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I 
 
 
 
 
Assessment of nutritional knowledge and food skills in talented 
adolescent athletes 
 
 
 
A thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of 
 
Master of Science 
in 
Human Nutrition 
 
at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. 
 
 
 
 
 
Sarah Jane Burkhart 
 
2010 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Assessment of nutritional knowledge and food skills in talented 
adolescent athletes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sarah Burkhart 
2010 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Abstract 
 
There is very limited research on the nutrition knowledge and food skills of elite athletes in New Zealand.  
Adolescent athletes are moving through an important physiological stage of life, as well as training and 
competing in their chosen sports.  These athletes are the future New Zealand sporting representatives 
and therefore need adequate nutrition knowledge for performance, as well as health and wellbeing.  This 
research investigated the basic and sports nutrition knowledge of 100 talented adolescent athletes, aged 
13 – 20 years from five team sports using a questionnaire and a focus group.  The focus group involved 9 
rugby players and investigated currently available nutrition resources.  While the participants had a 
reasonable level of basic nutrition knowledge, their sports nutrition knowledge was not as high.  They 
struggled with the concepts of sports drinks, muscle growth and supplements.  Most participants had 
received some nutrition education and indicated that in the future they would prefer individual sessions 
with a sports nutritionist, written resources, as well as group sessions including cooking sessions and 
group workshops, and using a high profile athlete as a role model.  The participants were very clear that 
their coaches and parents needed to be involved in their nutrition education.  More research is needed to 
assess the overall knowledge of New Zealand adolescent athletes and the most appropriate, and effective 
methods of education for this group. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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The author gratefully acknowledges: 
 
 the athletes who so willingly participated in this study 
 the National Sporting Organisations; Basketball New Zealand, Netball New Zealand, New 
Zealand Rugby Union, New Zealand Football and New Zealand Underwater Hockey for their 
support 
 SPARC (Sport and Recreation New Zealand) who awarded this project a Research Grant 
 Dr Jane Coad, student supervisor 
 Dr Janet Weber 
 Mrs. Chris Booth, who worked as the independent third party researcher on this project 
 Registered dietitians; Richard Swinbourne and Rachel Svenson who provided feedback on the 
project 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table of Contents 
 
Introduction….. ........................................................................................................................................ 1 
 
Literature Review ..................................................................................................................................... 3 
1.0.  The period of adolescence ...................................................................................................................... 4 
 1.1.  An introduction to the period of adolescence ...................................................................... 4 
 1.2. Changes in dietary practice in adolescents ............................................................................ 5 
 1.3. Long term health consequences and determination of this due to diet ............................... 5 
 
2.0.  The link between nutritional knowledge, beliefs and nutritional behaviour ......................................... 6 
 2.1.  The impact of nutritional knowledge on food choice ........................................................... 6 
 2.2.  Athlete knowledge and behaviour ........................................................................................ 9 
 2.3.  Factors, beliefs and attitudes.............................................................................................. 12 
 2.4.  Models used in previous research ...................................................................................... 13 
 2.4.1.  The model of Story et al (2002) ................................................................................ 13 
 2.4.2.  The model of Trahms and Pipes (1997) .................................................................... 14 
 
3.0.  The relationship between nutrition and sports performance in adolescents ...................................... 17 
3.1.  A basic introduction to sports nutrition .............................................................................. 17 
3.2.  Age/Maturation differences in adolescent athletes ........................................................... 17 
3.3.  Current recommendations for adolescents ........................................................................ 20 
3.4.  Guidelines vs. actual intakes from research with a focus on New Zealand adolescents……23 
3.5.  Gender differences in adolescents meeting recommendations ......................................... 26 
3.6.  Gender differences in factors which influence food choice ............................................... 26 
 
4.0.  Supplement usage in adolescents ........................................................................................................ 27 
4.1.  Introduction to supplement usage ..................................................................................... 27 
4.2.  Prevalence of supplement usage ........................................................................................ 28 
4.3.  Reasons for supplement use and sources of information .................................................. 30 
4.4.  Frequency of supplement usage and justification .............................................................. 35 
4.5.  The use of energy and caffeniated drinks in adolescent athletes ...................................... 35 
4.6.  A discussion on the methodology of supplement research papers .................................... 36 
 
 
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5.0.  Targeting nutrition education at adolescents ...................................................................................... 38 
5.1.  Introduction to nutrition education .................................................................................... 38 
5.2.  The optimal way of educating adolescents and areas to target ......................................... 38 
5.3.  Specific influences on the adolescent athlete .................................................................... 39 
5.4.  Factors which need to be taken into account when designing education ......................... 42 
5.5.  Developmentally appropriate strategies and frameworks ................................................. 42 
5.6.  Theories/an introduction to theories previously used ....................................................... 43 
5.7.  The Social Cognitive Theory ................................................................................................ 45 
 5.7.1  Self efficacy ................................................................................................................ 45 
 5.7.2.  Behavioural capability .............................................................................................. 45 
 5.7.3.  Expectations ............................................................................................................. 46 
 5.7.4.  Observational learning ............................................................................................. 46 
 5.7.5.  The role of the Environment..................................................................................... 47 
 5.7.6.  Reciprocal determinism ............................................................................................ 48 
 5.7.7.  Reinforcement .......................................................................................................... 48 
5.8.  The Health Belief Model ..................................................................................................... 48 
5.9.  The Theory of Planned Behaviour....................................................................................... 49 
5.10. The Transtheoretical Stage of Change Model ................................................................... 49 
 
Conclusion………………...… ............................................................................................................................... 50 
 
Materials and Methods .......................................................................................................................... 53 
                    6.1. Subjects................................................................................................................................ 53 
6.2. Ethics considerations  .......................................................................................................... 53 
                    6.3. The questionnaire ................................................................................................................ 53 
                    6.4. Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 54 
                    6.5. Focus groups ........................................................................................................................ 54 
6.6. Data analysis ........................................................................................................................ 55 
                    6.7. Disemmination of results ..................................................................................................... 56 
 
Results………………...… ............................................................................................................................. 57 
7.1.  Basic demographic results .................................................................................................. 57 
 7.1.1.  Mean age and level of competition .......................................................................... 57 
 7.1.2.  Living situationand level of schooling ....................................................................... 58 
 7.1.3.  Athletes who compete in more than one sport ....................................................... 59 
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7.2.  Basic nutrition knowledge .................................................................................................. 59 
 7.2.1.  Food components ..................................................................................................... 59 
 7.2.2.  Fat ............................................................................................................................. 59 
 7.2.3.  Protein ...................................................................................................................... 60 
 7.2.4.  Carbohydrate ............................................................................................................ 60 
 7.2.5.  Vitamins and minerals .............................................................................................. 61 
 7.2.6.  Comparing overall results of basic nutrition knowledge by sport and gender ......... 61 
7.3.  Food skills and influences of food choice ........................................................................... 62 
 7.3.1. Involvement in food preparation .............................................................................. 63 
7.4.  Supplement usage .............................................................................................................. 64 
 7.4.1.  Reasons for supplement usage ................................................................................. 64 
7.5. Attitudes towards sports nutrition  ..................................................................................... 65 
7.6.  Sports nutrition knowledge and practice ........................................................................... 67 
 7.6.1.  Overall sports nutrition knowledge .......................................................................... 67 
 7.6.2.  The role of protein in sports nutrition ...................................................................... 69 
 7.6.3.  Knowledge of recommendations for timing and amount of food and fluid ............. 69 
7.7.  Sports drinks  ...................................................................................................................... 70 
 7.7.1.  Reported use of sports drinks ................................................................................... 70 
 7.7.2.  Reasons for using sports drinks ................................................................................ 70 
 7.7.3.  Identifying the functions of a sports drink ............................................................... 71 
7.8.  Previous sources of nutrition and methods for the future ................................................. 72 
 7.8.1.  Previous sources of education .................................................................................. 72 
 7.8.2.  Methods of education that athletes have received and would like in the future .... 73 
 7.8.3.  Using nutrition information that is provided ............................................................ 75 
 7.8.4.  Nutrition competition plans ..................................................................................... 75 
 7.8.5.  Who else should be involved in your nutrition education? ...................................... 75 
7.9.  The focus group .................................................................................................................. 76 
 7.9.1.  Use of a website ....................................................................................................... 76 
 7.9.2.  Cookbook resources ................................................................................................. 77 
 7.9.3.  Written resources ..................................................................................................... 77 
 7.9.4.  Group presentations/Workshops ............................................................................. 78 
 7.9.5.  The use of consistent guidelines for supermarket tours and cooking sessions........ 79 
 7.9.6.  Advice for others ...................................................................................................... 79 
 7.9.7.  Having a team nutritionist ........................................................................................ 80 
 7.9.8.  Other points raised ................................................................................................... 80 
 XII 
 
Discussion…….. ....................................................................................................................................... 81 
8.1.  Basic nutrition knowledge .................................................................................................. 81 
 8.1.1. Carbohydrate  ............................................................................................................ 82 
 8.1.2  Protein ....................................................................................................................... 83 
8.1.3.  Supplementation with vitamins and minerals .......................................................... 86 
 8.1.4.  Hydration .................................................................................................................. 89 
8.2.  Food skills and influences on food choice .......................................................................... 90 
 8.2.1. Influences on food choice .......................................................................................... 90 
8.2.2. Food skills .................................................................................................................. 91 
8.3.  Sports nutrition knowledge ................................................................................................ 92 
 8.3.1  Carbohydrate ............................................................................................................. 93 
8.3.2.  Protein ...................................................................................................................... 94 
 8.3.3.  Hydration .................................................................................................................. 94 
8.3.4.  Sports drinks ............................................................................................................. 95 
 8.3.5.  Use of sports drinks .................................................................................................. 97 
8.3.6.  Sports related supplements ...................................................................................... 99 
8.4.  Belief in sports nutrition and attitudes towards nutrition ................................................ 100 
8.5. Nutrition education ........................................................................................................... 101 
8.6. Limiting factors .................................................................................................................. 102 
 
Conclusion …..… .......................................................................................................................................... 105 
 
Practical applications ........................................................................................................................... 107 
9.0.  Methods of nutritional education and who should be involved ....................................... 107 
9.1  An example of a successful nutrition program .................................................................. 114 
9.2. The authors proposed educational program ..................................................................... 115 
9.2.1.  An education program proposal ............................................................................. 115 
9.2.2.  Feedback on the propsed education program ....................................................... 122 
 
Appendix 1: The Questionnaire.... .............................................................................................................. 125 
 
Appendix 2: Focus Group Sheet….. ............................................................................................................. 141 
 
Appendix 3: Examples of resources to be produced……… .......................................................................... 149 
 
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Appendix 4: Summary sheets ……….. .......................................................................................................... 159 
Overall summary....................................................................................................................... 161 
Basketball summary.................................................................................................................. 179 
Football summary ..................................................................................................................... 195 
Netball summary ...................................................................................................................... 211 
Rugby summary ........................................................................................................................ 227 
Underwater Hockey summary .................................................................................................. 247 
 
Index…….……….. .......................................................................................................................................... 263 
 
References ………… ...................................................................................................................................... 267 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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List of figures and graphs 
 
Figures 
 
Figure 1: A summary of the theory proposed by Neumark-Sztainer et al (1999) with the three levels of 
influence on eating behaviour in adolescents………………...… ................................................ 13 
 
Figure 2: A comparison of the models proposed by Story et al (2002) and Trahms & Pipes 
(1997)………………...… ............................................................................................................. 16 
 
Figure 3: A summary of the models used in human behaviour prediction (from Baranowski et al, 1999, pg. 
20)………………...… .................................................................................................................. 44 
 
Figure 4:  A Cooperative systems approach that can influence dietary chocies of adolescent athletes (from 
Hackman et al, 1992, pg. 264)………………...… ..................................................................... 107 
 
 
 
Graphs 
 
Graph 1: A representation of the level of competition in which subjects partake for each 
sport………………...… .............................................................................................................. 58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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List of tables 
 
Table 1: The amount of carbohydrate required per kilogram of bodyweight for different training needs 
(Jeukendrup & Gleeson, 2004, Howe et al, 2002)………………...… .......................................... 20 
 
Table 2: Sports Medicine Australis’s fluid replacement guidelines for children and adolescents (Source: 
Burke, L., 2000, Clinical Sports Nutrition, McGraw Hill)………………...… ................................. 22 
 
Table 3: Major results from the New Zealand Ministry of Health’s NZ Food NZ Children Survey 
(1999)………………...… ............................................................................................................. 25 
 
Table 4: Overall summary of research on the prevalence of supplement usage………………...… .................... 29 
 
Table 5: A summary of the research on reasons for use of various suppelments………………...… .................. 32 
 
Table 7.1.1: The distribution of sport, gender and age of participants………………...… ................................... 57 
 
Table 7.1.2: Level of schooling of the subjects………………...… ........................................................................ 58 
 
Table 7.2.1: Overall results of question A.4. Are these foods high in saturated fat?………………...… .............. 59 
 
Table 7.2.2: Overall results of question A.5. Are these foods high in protein?………………...… ....................... 60 
 
Table 7.2.3: Overall results of basic nutrition knowledge questions………………...… ...................................... 60 
 
Table 7.2.4: Percentage of correct responses to basic nutrition knowedge questions by sport…………...… .. 62 
 
Table 7.3.1: Number one influcence on food choice by sport………………...… ................................................ 62 
 
Table 7.3.2: Athletes wo are involved in food preparation with age, gender, ranking of cooking skills and 
most prevalent living situation………………...… ....................................................................... 63 
 
Table 7.4.1: Supplements used by the athletes and who recommended these………………...… ..................... 65 
 
Table 7.5.1: Overall results of attitudes towards sports nutrition………………...… .......................................... 65 
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Table 7.5.2: Sport specific attitudes towards sports nutrition………………...… ................................................ 66 
 
Table 7.6.1: Results of question C.4. Do these improve sporting performance?………………...… .................... 67 
 
Table 7.6.2: Results of question C.5. Are these true or false statements?………………...… ............................. 68 
 
Table 7.6.3: Percentage of correct responses to questions on sports nutrition knowledge by specific 
sport………………...… ............................................................................................................... 68 
 
Table 7.6.4: Percentage of correct responses to questions on sports nutrition knowledge by gender………69 
 
Table 7.6.5: Results of the role of protein in increasing muscle mass………………...… .................................... 69 
 
Table 7.6.6: The results of athlete knowledge of the recommended guidelines for food and fluid for 
before, during and after exercise………………...… ................................................................... 69 
 
Table 7.7.1: Percentage of athletes who report using specific named sports drinks………………...… ............. 70 
 
Table 7.7.2: Reasons for subjects using the named sports drinks………………...… ........................................... 71 
 
Table 7.7.3: Result s of the functions of a sports drink………………...… ........................................................... 72 
 
Table 7.8.1: Overall results of sources of previous nutrition information………………...… ............................. 72 
 
Table 7.8.2: Results of what methods of nutritional advice athletes have received in the past by 
sport………………...… ............................................................................................................... 73 
 
Table 7.8.3: Overall results of what methods of nutritional advice athletes have received in the past and 
what methods they would like in the future………………...… .................................................. 74 
 
Table 7.8.4: Results of what methods of nutritional advice athletes would like to receive in the future by 
sport………………...… ............................................................................................................... 74 
 
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Table 7.8.5: Results of  question C.27. Who else should be involved in your nutrition education? 
………………...… ........................................................................................................................ 76 
 
Table 8: Nutrition agenda (from Burns et al, 2004, pg. 133)………………...… ................................................. 114 
 
Table 9: Propsed nutrition education program………………...… ..................................................................... 117 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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