Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. An Operational Framework for Improving Decentralised Agricultural Extension: A Ghanaian case study A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Agricultural Extension Massey University Institute of Natural Resources Agricultural/Horticultural Systems & Management Ernest L Okorley 2007 Abstract The pressure on the public agricultural extension organisation in Ghana to improve i ts responsiveness to meet the needs of farmers has i ncreased s ince the g lobal i sation of trade in the early 1 990s. To improve agricultural productivity and the l ivel ihood security of farm households, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in Ghana decentral ised its extension service in 1 997. Although this was a critical change in agricultural pol icy, the extension service has struggled to implement this pol icy effectively. Further improvement in the situation is hampered because there has been l ittle research publ i shed in this area. To provide this understanding, a single-case study of a successful decentral ised d istrict level extension organisation in Ghana was used to identify the factors, processes and outcomes that contribute to its performance. The case organisation i s an example of a district agricultural extension organisation that operates under a decentral isation system at the level of deconcentration, with a high farmer-to-extension agent ratio and l imited and uncertain level s of Government funding. The results of the study emphasised the importance of the effects of both external and internal ( or organisational ) factors on the performance of the case organisation. The external factors included: (I) the pol itical wi l l to decentral ise, (2) the level of decentral isation of other government departments, (3) the provision of a c lear legal framework for decentral isation and (4) the existence of establ ished institutions that are wi l l i ng to support the decentra l isation process. New external factors that were identified in this study were ( 1 ) the type and drivers of decentral isation, (2) stakeholders' wi l l i ngness and commitment to support the decentral i sation process and (3) the community characteri stics in terms of land tenure arrangements and gender roles. The results confirmed the importance of the organisational factors prescribed in the l iterature: (I) stakeholder participation, ( 2 ) managerial and technical capacity, (3) operational funding and (4) accountabi l ity. However, the study also identified five other interrelated organisational factors that i nfluenced the success of the case organisation that had not been previously reported in the l i terature. These included the needs to : ( 1 ) develop a needs-based extension programme, (2 ) expand the extension service focus and roles, ( 3 ) foster a cross-sector plural i stic extension approach (4) use needs-based groups for service del ivery , and (5 ) extension staff attitudinal change. 11 Multistakeholder (farmer and other organi sations) partic ipation was critical for the development of a needs-based extension programme. The case organ isation had mod ified the traditional extension programme planning process to involve stakeholders at d ifferent levels of participation. S imi larly, the case organisation involved stakeholders in its multi level monitoring and evaluation processes. Stakeholder part ic ipation in planning and evaluation, although aimed ultimately at efficient and effective programme implementation and improvement, did enhance accountabil ity. Because the case organi sation had taken on a broader l ivel ihood security focus to extension, the definition offarmer needs was extended to encompass on-farm and off-fann needs that ha ve impact on the contribution agriculture makes to the livelihood security of farm households in the district. This broader l ivel ihood security focus to extension required the case organisation to take on additional roles from those it traditional ly held. In the study, a typology of such roles was developed and a role selection process used by the case organisation during its programme planning process was descri bed. Simi larly , because of this broader focus, the case organisat ion had to work both across sectors and with other extension providers from within the sector to meet the needs of farmers. Again, the multistakeholder programme planning process was central to fostering coordination and collaboration amongst the various extension providers in the district. Decentral isation has placed greater managerial responsibil ity on management staff of the case organi sat ion. In add ition, the l ivel ihood security focus has required technical staff and attitudinal changes to develop and seek for a much broader range of ski l l s and knowledge - mean ing that the development of both managerial and technical capac ity was important for the case organ isation. Needs-based training, the development of a learning environment and the enhancement of staff motivation were critical for the development of staff capacity. As with other extension organisat ions in developing countries, the funding for the case organisation was l imited and uncertain. To overcome these constraints, the case organisation had in place mechan isms to ensure its resources were used efficiently and III that it could mobi l i se addi tional resources from outside the organisation. Resource efficiency was improved through an intensive monitoring system and the use of stable needs-based groups. Additional resources were mobi l i sed by lobbying government and international donors for funds for projects that would meet the needs of farmers. Further resources were obtained through collaboration with other stakeholder organisations. Again , the multistakeholder planning process provided a platform for col laboration. Networking and special i ssue forums also provided mechanisms for enhancing col laboration within the district. Decentral isation was introduced into Ghana III 1 997 with the aim of eventual ly developing a demand-driven extension system. A lthough viewed as successfu l , the case organisation has yet to achieve the level of farmer partic ipation ( i .e. se lf-mob i l i sation) that i s required for a demand-driven extension system. Currently, after s ix years of decentral isation, the level of farmer part icipation can be classified as somewhere between consultation and co l laboration. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that the transition from a top-down to a demand-driven extension system wi l l take considerable t ime and resources. iv v Acknowledgements To God I give the g lory for sustaining me through this PhD trai l . I acknowledge the contributions made by my esteemed supervisors, David Gray and Janet Reid, without whose assistance this thesis would not have been completed. I have enjoyed your expertise and mentorshi p throughout my studies at Massey University. I part icularly thank them for their valuable guidance, encouragement and patience in taking me through the research process. I would also l i ke to thank Or. Paschal Atengdam and Or. I an Valentine for their valuable suggestions which helped to shape my focus during the early stages of the research. To the NZAID Commonwealth Scholarships, I am grateful to the scheme for the fi nancial support, without which my PhD programme would not have started. I express my profound gratitude to Kiri Manuera, Susan F lynn and Sylvia Hooker who were the Scholarship ' s Managers during the period of my study. My fami ly have very much enjoyed your constant support over the years . I also appreciate the support of the University of Cape Coast, Ghana, for granting me study leave for the period of this study. I am most grateful for all the support I received from the staff and management of the Assin Agricultural Development Unit during the research data col lection. The staff and management should take del ight in the fact that their organisation has provided a learn ing opportunity to me personal ly, and the extension organisation in Ghana and beyond. I am very gratefu l to the other organisations i nc luding World V ision International , Oasis Foundations, Department of Co-operatives, Forestry Service Division, Social Welfare and Community Development, Assin District Assembly Coordinating Counc i l, Regional Agricu ltural Development Unit, and a l l the farmers in the Assin District who provided information for this research. I would l ike to express my indebtedness to the I nsti tute of atural Resources at Massey Universi ty which provided me with a l l the essential faci l ities for my academic exercise. I especial ly thank Denise Stewart and Ewen Cameron for the key role they played i n ensuring that I had office space, and materia ls to work with. To the rest of the Institute, the Head, office staff and fel low students, I acknowledge that you provided me with a peaceful environment and friendly atmosphere to complete this work. I thank you for the VI encouragement by words and the many smiles I receive as we met at the common room and during our usual Friday morning tea time. It gives me pleasure to express my heartfelt gratitude to Ruth and Robert Thompson, Helen and Ken Bowski l l , Denise Lupton and family, Shirley Cook, Moshi and fami ly , lames and Dorcas Mwendwa, members of my home fel lowship, Palmerston North Christians Fellowship, and all other friends who made my stay i n ew Zealand a memorable one. F inally, ] would l ike to honour my wife, Edna, and my chi ldren, loseph and Prisc i l la, for their patience, sacrifice and support over the study period in New Zealand. I am glad I can now tel l them that i t is over. You can now have ' al l ' of your husband and father because I have no intention of tak ing you through this ordeal again, though I know you have deve loped the res i l ience to handle such a situation if i t happens again. As a token of my appreciation, ] dedicate this thesis to you Edna A. Okorley, Joseph A. Laryea and Prisc i l la Astwei Laryea. VII Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Acknowledgements .................................................................... ................................................... V Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... VII List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ XII List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. XIII List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ......................................................................................... XV List of Appendices ................................................................................ ....... : .............................. XVI CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Extension reforms in Ghana ....................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Decentralisation of extension in Ghana ..................................................................................... 7 1.3.1 Major feature s of the dece ntralised approach to exte nsion in G hana . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.4 Problem statement ..................................................................................................................... 12 1.5 Objectives of the study .............................................................................................................. 13 1.6 Organisation of the study .......................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER 2: DEVELOPMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSiON ................................... 15 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 15 2.2 Definition of extension ............................................................................................................... 15 2.3 Transfer of technology model ............................................................................................. ...... 17 2.4 Community participation models ............................................................................................. 19 2.5 Adult learning model ................................................................................................................. 22 VIII 2.6 Sustainable livelihoods approach ............................................................................................ 24 2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 26 CHAPTER 3: FRAMEWORK FOR EXTENSION DECENTRALlSATION ............................. 29 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 29 3.2 Decentralisation ........................................................................................................................ 29 3.2.1 Forms of decentrali sation .. ....................................................... . . . ......... . . . ... ......... . ....................... 3 1 3 .2 . 2 Assumed be nefits o f decentral i sation ................................ . . . . . . . ........... ..... .......................... . .. . . . .. 3 3 3.3 Decentralisation of agricultural extension in developing countries ...................................... 34 3.4 Factors that contribute to successful operation of a decentralised agricultural extension organisation .............................................................................................................. 36 3.5 Political factors .......................................................................................................................... 37 3 .5. 1 Level of decentral i sation . . . .. . ..... . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . ................. ....................... ......................... . . . .......... 37 3.5.2 Presence of we ll-developed institutions at the local leve l. ........................................... .. .. . . .. .. . .... 3 9 3.5 .3 Pre se nce of a clear legal fr amework ....... .. .. . .. ....... .. . ........ .............................................. ... . ...... ... 3 9 3.6 Organisational factors .............................................................................................................. 40 3.6.1 Stakeholder Partici pation ....... . .. ...... ....... ... . . .. .. . .......... ...... ...................................... ... ...... ...... . ... . . 40 3.6.1. 1 Par ticipation of farmers .... . ....... . . . ... . . . ..... .. . . . . ..... . . . . .. ...... . . . . . ..................................................... . .. 41 3 .6. 1 .2 Part i cipati o n of other stakeholders . . . ......... ............................ . . . . . . .. . . . ....... ... . . .... ......... .. ................ 45 3 .6 .2 Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 47 3 . 6.3 I nstitutional capacity building ... . . ..... . . . . ..... ............ .......................... ............................................ 49 3 .6 . 3 .1 Staff trai ning ............................................. ...................... ..... ..... . ... . . . . .. ... ... . . .. . . . . .......................... 5 0 3 .6 . 3 . 2 I nformal learni ng .... ....... .. .. . ...................... ........................... . .... ..... .. . .. . .. .... ................... .............. 5 3 3 .6.3 .3 I n fornlat ion and com munication technology ................................................ ............ ... ...... . ........ 57 3.6.3.4 Research-extension l i nkage ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................ . ............ . . .. 5 8 3 . 6.3.5 Staff motivation and commitment. . .. . ... ................. ... ................. . ............................... .................. 59 3 . 6.4 Resource m obilisation . ...... . . . .. ...... .. . ................ .......... . ............... ................................ .................. 63 3.6.5 I mpl ications of decentral isation for I ivel ihood secur i ty-focused extension . . . . . . .. . .. . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . ..... 66 3.6.6 T he devel opment of a needs- based progra m me .............. . ..... . ...... ....................... ........................ 67 3.6.7 T he expan s ion o f the extension focus for reducing the vul nerabil i ty of farmer s' l i ve lihoods ................ . ................ .. .. . .......... ....... . . ... ..................................................... .................. 70 3.6.8 The pl ura l istic extension system ............................................................................. . ......... . . . . . ..... 7 3 3.6 .8. 1 Coordination ........................................ ..... .............. ...... ..... ...... ...... ................... .......................... 7 4 3.6.8.2 Collaborati on ........ ... . ... .. . ........ ..... ........ . . . . . ... ..... .. .. ................................................ . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . 76 3 .6.9 Ensuring equity in e xtension provision .... ...................................... ............................................. 78 IX 3.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 8 1 CHAPTER 4: METHODS ....................................................................................................... 85 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................•........................................................... 85 4.2 Choice of research strategy .....................•................................................................................. 85 4.3 Case study design ....................................................................................................................... 87 4.3 . 1 Overv iew o f the resea rch process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 88 4 . 3 . 2 Case selection . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . 89 4 . 3.3 Data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. ... ............ ............ .............. .......... .............. .. ....... ........... 92 4.3 . 3 .1 I nterviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4 .3 .3.2 Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.3.3.3 Observations . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . 1 00 4 . 3 .4 Data a nalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . .. ..... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 10 1 4.4 Quality of case study research ...................................................... .......................................... 104 4.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 106 CHAPTER 5: CASE DESCRIPTION AND CONTEXT ................................................. ....... 109 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 109 5.2 Description of the case organisation ....................................................................................... 109 5.2.1 The orga n i sa t i o na l structure within which the case orga n i sat ion operates . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 09 5 .2 . t. t Factors re lat i ng to resourc ing . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . 1 1 3 5 . 2 .1 . 2 Factors re lat i n g to the orga n i sation's clie n t base and extension de l ivery . . . . . . . . . . ... . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ...... 117 5.3 5.4 5 . 3 .1 5 . 3 .2 5 . 3 . 3 5.3.4 5.3 .5 The environment in which the case organisation operates .................................................. 1 18 Agroecological factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... .... ..... . . . . ....... .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ............. .. . .. ............. I 18 The sociocultural factors . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . ...... . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . ... . .. . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 120 Pol it ical-econ o m i c factors .... . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . ... . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . .... . .. . . . . . . . .. . . 122 I n frastructural factors . . .... ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .... . . 128 I nst itut iona l factors . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .... .. . . . . . .. . . . . . ......... . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . ... . . 1 29 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 130 CHAPTER 6: FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SUCCESS OF DADU ... ................... 133 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 133 6.2 Key factors of DADU's operation .......................................................................................... 133 x 6.3 Needs-based approach ............................................................................................................ 135 6.3 . 1 Ensure s that the extension program me i s i n formed by other factors that a ffect fa rm household l i ve l i hood security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ... . .. .. . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 36 6 . 3 .2 Provides agricultural exte nsion serv ices driven by the need s o f fa rm households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 9 6.4 Ensuring effective extension service delivery ....................................................................... 143 6.4. 1 Targets extension act i v i t ies to the needs of fa rmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. 1 4 3 6.4 .1 .1 Develops needs-based extension progra m me through consultat ive p la nn i ng a nd re v iew process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.4.1.2 I m plements extension programme through needs-based groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 6.4.1 . 3 Uses mon itoring a n d e valuation tec h n i q ue s t o ensure the ex te nsion progra m me i s e ffect ive and respons i ve t o needs o f fa rmers . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 6.4.2 Stre ngthens the orga n i sa tion's human a n d material resource base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.4 .2 .1 Provides lea rn i n g opportunities for extension sta ff . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . 162 6.4 . 2 . 2 Ensure sta ff motivation a n d com m i tme nt i n the organ isat i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 69 6.4.2.3 Ensure s ex i st i ng resources are used e ffi c iently . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . 1 74 6.4.2.4 M ob i l i ses additional re sources from exte rnal sources . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 75 6.4.3 Foster a cross-sector plural istic extension system . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . .. 1 77 6.4.3 .1 Coord inat i ng extens ion progra m me with other orga n i sations ...... ................ . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 8 6.4.3 .2 Collaborat ing with other orga n i sations . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 80 6.4.3.3 Ma i n ta in i ng an ongoi n g col laborat ion with stakeholder orga n i sat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 84 6.5 Coordination of the agricultural extension and rural development system ...................... 187 6.6 Conclusion ................................................................................... ............................................ 188 CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION ................................................................................................. 1 89 7.1 Introduction ... .......................................................................................................................... 189 7.2 Classification of the case organisation .......... ........................................................................ 189 7 . 2 . 1 Organ i sational factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . ........ . ... .... . . . 189 7.2 . 2 Exte rna l factors ....... ... . . . ..... .. .. . . ..... ..... . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 7.3 Organisational factors that influence the success of a decentralised extension organisation ............................................................................................................................. 1 96 7 .3 . 1 Needs-based approach to exte ns i on programme development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. . 196 7.3 . 1 .1 The pla n n i ng process ... . . . . . . . ... . . . ........ ..... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 7 .3 . 1 .2 M o n itoring and eva l uation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . ...... ...... .. . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 7 . 3 .2 Sta keholder part ic ipation ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 7 . 3 . 2 .1 Pal1 icipation o f fa rmers in exte n s i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. ....... . ......... . .. . 2 1 0 7 .3.2.2 Participation of stakeholder orga n i sat ions i n extension . . . ... . .. . .. . .. . .. . ........ .. .... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 3 x i 7.3.3 Accountabil ity . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. .... .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ...... . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . 2 1 5 7 . 3 . 4 Expansion of extension focu s and roles . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . .. ... . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . 2 1 6 7.3.5 Cross-sector plural istic exte nsion system . . .. . . .. . . . . . ... . ...... . . . . . .. . . . . ... . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . . ...... . . . .. . . .. . ... . ... . . . . 218 7.3 .5 . 1 Coord ination . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .... . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . ... ... . . . . . . . . . .... .... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 218 7 . 3 .5.2 Col laborati on .. ... . . . .. . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . ... . .. . . . . . . . . .. . ...... . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 7 .3.6 Group-based exte nsion del i very approach . . . ... . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .... ... . . .. . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . .... . . . . . . . . . . 22 I 7 . 3.7 Resource management . . . . . . ...... . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. ... . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . .. 223 7.3.7.1 I nstitutional capacity b u i l d i n g ..... .. ............... .. . . ........... ... .. ... .. .... ...... ...... ... .... ..... . . . ....... .. ........ . . . . 223 7 . 3 .7.2 Efficient use of existing resources . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 7 . 3 .7 . 3 Resource mobil i sation . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 4 7.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 238 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 241 8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 241 8.2 Research Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 241 8.3 Implications of the findings ..................................................................................................... 248 8.4 Evaluation of the methodology ............................................................................................... 251 8.5 Future research ................................................................................................ : ....................... 254 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 257 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 285 XII List of Tables Chapter 3 Tab le (3: I . A typology of farmer pa rt i cipation . . ... . ... . .. . .. . .. ........ . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... .......... .. .. . ....... . 42 Chapter 4 Table p:I: I . Conditions for se lecting appropriate re search strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Table p:I:2 . B road quest ion areas covered for the unit of analysis i n the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Table p:I: 3 . Key i n formants used in the case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Table p:I: 4 . B road inte rv iew q uestions for key i n forma nts who were not members of the case orga n i sation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Table p:I:5 . Key tactics u e d i n the study to mi ni m i se threat to va l i dity and re lia bility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Chapter 6 Table�: I. The major trai n i ng and compete n c ie s DADU provided to staff in 1997- 2003 . .. . .... .. . .. . . .. . .. .. .. . 1 64 Chapter 7 Table 17: I . Key theore tical characterist ics of the case orga ni sat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 90 Table 17:2. Key e x ternal factors of the case organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 XIII List of Figures Chapter 1 F igure n : I . Concep tual framework for p overty reduction and food security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I Chapter 2 Figure 12: I. Trans fer of technology model ( Source: Russ ell et a I ., 1 989) . . . . . . . . .. . .. ...... . . .. . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 18 Chapter 3 Figure 13: I . Conceptual model of decentral ised extens ion systems w ith l ivel ihood security focus outcomes and goals ( adapted from Parker, 1995; Lai & C istull i , 2005) . . ... .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. .... .. . . . . . 83 Chapter 4 Figure ill: I. The research p rocess ( Adap ted from Cepeda & Mart i n , 2005) . . .. . ..... ........ . . . . . . . .. ..... ...... . . . . . . ...... 89 F igure iIl:2 . Map of Ghana s howing the regions, cap itals and the s tudy area . . ..... .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . .. .. .. .... .. . . . . . 9 1 F igure iIl:3 . Ladder of analytical abstract ion ( Adapted from Carney, 1 990) . . . ... .. .. ... . . . . . . .. .... . .. . . . . . . . ... .... . .. .. 102 Chapter 5 Figure is: 1 Th e cas e organisation as a government extension organisat ion working w ith fanners' groups ( FG ) at the d istrict level . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ... 1 1 0 F igure is :2. Map of the Central Region of Ghana Showing the Ass i n District ........................................... I 12 Figure is: 3 . Map of Ass i n D is trict show i ng the d is trict cap ital and other major settlements ... .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .... 116 FigureiS:4. R a i n fa l l d istri bution pattern in the Ass in District (2000-2003 ) . .. .. ..... ... ..... . .. ... .. .......... .... ........ 1 19 F igure /5:5 . Cropped area of maj or food crops i n the Ass i n District ( i n Ha) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . 126 F igure /5 :6. Y ie l ds of maj or food crops in the Ass i n District ( i n metric tonnes /ha) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . 127 Chapter 6 F igure [6: I. The means by which DADU he lps i mp rove the contribut ion agriculture makes to the l i vel ihood security of farm households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 35 F igure [6:2. The means by wh ich DADU adopts a needs- based app roach to agricultural extens ion p ro v is io n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 35 F igure [6:3 . The major stakeholders DADU cons u l ts in the identi fication of farmer needs .. . . . . . ... ...... .. . . .. . . 1 37 F igure [6:4. Typ ology of roles p l ayed by DADU i n us ing its hol ist ic l iveli hood app roach to extens ion pro v is ion . . .. . ... . . . ...... ..... . .. . .. . . ... . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .. . . . . .. .. .. .... .... .. . . . .. ..... . ..... . . . . .. .... . . . .. . . . . ... . . .... .. .... 14 1 F i gure [6:5 . D A DU's m eans of ensuring ef fect ive m an agement of extension serv i ce del ivery . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 43 F igure [6:6. M ethods used by DADU for ensuring extens ion act i v i t i es are targeted to farmers' needs . . . . ... 144 F igure [6:7. The cons ultat ive p lanning and review p rocess fo l l owed by DADU . .... ... . . ... .. .. . ... ....... ....... ..... 146 XIV F igure 16: 8. A representation of the process D A DU uses to select it s exte nsio n roles ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 53 Figure 16:9. G rowth o f co-operat i ve FBOs in the d i strict between 1 997 and 2004 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 59 Figure 16: I O. The mo n ito ring and eval uation techniques DA DU use s to e n sure its extension programmes are respo nsive and e ffectively i m p lemented . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .... . . . . .. . . . . ... ........ . .. . . . .... . . . . . . . . 1 61 F igure 16: I I . The means DADU uses to stre ngthen its human and mate r i al resource s ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 62 Figure 16: 1 2 . The means by which DA DU fosters i n fo rmal learn ing i n the work place . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 1 67 Figure 16: 13 . The mechanisms D A DU uses to e nsure staff mot ivation and co mm itment ... . . . . .... . . .... . . . . .. . . . . . 170 Figure 16: 14. The met hods DA DU uses to involve its staff in management decision mak i ng . . .. . . . ....... . .. . .... 1 70 F igure 16: 15 . A field staff member ( right) rece ived t he all-round Be st Exte nsion Agent award i n 2003 . . . . 1 71 F ig u re 16: 16. The means used by DADU to e nsure its exist ing re sources are used e ffi c iently . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 174 F ig u re 16: 17. The means DA DU uses to mobil ise add it ional re sources to meet the need o f farmers .. . . . . . . 1 76 F ig u re 16: 1 8 . DADU's means o f fostering a cross-sector pl ural istic exte ns io n syste m ... . ....... . . ... . ........ . . . . . . . . 178 F ig u re 16: 19. Typology o f suppo rts DADU g i ves to other extension pro v iders .......... ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 F ig ure 16:20. Typo logy of supports DADU draws fro m other organ i satio n s fo r extension act i vities in t he d istrict . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ...... .. .................... 1 83 F ig u re 16:21. The means by which DADU maintains an o ngoing collabo rat ion with stakeholder o rganisat ions/gro ups i n t he d i strict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ... . .. . . . . .. . . . . .... . . . . . . . . ................ . . . 1 85 Chapter 7 F igure 17: I . The programme plann i ng proces used by the case organisat ion . .... ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 F igure 17:2 . A re presentat ion of the extension role se lection process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. 205 F ig ure 17:3 . Met hods used by t he case organi at ion fo r ensuring an e ffect i ve and re sponsive e xtension prog ram me . ............. . . ............. ...... . . ... . . ................. . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 207 Chapter 8 F ig ure 18: I . Expanded conce ptual model of decentral i sed exte nsion syste ms w ith l i vel ihood security focus o ut comes and goa l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations The fol lowing acronyms and abbreviations are used in the text: AAGDS AEA AgSSIP HIV/AIDS DADU DAES DDA DADO DoC EPA FASDEP FBO GoG IMF MIS MoFA MTADP NAEP NGO PPRSD RDA RA DO RELC SMS T&V TOT Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Development Strategy Agricultural Extension Agent Agricultural Services Sub-Sector Investment Project Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome District Agricultural Development Unit Directorate of Agricultural Extension Services District Director of Agriculture District Agricultural Development Officer Department of Co-operatives Environmental Protection Agency Food and Agricultural Sector Development Programme Farmer Based Organisation Government of Ghana International Money Fund Management Information Systems Ministry of Food and Agriculture Medium Term Agricultural Development Programme National Agricultural Extension Project on-Governmental Organ isation Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate Regional Director of Agriculture Regional Agricultural Development Officer Research Extension Linkage Committee Subject Matter Specialist Training and Visit Transfer of Technology xv XVI List of Appendices Appendix I : Main responsibilities of DADU's technical staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 5 Appendix 2 : Some infrastructural facilities of DADU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 7 Appendix 3 : List of the main registered co-operative FBOs working with Assin DADU in 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 7 Appendix 4 : Organisational relationships of DADUs, MoFA and the District Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 8