used to gather data from a small sample of 20 parents ( 1 O European, 5 Samoan and 5 Maori ) and 10 teachers. The parent and teacher sample was selected using the systematic sampling method. The parent sample was divided into the major ethnic groups , namely Maori, Samoan and European before sampling was done. The next step was to consider the type of interview techniques to employ. A fixed framework of open-ended questions in which the subjects make any response in their own words, was drawn up. This gave the interviewer control over the interview situation, and at the same time the interviewee was given the freedom to talk at length on the subject of the questions asked. The parent interview schedule covered the following topics:- 1. The importance of parent-teacher relationships. 2. Report evenings. 3. Parent support group. 4. Informing teachers about parents concerns. 5. Evening classes for parents and suitable topics to be discussed. 6. Barriers to parent involvement in the school. 7. Contact with teachers. 8. Ways to involve parents at high schools. 9. Teacher's role in the school. 10. The parent's role in the school. The teacher interview schedule addressed the following issues:- 1 . Contact with parents. 2. Opportunities that exist in the school for teachers to meet parents. 3. Parent support group. 4. Report evenings. 5. Ways to improve contact with parents. 6. Home visits. 7. Student's problems at home? 8. Evening classes for parents. 9. Teacher's role in the school. 1 0. Parent's role in the school. 36 Questions were formulated to obtain data relating to these topics. After the schedule had been drawn up, a pilot study was carried out. THE PILOT STUDY Having considered the areas to be covered in the parent and teacher questionnaire questions were designed to elicit information on the topics listed. Research by Lunch and Pimlott (1976) and Payne and Hinds (1986) was consulted in drawing up the questionnaire I items. The completed questionnaire was trialled in a small pilot survey involving eleven 1. - subjects. Before the pilot surveys were conducted a letter introducing the writer and explaining the purpose of the research were sent to parents and teachers. Pilot surveys of the completed questionnaire were carried out with 6 teachers from 3 West Auckland schools. These teachers made valuable suggestions concerning the wording and structure of the questionnaire. Noting these suggestions the questionnaire was re-drawn . The draft parent questionnaire was administered to 5 parents selected randomly from the various ethnic groups represented in the school. This survey revealed the need to translate the questionnaire into the Samoan language as these parents were not fluent in the English language. A Samoan teacher, who was fluent in the Samoan language was commissioned to do this work. The researcher also made the decision that the questionnaires be distributed to the Samoan and Maori parents by a person who was familiar with these parents to ensure a high return rate. 37 The interview survey was piloted with a small group of parents and teachers to test its wording and structure. Three parents from the European, Maori and Samoan group were interviewed. None showed any difficulties in answering the questions. A pilot interview with 3 teachers also revealed no difficulties with the questions and structure in the interview schedule. The writer conducted all the interviews. THE MAIN SURVEY Approval was obtained from the Principal and the Board of Trustees to conduct a survey of the parents and teachers. A letter seeking permission to conduct a survey of the parents and teachers was handed to the Principal (see appendix D). Approval was granted by the Board of Trustees. (see appendix D). All the parents in the survey were contacted by telephone seeking their co-operation and informing them about the purpose of the survey and informing them when to expect the questionnaire. The questionnaire, a letter explaining the purpose of the survey and a I stamped, self-addressed envelope was sent to the parents with their children in the school and some were posted as requested by the parents. The parents were asked to post back the completed questionnaire. This was done to assure the parents of anonymity. The questionnaires to Samoan parents were delivered and collected personally by a Samoan parent. The questionnaires to Maori parents were distributed and collected by a teacher from the school who had personal contact with the parents to be surveyed. The questionnaires to teachers were personally handed to them by the writer. To increase the percentage of the returns, each parent in the chosen sample was contacted by telephone and asked whether they would like to take part in the survey. Two parents refused to be part of this survey. Since our sampling was done in the initial stages two more parents were included into the sample. The teachers were contacted individually All these procedures resulted in a return rate of 80 % from parent and 78 % from the teachers. Tables 3 and 4 show the number and percentage of questionnaires which were returned completed: 38 TABLE3 PARENT QUESTIONNAIRE RETURNS (ACCORDING TO EfHNIC CLASSIFICATION) TABLE4 PARENT QUESTIONNAIRES - RETURNS ACCORDING TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS [SES] [Raylee Johnston 1983] Tables 3 and 4 reveal that there was a high proportion of returns from the parents. Because of the assurance of anonymity those who did not respond to the questionnaire could not be traced. To increase returns a notice was put in the schools Newsletter to encourage parents to complete and return the questionnaire. Teachers were approached individually and encouraged to complete and return the questionnaires. The reasons for non-returns could not be determined because of the anonymity of the survey. The high return rate of the Samoan Parent sample is attributed to the questionnaires being personally handed to and collected from these respondents and recognition of their language. I I \ I I I I· 39 The returns from the Maori and the 'other' sample may have been influenced by the parents opting to choose an ethnic category that varied from that recorded in the school's data base which was used to determine the selection in the original sample. Thus the lov. return rate in the 'other ' sample may not be as low as the above statistics indicate. It mu st be noted that the sample was not selected on the basis of socio - economic status. The total returns, however, indicate an SES pattern that approximates that of the data held in the schools files. The questionnaires ( n = 37 or 14% ) that had missing data could not be allocated an SES classification. The majority of students are in the middle SES group except for the Samoan group which indicates a high number in the low SES category. I I \ 40 INTERVIEWS WITH PARENTS The interviews with the parents and teachers were conducted personally by the writer. The parents selected in a random sample was contacted by phone and by the writer making several home visits to request the cooperation of the parents. The responses to the interview were tape-recorded to reduce the tendency of the interviewer to make an unconscious selection of data favouring his biases. In most home the physical settings for one-to-one interviews was sufficiently private and free from interruptions to facilitate uninhibited communication. However, the conditions in some homes were not fully conducive to taping, eg high noise level. Corson (1985) suggest that problems of speech and accent which might inhibit interviewee in the interview situation depends on their social class and ethnicity. In this study the interviewer was a South African Indian working with European, Maori and Samoan parents. Thus considerable care was taken to make the interview situation less threatening by the interviewer initially talking to the interviewee about matters unrelated to this study and then carefully explaining the purpose of the interview and the tape recording. This enabled the interviewer to gain the confidence of the respondent. Each interview took about 30 minutes. ANALYSIS OF DATA The data on the questionnaire was coded and entered into the computer data base prepared for this study. The technique used analysis of the interview data was based on the work of Strauss (1987). The coding this data was done by the writer , who was also the interviewer. Statistical test of significance , using analysis of variance was applied to the data. The null hypothesis was to be rejected at the 0.5% level of confidence. CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL ACTIVITIES ATTITUDES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS BARRIERS PREVENTING A CLOSER PARENT - TEACHER RELATIONSHIP OTHER BARRIERS TO A CLOSER PARENT - TEACHER RELATIONSHIP ROLE OF PARENTS IN THE SCHOOL METHODS OF IMPROVING PARENT - TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS AT THE HIGH SCHOOL 41 RESULTS This survey on teacher - parent relationships at a high school compares the responses of the following groups: 1. The total parent and teacher groups. 2. The parent group divided on the basis of socio-economic status (SES) into high middle and low SES. 3. The parent group divided on the basis of ethnicity into European, Maori, Samoan, European Maori, and "Other". Analysis of variance ( F - ratio ) , means and standard deviations were used to test for significance and to compare the responses between the two major groups, namely the parents and the teachers. Also, for the parents sampled, means and standard deviations were used for within group comparison on the basis of SES and ethnicity. Ranking of the responses using the sum total gained by each group on each item was also used in the statistical analysis. Although some tables and figures are presented in this section, most are found in the appendices. PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL ACTIVITIES ACTUAL PARTICIPATION REPORTED IN THE SCHOOL'S ACTIVITIES The percentage of parents and teachers who have participated in the activities listed in Table 5 of the appendix is illustrated in the graph below: 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 Actual Participation In School's Activities: Parent and Teacher •Parent D Teacher 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Activities Figure 1 10 Key: 1. Report Ev•nino• 2. Patent Support Group 3. Fund Raising 4. Sporting actlvltie1 alter schooUwt1ktnda 5. c.mp.K>utdoor Puraults · e. Honwwof'l C.ntr• 7, Helping \n C:IUI a. Carttt Evenings 9. Ult SkHla 10. A.Nistance on the Mat at 11 . Cullural ActivillH 11 42 Figure 1 above shows that the highest level of involvement by both parents and teachers was in the Report evenings. This shows that the parents (84%) value this activity highly and it is the single most important situation for parent-teacher interaction. The four highest participation activities for both teachers and parents were in Report Evenings, Sporting activities Fund raising and Career evenings. There was a low level of involvement by parents in all the other activities, namely, Parent Support Group (27%); Camps and Outdoor pursuits (25%); Cultural activities (16%); Life skills (12%); Assistance on Marae (1)%) and the Homework centre (7%). It appears that the teachers' involvement is high in those activities regarded as "compulsory" by the school, namely, Report Evenings (99%), Fund Raising (85%), Sporting activities (80%), Camps and Outdoor Pursuits (78%), Career evenings (76%), Like skills (64%). The activities which are regarded as "more voluntary" had a low teacher involvement: Cultural activities (53%), Homework centre (30%), Parent Support Group meetings (29%) and assistance on the Marae (21 %). From table 6 it does appear that actual participation in some of the school's activities is influenced by the parents' socio-economic status. TABLE6 Actual Participation By Parents In The Schools Activities : According to Socio-Economic Status PARENT SUPPORT 18 28 29 25 14 36 43 The general trend in the table above indicates that the high SES and the middle SES parent groups had a higher level of participation in the 'academic' activities (report evenings) at the school than the low SES group. The low SES group had similar a or higher level of involvement in the rest of the activities (n=9) listed in the table above. Ethnicity does appear to play an important part in the level of participation by parents in the activities held by the school. The level of teacher and parent participation (Table 8) is ranked below according to the percentage of participation within each teacher, parent and ethnic group, with 1 being highest participation and 1 O lowest participation. TABLES Rank Order Of Actual Participation ACTIVITY TEACHERS PARENTS EUROPEAN MAORI SAMOAN EUROPEAN- "OTHER" From the table above it can be seen that all the different groups in relation to their actual parti_cipation ranked Report Evenings highly. Sporting activities were also highly valued by all the groups (Ranked between 1 and 3.5) except the Samoan group (Rank 6). Fund raising was less of a priority to the European and Maori parents than it was to the teachers, Samoan and the European - Maori parents. Camps and outdoor pursuits were ranked very low by the Maori parents (Rank = 8) compared to the other ethnic groups. Involvement in the homework centre was lower down the ranking order for all the groups (Ranked between 7 and 10) except for the Samoan Parent Group who ranked it third. Career evenings were ranked very low by the Samoan parents (Rank= 8.5) in relation to the other ethnic groups (Ranked between 2 and 6). Involvement in the Parent Support 44 Group was regarded as a higher priority by the Samoan and European - Maori parents than by any other group. As expected, assistance on the Marae was ranked highly by the Maori parents (Rank 4.5) but occupied the lowest rank among the other ethnic groups (9 to 10). The Maori parents ranked cultural activities highly (Rank = 3), whereas the European parents ranked cultural activities the lowest (Ranked 8). Despite the high profile by the Pacific Island (Samoan) cultural group within the school, these activities could only gain a Rank 7. The teachers ranked it at 10. 45 PARENTS' AND TEACHERS' DECLARED WIWNGNESS TO PARTICIPATE IN THE SCHOOL'S ACTIVITIES. Tables 9 and 1 O in the appendix show the sum of the scores and percentage of parents and teachers who are willing, unwilling or undecided about participating in the schools' activities. These activities are ranked in Table 11 and 12 below, according to the sum total of each activity, with the lowest total being given the highest rank (1) and the highest total ranked 13. TABLE 11 PARENTS DECLARED WIWNGNESS TO 13 LEAST 983 ASSISTANCE ON THE MARAE TABLE 12 TEACHERS DECLARED WIWNGNESS TO MOST WIWNG 13 230 LEAST FUND RAISING Tables 11 and 12 indicates that the parents and teachers were most willing to participate in open days and Report Evenings. Career evenings were also ranked highly by both these groups. Parents ranked Evening Classes (Rank 4) higher than the teachers (Rank 6). Fund Raising was highly valued ( Rank 6) by the parents but the teachers were least willing (Rank 10) to participate in this activity. Also teachers gave a high rank order (Rank =- 3.5) to camps and outdoor pursuits while· the parents ranked it lower at 7. Both the parents and teachers ranked parent support group meetings, Parent-teacher Association, Homework Centre and assistance on the Marae lower down in their rank 46 order. Teachers (Rank 5) were more willing then the parents (Rank ... 12) to participate in cultural activities. Also from tables 9 and 10 it can be seen that there is a significantly large percentage of both parents and teachers who were not willing to take part in the activities or were undecided on their willingness to participate. From table 13 below it appears that the different ethnic parent groups give a different priority to the activities held by the school, although there are some activities which are given about the same priority by all of the groups. Thus it appears that the parents' willingness to participate in the school's activities is linked to their ethnicity. TABLE 13 RANK ORDER OF DECLARED WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE: ACCORDING TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS EUROPEAN MAORI SAMOAN EUROPEAN 'OTHER' H .nDI A •• T "'••m Dafti, .,,,_ R .. nl< .,,,_ D4fti, .,,,_ o--" .,,,_ o--" -~~·-I FVFN•~•~C:: 4c;n 2 l;A 6 Al; 1 '!11 Ar= '>A Q PA.RENTC::I ·- t::RnllP l;Q? 8 S7 QS 4Q ? c '.'11 Ac ?'!I R FllNn DA1"'1.,,. 577 7 1;? 5S l;A 6 ?II , ?A Q nDFN nAVS 441 1 en ., c c;~ c; .... 1 ?1 '!I ·- m v ·-- cc .. s A? 1 .. o 1'!1 c "'"' 1""' ?1 '!I CAMPS/OUTDOOR 568 6 58 11 61 11.5 34 8.5 24 9 PllRC::UITS MnUFWnqK f'FNTRF 11::7C 11 '°A 1'> c S::1 4 ., .. 1? .... ii:: HELPING CLASS eg 701 13 68 14 68 13.5 39 13 32 13 ft .. , .. , •..iK TVPINt::: l'ADFFR FVFNINt::C:: 514 3 s 7 SR 71;; ~1 AC .. ., R I ICC C!Vll I C:: Fnl lf'4.TION ~ Q C? c; c; Rn 1n 'llA II c; ?1 '!I a ... -~ntJ UADAF 11nc 14 AO ? 1;11 g '!IC 1n c '!IA 14 l'lll_TIIRAI m--- ----- RAQ 12 57 QI;: R1 11 c; '!l'!I 7 .... 12 EVENING CLASSES FOR -· 527 4 50 3.5 56 7.5 31 4.5 16 1 II°" PARENT-TEACHER • -----.. -· ---:.~n.; 658 10 64 12.5 49 2.5 45 14 26 11 47 Report evenings seem to be a higher priority for the European (Rank = 2} and the Samoan (Rank= 1} parents than for the Maori (Rank= 6), European - Maori (Rank= 4.5} and the 'Other' (Rank = 9) parent groups. The Samoan parents valued the Parent Support Group (Rank = 2.5) and Fund Raising (Rank = 2) more highly than the other ethnic groups. Open days were a more popular activity with the European (Rank = 1) and European - Maori (Rank = 1) parents than with the other groups. The Samoan (Rank = 13.5) and the European - Maori (Rank = 10.5) indicated very little willingness to participate in sporting activities. Only the Maori (Rank = 2) parents showed any strong support for giving assistance on the Marae. All the ethnic groups except the Samoan parents (Rank= 7.5) regarded evening classes for parents as lower down in their list of priority. The parent-teacher association is more of a priority area for the Samoan (Rank = 2.5) than for the other ethnic groups who appear to rank it very low (Ranks 1 O and 14). From Table 14 ( in the appendix) it appears that the high SES, middle SES and low SES parents rate most of the activities about the same priority with a very small variation in ranking, the largest being about 2.5. Nevertheless there were significant exceptions affecting three of the activities, namely, camps/outdoor pursuits, homework centre, and evening classes for parents, which supports the view that Socio-economic status does have some influence on how parents prioritise the activities. The high SES parent group regards camps / outdoor pursuits (Rank = 4) a higher priority than the middle (Rank = 7) and low SES (Rank 10) parent groups. Involvement in the homework centre was less of a priority area to the high SES (rank = 13) than to the middle SES group. Evening classes were a much higher priority for the low SES (Rank = 1) than for the high SES (Rank 6) and middle SES (Rank = 3) parent group. 48 ACTUAL VERSUS DECLARED WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE IN THE SCHOOL ACTIVITIES. TOTAL PARENT RESPONSE Figure 2 compares the actual and declared willingness of parents to participate in the activities of the school. Key: 1. Repon Evening• 2. Pattnl Support Group 3. Fund Roiling • . Sponlng IC1lvl1M11 alter tchoo&lwttktndt 5. Clmpl/Ouldoof Pursuits • e. Homework C.nttt 7. Helping Ln dau I . CatHf Evenings 9. Ulo Slinglndul I . C&tHt Evtningl • . Liii SkJllo 10. Attl11anee o .ne MllM 11 . CunUlal ActMUu • Actual 0 Declared 50 The only marked difference between the high and middle SES groups appears to be In activity 8 (Careers Evenings) where the high SES group desired a greater involvement than at present with the middle SES indicating the opposite response. As stated above, the tow SES group's response deviated from that of the high and middle SES group. Figure 6 below shows the responses of the Low SES group. Actual vs Declared Willingness to Participate (Parent - Low SES) I • 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 School Activities Figure 6 Kt y: 1. RtponE~1 2. P&1tn1 Su-1 Group 3. Fulld~ 4.S""""'9 t