Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH Juan Schutte 2019 SUPERVISOR: Prof Johan Potgieter CO-SUPERVISOR: Dr. Xiaowen Yuan MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 2 PREFACE: This dissertation is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of: Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering Conducted at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand The author declares that this is his own work except where due acknowledgment has been given. MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 3 This work is dedicated to God through the gift of life, by which all things are made possible. All thanks, praise, and honour to God through which I can do all things. MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 4 ABSTRACT There exists an opportunity within manufacturing for the development of technology capable of creating complex fibre-based structures. Additive Manufacturing (AM) has become increasingly relevant due to its ability to generate parts of a higher complexity relative to other traditional techniques. 3D Printing (3DP) technology is a form of AM through which much of this type of complex manufacturing is conducted. Currently this technology allows for the processing of many materials through a range of mechanisms. Whilst 3DP development has predominantly focussed on synthetic polymer and metal production, there is opportunity for this technique within Tissue Engineering (TE). This field is motivated by the shortage of donor organ tissues such as the cornea. AM is a potential methodology for the controlled manipulation of biomaterial/biopolymer as a form of production within TE. It is however critically limited in its ability to process submicron and nanofiber to generate fibre-based constructs such as those found within the cornea (stroma). This limitation yields restrictions in not only bio-printing based applications but also within attempts to innovate in traditional fibre- reinforcement based industry. There is a manufacturing based opportunity for the research and development of a technology capable of overcoming these limitations. The current restrictions within this field were evaluated through an analysis of relative literature. This led to the identification of electrospinning as a viable technology for both synthetic and biopolymer submicron and nanofiber production. The limitations of this technology were evaluated, leading to the potential for overcoming these utilising traditional methods of 3DP. Further evaluating current literature led to a hypothesized manufacturing technique. Additionally this literature indicated the need for development of a novel technology capable of performing research and development related work within this field. This resulted in much experimentation related to the generation of technology/componentry/mechanisms related to both the testing of the hypothesis as well as capable of facilitating future research. Work related to an increase in electrospinning productivity via electric field related manipulation was conducted as an attempt to reduce system complexity. This work did not circumvent the requirement for environmental control; as such, a method for the implementation of this to aid in productivity was required. Development of mechanisms yielded a strong requirement for a modular system allowing these components to be varied in accordance with the processing requirements. This ability to manipulate the system was achieved through the creation of both a function based coding strategy as well as the derivation of a potential modular electronics (PCB-stacking) technique. The derived novel technology’s success was demonstrated through a range of experimentation related to implemented forms of technology within the final machine. Regarding the forming of electrospun material, the direct method of electrospinning-based deposition of material upon molds did not achieve generation of the desired objects as such a method of fibre acquisition was implemented. Regarding collagen electrospinning, no dramatic variation on fibre distribution (alignment) could be derived in comparing the parallel or rotating mandrel-inspired approaches. Functionalisation strategies utilising ultrasonically generated vapour demonstrated promising capability in the bonding of synthetic polymers whilst acting to disrupt the more sensitive biopolymer. The use of corona discharge plasma for crosslinking yielded promising results for synthetic polymer ultimate tensile strength however, the proximity analysis/optimisation of this requires further research if this is to be applied to electrospinning-based AM. Finally, the ability to utilise the developed technology to generate both an automated manufacturing technique for fibre-based additive manufacturing and the creation of associated 3D forms was demonstrated as viable, thus validating this research project. MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis and the associated work would not have been possible without the continual support of many people. Firstly, I would like to thank my parents, Wouter Stephanus Schutte and Gale Valarie Schutte. Without your incredible sacrifices, unyielding love and undeniable support, this achievement would not have been possible. Thank you for making the sacrifices to bring me to this country and allowing me to pursue my dreams, for all this and more I am eternally grateful. I would like to thank my sister, Kelsey Schutte. You have helped to keep me sane, which has definitely been no small feat! Your kindness and intelligence have, and continue to, inspire me. Thank you for listening to all the crazy and always being there when I needed to destress. I would like to thank my grandparents Jacobus Schutte, Jeanette Schutte, Valerie Buys, Christo Buys and John Will. Your examples of sacrifice, courage, determination, and resilience in the face of adversity, have motivated and inspired me to work hard and believe that with dedication my goals can be achieved. I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Johan Potgieter. Your support not only in respect to this PhD but also the industry and life-orientated mentorship has been an invaluable part of this journey. I am incredibly grateful for all of the amazing opportunities you have provided to me, your enthusiasm and ‘can do’ attitude is truly inspirational. I would like to thank Massey University you have facilitated my growth through your engineering department. I would like to thank my co-supervisor Xiaowen Yuan as well as the lecturers, teachers and mentors I have been privileged to experience. Your guidance, lessons, and knowledge, have helped me become the engineer I am today. I would like to thank my post-graduate colleagues. You have joint me at various stages of this crazy adventure. Thank you for all your support through the sleep deprivation and temporary insanity. I wish you all the best in all of your current and future endeavours. I would like to thank the New Zealand National Science Challenge for not only funding this work, but for being actively involved in my progression as both a student and a researcher within New Zealand. Thank you for allowing me the unique opportunity to develop and learn from the local international experts in fields of Science and Technology. I would like to thank my industry collaborators GNS Science and RevolutionFibres for providing me with technology and materials critical for the completion of this work. Your readiness to collaborate and guidance through this work has been invaluable. MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface: ................................................................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................ 5 Table of Contents.................................................................................................................................................... 6 List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................... 11 List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................ 17 List of Equations ................................................................................................................................................... 18 List of Publications ............................................................................................................................................... 19 Papers ............................................................................................................................................................... 19 Posters............................................................................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Additive Manufacturing ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1.1 Mechanisms for material interaction ................................................................................................ 2 1.1.2 Viscosity, support material and resolution ........................................................................................ 3 1.2 Tissue Engineering and Organ Fabrication ........................................................................................... 3 1.3 The Cornea dilemma ............................................................................................................................. 4 1.4 Problem Space: The need for Fibre-based Fabrication ......................................................................... 5 1.5 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................................ 5 1.6 Research Aim and Thesis Statement ..................................................................................................... 5 1.7 Research Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 6 1.7.1 Masters Aid: Implementing a control system for vapour based cross-linking/bonding of object. .... 6 1.7.2 Project conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 8 1.8 Delimitations ......................................................................................................................................... 8 1.9 Overview of Thesis ............................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Fibre-orientated composite 3D printing .............................................................................................. 11 2.2 Fundamentals of Tissue Engineering .................................................................................................. 12 2.2.1 Bio-printing technologies ............................................................................................................... 12 2.3 Collagen .............................................................................................................................................. 15 2.3.1 Natural collagen fibre formation ..................................................................................................... 16 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 7 2.4 The Cornea .......................................................................................................................................... 17 2.4.1 The stroma ...................................................................................................................................... 17 2.5 Tissue engineering and bio-printing of collagen ................................................................................. 19 2.6 Engineering Perspective on stroma-like Fibre implementation .......................................................... 20 2.7 Deriving Nano-fibres .......................................................................................................................... 22 2.8 Electrospinning ................................................................................................................................... 22 2.8.1 The fundamentals of an electrospinning process ............................................................................ 23 2.8.2 A nature based analogue ................................................................................................................. 28 2.8.3 Electrospinning solvent limitations and alternatives ....................................................................... 29 2.8.4 Electrospinning efficiency .............................................................................................................. 30 2.8.5 Electrospinning aligned fibre .......................................................................................................... 31 2.8.6 A review of Collagen Electrospinning for Tissue Engineering ...................................................... 33 2.8.7 Additional noteworthy developments for corneal and three dimensional electrospinning fabrication 35 2.9 Functionalisation of Electro-spun Fibres ............................................................................................ 36 2.9.1 Functionalisation through chemistry ............................................................................................... 36 2.9.2 Functionalisation through engineering............................................................................................ 36 2.9.3 In vivo cross-linking ....................................................................................................................... 37 2.10 Application of Functionalisation ......................................................................................................... 37 2.10.1 Depositional Additive Manufacturing ........................................................................................ 37 2.11 Literature Review Summary ............................................................................................................... 39 Chapter 3 Post Literature Review Hypothesis ................................................................................................. 40 Chapter 4 Experimental Component Development ......................................................................................... 41 4.1 Project Research and Development Scope limitations ........................................................................ 41 4.2 Design and Development Philosophy ................................................................................................. 44 4.3 Material Actuation Development ........................................................................................................ 45 4.3.1 Developmental progression ............................................................................................................ 45 4.4 Electrospinning Point of Extrusion (POE) Development .................................................................... 48 4.4.1 Developmental progression ............................................................................................................ 48 4.4.2 Taylor cone formation .................................................................................................................... 49 4.4.3 Component Serviceability ............................................................................................................... 51 4.4.4 Charge control ................................................................................................................................ 52 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 8 4.5 Fibre Collection Development ............................................................................................................ 53 4.5.1 Developmental progression ............................................................................................................ 53 4.5.2 Fibre collection surfaces ................................................................................................................. 53 4.5.3 Collection surface evaluation and development ............................................................................. 54 4.5.4 Fibre collection unit development .................................................................................................. 57 4.5.5 Rotating Collector Development .................................................................................................... 59 4.5.6 Rotating mandrel ground element development ............................................................................. 62 4.5.7 Final rotating mandrel-based collector ........................................................................................... 63 4.5.8 Fibre transferral unit development .................................................................................................. 64 4.6 Functionalisation Device Development .............................................................................................. 65 4.6.1 Developmental progression ............................................................................................................ 65 4.7 External Electric Field manipulation developments ............................................................................ 74 4.7.1 Conductive component shielding .................................................................................................... 75 4.7.2 Taylor cone direction rectification/modification ............................................................................ 77 4.7.3 Field manipulation through ground rod modification ..................................................................... 81 4.8 Temperature and humidity control ...................................................................................................... 85 4.9 Electronics based development ........................................................................................................... 87 4.9.1 PCB Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 89 Chapter 5 Final Development of a novel Fibre based manufacturing research and development machine .... 91 5.1 Prior machine-based developments ..................................................................................................... 91 5.2 Machine Operation/Procedure Development ...................................................................................... 92 5.2.1 Machine Initialization phase ........................................................................................................... 92 5.2.2 The User Interface phase ................................................................................................................ 94 5.2.3 The Manufacturing cycle phase ...................................................................................................... 97 5.3 Hardware/componentry ideation ......................................................................................................... 99 5.4 Software/Code development ............................................................................................................. 100 5.4.1 Stepper Motor Control .................................................................................................................. 100 5.4.2 Operational efficiency ................................................................................................................... 103 5.4.3 Fundamental program functions ................................................................................................... 105 5.5 Research and development characteristics/properties of the final machine ...................................... 107 5.5.1 Electrospinning-based design characteristics ................................................................................ 107 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 9 5.5.2 Additional Processing-based design characteristics ...................................................................... 108 5.5.3 Code based characteristics ............................................................................................................ 110 Chapter 6 Discussion of evaluations related to the Hypothesis ..................................................................... 111 6.1 Fibre distribution/forming strategies ................................................................................................. 111 6.1.1 Wrapping/Molding of Fibres generated in Electrospinning .......................................................... 111 6.1.2 Experiment methodology .............................................................................................................. 112 6.1.3 Parallel electrode Electrospinning ................................................................................................ 116 6.1.4 Final Parallel Electrode Collector ................................................................................................. 118 6.1.5 Parallel electrode electrospinning of collagen .............................................................................. 119 6.1.6 Rotating Mandrel-based electrospinning of collagen ................................................................... 120 6.1.7 Review of fibre generation utilising the developed machine ........................................................ 122 6.2 Sequential Functionalisation Strategies............................................................................................. 123 6.2.1 Vapour based functionalisation..................................................................................................... 123 6.2.2 Application of vapour on Collagen fibre Samples ........................................................................ 128 6.2.3 Plasma based functionalisation ..................................................................................................... 130 6.2.4 Implementation of plasma treatment on Fibres ............................................................................. 131 6.3 Automated machine generated samples ............................................................................................ 133 6.4 Generating a 3D fibre based object ................................................................................................... 135 Chapter 7 Future Work and Recommendations............................................................................................. 137 7.1 Vapour-orientated recommendations: ............................................................................................... 137 7.2 Plasma-orientated recommendations:................................................................................................ 137 7.3 Environmental control recommendations: ........................................................................................ 137 7.4 Code recommendations: .................................................................................................................... 137 7.5 Electronics recommendations: .......................................................................................................... 137 7.6 High Voltage isolation recommendations: ........................................................................................ 138 7.7 Electric Field manipulation recommendations: ................................................................................. 138 7.7.1 Variability within automated electrospinning ............................................................................... 138 7.8 Future Funded work recommendations ............................................................................................. 139 Chapter 8 Project Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 140 Chapter 9 References..................................................................................................................................... 141 Appendix A: Papers Published ........................................................................................................................... 147 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 10 Appendix B: Posters Published .......................................................................................................................... 180 Appendix C: Related Patent Application (partially disclosed) ........................................................................... 185 Appendix D: Code .............................................................................................................................................. 187 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Flowchart depicting the materials and functionalities employed within 3D printing[8] ......................... 1 Figure 2: Elements associated with Extrusion based 3D Printing[2] ...................................................................... 2 Figure 3: Elements associated with Laser-Sintering based 3D Printing ................................................................. 2 Figure 4: Elements associated with Inkjet based 3D Printing................................................................................. 2 Figure 5: Elements associated with Stereolithographic based 3D Printing ............................................................ 2 Figure 6: Graph showing Organ transplant, donation and waiting list statistics [15] ............................................ 3 Figure 7: Illustrating the relationship of extensive heat, pressure and chemistry to protein and tissue[8] ........... 14 Figure 8: Figure illustrating the techniques of thermal, piezoelectric, and electro-hydrodynamic inkjet printing. .............................................................................................................................................................................. 14 Figure 9: Image depicting the three parallel polypeptide chains making up the tropocollagen found within Collagen ................................................................................................................................................................ 15 Figure 10: Figure illustrating a collagen fibre's internal staggered tropocollagen and source of d-banding ........ 16 Figure 11: SEM imaging of interwoven lamellae, from Collagen, Structure and Mechanics[5] . ........................ 18 Figure 12: Figure demonstrating the aligned nature of collagen fibres within stacked and interwoven lamellae 18 Figure 13: Microscopy of Lab based tissue demonstrating fibre alignment ......................................................... 19 Figure 14: Interpretation of eye as pressurised chamber ...................................................................................... 20 Figure 15: Figure illustrating the components and features of electrospinning .................................................... 22 Figure 16: Image depicting the standard force vector diagram of a charge subjected to multiple forces including that of an Electric Field ........................................................................................................................................ 24 Figure 17: Image depicting the standard electric field line vector diagrams for point charges and the relation of attraction and repulsion between these ................................................................................................................. 24 Figure 18: Image depicting the fundamental factors influencing the surface tension of a formed meniscus. ...... 24 Figure 19: Image depicting the two regions of material jetting in electrospinning derived from[9]. ................... 25 Figure 20: Image illustrating the build-up of charge and the subsequent electrostatic force within the Solution resulting in surface distortion (Taylor cone formation) and jetting of material. ................................................... 25 Figure 21: A comparison between the fibre formations of a spider and electrospinning...................................... 28 Figure 22: Figure demonstrating the differences in coaxial and emulsion electrospinning nozzle ...................... 29 Figure 23: Revolution Fibres' AGL electrospinning device taken from [11] ....................................................... 30 Figure 24: Figure demonstrating the basic operations for rotating mandrel electrospinning ................................ 31 Figure 25: Image depicting the use of split electrodes to generate specific alignment patterns with examples A and B taken From [6] ............................................................................................................................................ 32 Figure 26: Image depicting the loss of electrospinning z-resolution via the introduction of extrusion/Inkjet methodologies. ...................................................................................................................................................... 37 Figure 27: An example depiction of vapour exposure for post processing ........................................................... 39 Figure 28: Flowchart demonstrating the technological requirements for the hypothesised research and development machine ........................................................................................................................................... 40 Figure 29: Hypothesised process derived from Literature Review ....................................................................... 40 Figure 30: The simplistic Esa1 electrospinning device by Electrospinz [3] ......................................................... 41 Figure 31: The 4SPIN modular electrospinning research device by CONTIPRO [4] ......................................... 41 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644405 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644406 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644407 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file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644435 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 12 Figure 32: Universal Laser Systems PLS6.75 ...................................................................................................... 43 Figure 33: SMTCL BRIO MILLER 8 CNC Machine .......................................................................................... 43 Figure 34: List of advanced capabilities within the Massey University Engineering workshop .......................... 43 Figure 35: Flowchart depicting design process .................................................................................................... 44 Figure 36: Three main areas of project component design and development ....................................................... 44 Figure 37: Prototype having syringe pump included in electrospinning region ................................................... 46 Figure 38: Control valve mechanism prototype .................................................................................................... 46 Figure 39: Final syringe pump design with covered conductive elements ........................................................... 47 Figure 40: Attempt at identifying potential solution-bath extruder type .............................................................. 49 Figure 41: High Voltage plate connected to servomotor via acrylic mounting plates .......................................... 52 Figure 42: Displayed collections of fibre upon the 'fibre based object' collector demonstrating a clear variation of collection at 90 o angles ..................................................................................................................................... 54 Figure 43: Development of fibre molding collector and limitations of these. ...................................................... 54 Figure 44: Hypothesised relationship between fibre severing and collector distance to electrodes ..................... 55 Figure 45: Intended solution for the enforcement of desired fibre separation. ..................................................... 55 Figure 46: Depictions of attempt to generate a suitable collector for the 3D molding based applications ........... 56 Figure 47 SEM image depicting fibres which have not adhered to the aligned nature expected in parallele electrode electrospining ........................................................................................................................................ 57 Figure 48: Example of fibres deposited between parallel electrodes ................................................................... 57 Figure 49: Parallel electrode configuration equipped with slider for easy attachment as well as manoeuvrable coverings to direct generated fibre........................................................................................................................ 58 Figure 50: The formation of a desirable layer of fibre across the air-gap ............................................................. 58 Figure 51: Utilisation of sponge as a temporary insulator and the results thereof ................................................ 58 Figure 52: Elmarco NS 8S1600U large scale electrospinning device .................................................................. 59 Figure 53: Simple gear based mechanism to increase motor output rpm ............................................................. 61 Figure 54: Versions of the rotating collector with both acrylic and threaded rod techniques ............................... 62 Figure 55: Illustration of concept relating to rod based rotating collector ............................................................ 62 Figure 56: Nylon 6,6-Formic Acid experiment demonstrating effectiveness of rod based collector .................. 62 Figure 57: Final rotating mandrel based mechanism with grounding wire, motor and additional mechanism mounting attachments ........................................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 58: Modified transducer ............................................................................................................................ 66 Figure 59: Utilised 5V DC transducer cooling fan ............................................................................................... 67 Figure 60: Glass 'cup' filled with water to cool the transducer/aid in thermal dissipation .................................... 67 Figure 61: Degradation of transducer by solution ................................................................................................ 67 Figure 62: Illustration of the hypothesised principles and controlled application of vapour. ............................... 68 Figure 63: Image identifying the undesirable ejection of droplets, use of the masking technique and the effects of undesirable material on sensitive fibre structures ............................................................................................. 69 Figure 64: Final rendition of the vaporisation mechanism ................................................................................... 70 Figure 65: Initial drainage system unable to negate expulsion of solution droplets ............................................. 70 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644436 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644437 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644438 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file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644469 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 13 Figure 66: Final rendition of the UV exposure mechanism highlighting components for directing and masking the light generated. ............................................................................................................................................... 71 Figure 67: Corona Discharge device developed at GNS ...................................................................................... 72 Figure 68: The Plasmatec-X by Tantec ................................................................................................................ 72 Figure 69: The effects of an increase in the potential number of points of plasma production for a utilised circular pattern/array ............................................................................................................................................. 73 Figure 70: Final Corona Discharge Plasma-based mechanism ............................................................................. 73 Figure 71: Illustrations highlighting the optimal state of electric fields between collector and extruder in electrospinning for both parallel and rotating mandrel approaches ...................................................................... 74 Figure 72: Examples of the electrospun material having been attracted toward undesirable regions due to conductive elements and the resultant shielding utilising acrylic. ........................................................................ 75 Figure 73: Interception of deposited fibres by acrylic (highlighted in yellow)..................................................... 76 Figure 74: The occurrence of undesirable fibre upon the motor and the implemented deterrent ......................... 76 Figure 75: Images taken during an electrospinning test with emphasis on an uncontrolled varied occurance of the Taylor Cone .................................................................................................................................................... 77 Figure 76: Desired electric field derived from additional conductive elements near the extruder ....................... 77 Figure 77: Brass extruder having the ability to increase the number of nozzle extruders .................................... 79 Figure 78: Images depicting the randomised entanglement or disruption of fibres both prior to and upon the collectors hypothesised to be caused by adjacent nozzle proximity ..................................................................... 79 Figure 79: Application of additional conductive material in an attempt to modify the electric field and prevent fibre trajectory disruption occurring from adjacent nozzles ................................................................................. 80 Figure 80: Comparison images depicting the variation in output fibre upon the collector for nylon 6, 6 and collagen respectively ............................................................................................................................................ 81 Figure 81: Illustrations of hypothesised limitations and potential solutions to the lack of fibre occurance in experiments having solutions with lower reactivity ............................................................................................. 82 Figure 82: PLA 3D Printed Ground Rod modification components/coverings .................................................... 83 Figure 83: Experiments relating to the identification of the influence yielded by the conductive rotating rods and resultant fibre placement/production .................................................................................................................... 83 Figure 84: Images depicting the progression of electrode-mandrel combined electrospinning optimisation ....... 84 Figure 85: Simple control system utilised in an attempt to control the local environmental conditions for electrospinning to occur ........................................................................................................................................ 85 Figure 86: Extruder surrounded with housing allowing this to be heated separate to the greater electrospinning environment .......................................................................................................................................................... 86 Figure 87: Heating element and sensor fixed directly to extruder ........................................................................ 86 Figure 88: Extruder plate modification to include heating vents as well as means to evaluate extruder temperature. .......................................................................................................................................................... 86 Figure 89: Example of a RAMPS v1.4 board with equipped Polulu stepper drivers ............................................ 88 Figure 90: Ideation related to the future development of modular electronic circuitry allowing for an ease in troubleshooting and variation of componentry for the generated machinery. ...................................................... 90 Figure 91: Initial attempts at machine development with issues relating to undesirable fibre accumulation ....... 91 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644470 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644470 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file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644494 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644494 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644495 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 14 Figure 92: Simplified testing unit with an increased ability to identify limitations within actuation ................... 91 Figure 93: Flowchart showing the progression of the Machine initialization phase............................................. 92 Figure 94: Demonstration of the Arduino based capability for serial monitor based user interaction .................. 94 Figure 95: simple equation for the identification of actuation related limits in the electrospinning process ........ 94 Figure 96: Flowchart showing the progression of the User interface phase ......................................................... 95 Figure 97: Flowchart showing the progression of the Manufacturing phase ........................................................ 97 Figure 98: Initial design for complete fibre based manufacturing technology ..................................................... 99 Figure 99: Sparkfun Big Easy motor driver with annotations related to example code provided by Sparkfun relative to the component ports ........................................................................................................................... 101 Figure 100: annotated progression required to compute the required motor delays relative to desired flowrates ............................................................................................................................................................................ 102 Figure 101: Illustration of the sequential nature of code compilation and the effects of prior action-based delays on later operations .............................................................................................................................................. 103 Figure 102: Overview describing the formation of localised loop-based time variable and demonstrating the use of these with comparison statements/evaluations to trigger actions ................................................................... 104 Figure 103: Implemented function through which motors are actuated to desired distances ............................. 105 Figure 104: Final dimensions of the electrospinning region ............................................................................... 107 Figure 105: Processing region and equipment of the final machine ................................................................... 108 Figure 106: Fibre-handling system realised in the final machine with associated dimensions ........................... 109 Figure 107: Coded 'for-loop' utilised to generate the rotating mandrel-based collection stratergy .................... 110 Figure 108: Electrospinz ES1a device from [3] .................................................................................................. 112 Figure 109: Revolution Fibres electrospinning device ....................................................................................... 112 Figure 110: Additional dimensions for generated collecting surfaces. Where 1, 3 and 5 are the cavity and 2, 4 and 6 are the extruded versions of the semi-sphere, patterned semi-sphere and dog-bone analogue[7] ............. 112 Figure 111: Image magnified and highlighting transparent fibres (circled in yellow)........................................ 113 Figure 112: Image of collecting surfaces covered in film of nylon fibre (transparent fibres circled in yellow)[7] ............................................................................................................................................................................ 113 Figure 113: Flat surface SEM showing randomised fibre layout[7] ................................................................... 113 Figure 114: Flat surface SEM showing nano-scale fibre[7] ............................................................................... 113 Figure 115: Example SEM illustrating randomised fibrils at base of dog-bone [7][7][5]collector [7] ............... 113 Figure 116: Image of the 3 extruded forms with yellow highlighting areas where the fibres have stretched across surfaces ............................................................................................................................................................... 114 Figure 117: randomised fibres stretching along the edge of the dog-bone analogue [7] .................................... 114 Figure 118: SEM showing relative lack of fibres at semi-sphere collector summit [7] ...................................... 114 Figure 119: SEM of aligned fibres from the many semisphere [7] ..................................................................... 114 Figure 120: SEM showing alignment across semi-sphere gap [7] ...................................................................... 115 Figure 121: SEM showing randomisation of fibres above patterned sem-sphere cavity [7] .............................. 115 Figure 122: SEM showing alignment of fibre across the dog-bone cavity [7] ................................................... 115 Figure 123: Image of the 3 surfaces containing cavities, with yellow highlighting areas where the fibres have stretched across surfaces ..................................................................................................................................... 115 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644496 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644497 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644498 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644499 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644500 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Randomised fibre accumulation on target of large distance parallel electrode electrospinning ...... 116 Figure 125: attempt at supported large distance parallel electrode electrospinning ........................................... 116 Figure 126: Extended distance between large flat surface and parallel electrode ............................................... 116 Figure 127: SEM images demonstrating a hinted alignment occurring at the surface edge whilst the internal region is randomised ........................................................................................................................................... 116 Figure 128: Image demonstrating the fibres suspended between the electrode an semi sphere-based collector. 117 Figure 129: SEM evaluation of fibre distribution upon collector ....................................................................... 117 Figure 130: Samples generated by the collection of fibre at 90 o intervals for parallel electrode electrospinning. ............................................................................................................................................................................ 117 Figure 131: Transferal process of fibre from the implemented parallel electrode technique ............................. 118 Figure 132: Displayed inconsistency in electrode gap coverage ........................................................................ 118 Figure 133: Inconsistencies in electrospun collagen fibres including voids ....................................................... 119 Figure 134: Collected electrospun collagen having a region of aligned fibre surrounded by non-aligned fibre 119 Figure 135: Additional regions/images of interest regarding the collagen-based SEM evaluations................... 120 Figure 136: Depiction of the collector utilised in this experiment...................................................................... 120 Figure 137: Initial electrospinning yielding limited success .............................................................................. 121 Figure 138: Improved coating of collagen upon the rotating collector with characteristics and non-conformities highlighted in red ................................................................................................................................................ 121 Figure 139: Collagen sample and associated SEM generated utilising the rotating mandrel approach .............. 122 Figure 140: Illustration of the desired effects of applied vapour processing on the internal strctures of 3D printed material ............................................................................................................................................................... 123 Figure 141: Graphical display of resultant reaction of ABS samples to acetone exposure. [1, 2] ...................... 124 Figure 142: SEM comparisons of the topographical characteristics of a sample having no exposure and a sample being exposed to controlled acetone vapour in 25% intervals [1] ...................................................................... 125 Figure 143: Hypothesised relationship of fibre exposed to functionalising vapour agent .................................. 125 Figure 144: SEM image depicting the capability to utilise ultrasonic transduction to generate vapour agents and functionalise collected fibres. ............................................................................................................................. 126 Figure 145: The methodology for generating datasets relating to fibre orientations .......................................... 126 Figure 146: Graphical output from Minitab one-way Anova to evaluate dataset validity .................................. 127 Figure 147: Samples generated for vapour based analysis ................................................................................. 128 Figure 148: Vapour proximity experiment effects on sample fibres .................................................................. 128 Figure 149: Example of damage to sample identified during and post-SEM imaging ....................................... 129 Figure 150: Changes to the structure of the sample’s collagen fibres ................................................................ 129 Figure 151: Graphical display of the effects of plasma proximity on ultimate tensile strength of ABS samples[10] ......................................................................................................................................................... 130 Figure 152: Simple hand-held experimentation of plasma based exposure on functionalising collagen sample 131 Figure 153: Damage to sample from plasma exposure ....................................................................................... 131 Figure 154: Demonstration of the modification of sample surface from opaque to transparent ......................... 132 Figure 155: Depiction of difficulties in removing fibre from collector .............................................................. 132 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644528 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644529 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644530 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644531 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644531 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file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644555 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644555 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644556 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644557 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644558 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644559 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 16 Figure 156: SEM images of the first sample electrospinning-vapour generated through the automated machine ............................................................................................................................................................................ 133 Figure 157: Chosen SEM for fibre angle-based evaluation including derived measurements. .......................... 133 Figure 158: Graphical results from the one-way Anova demonstrating sample set validity .............................. 134 Figure 159: Wire based process to remove fibre based structures from 3D collector ........................................ 135 Figure 160: Process of trial and error demonstrating the difficulties associateed with the generation of a self- sustaining three dimensional fibre based object. ................................................................................................ 135 Figure 161: Demonstration of 3D fibre-based object having retained structural elements of the collector utilised ............................................................................................................................................................................ 136 Figure 162: Illustration in which the creation of a secondary electric field will negate the effects of undesirable attraction towards auxiliary components ............................................................................................................ 138 Figure 163: Ideation for the implementation of a secondary high voltage component to modify the electrospinnnig electric field ............................................................................................................................... 139 Figure 164: Developed modular mechatronics technology for fibre-based manufacturing and biofabrication research ............................................................................................................................................................... 140 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file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644568 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 17 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Parameters for sample generation ........................................................................................................... 7 Table 2: Information regarding the layers of the cornea ..................................................................................... 17 Table 3: Table describing the fundamental properties of electrospinning and the effects of the variation to these [51, 54] ................................................................................................................................................................. 27 Table 4: Showing the various electrospinning parameters utilized in previous studies ....................................... 34 Table 5: Evaluation of time versus financial liability for the ESa1 Device .......................................................... 42 Table 6: Evaluation of time versus financial liability for the High Voltage Power Supply .................................. 42 Table 7: Evaluation of time versus financial liability for the Syringe Pump ........................................................ 42 Table 8: Material actuation development ............................................................................................................. 45 Table 9: POE developmental process ................................................................................................................... 48 Table 10: Development of mimicked rotating disk extruder ................................................................................ 50 Table 11: Redevelopment of extruder system for increased accuracy and serviceability ..................................... 51 Table 12: Generated surfaces including their chief instigative purposes .............................................................. 53 Table 13: Development of electrode mandrel hybrid collector ............................................................................ 60 Table 14: Development of a fibre retrieval mechanism ........................................................................................ 64 Table 15: Development of vapour based functionalisation unit ........................................................................... 65 Table 16: Development of electric field modulating componentry ...................................................................... 78 Table 17: The effects of ground rod modification for collagen based electrospinning utilising the developed rotating collector ................................................................................................................................................... 81 Table 18: Three major microcontroller alternatives evaluated within the project ................................................ 87 Table 19: The evolution of the circuitry required for the project's machine/mechanisms .................................... 89 Table 20: PCB modifications required due to project development ..................................................................... 89 Table 21: List and description of the implemented homing functions within the machine code .......................... 93 Table 22: List and description of the implemented User interface functions within the machine code ............... 96 Table 23: List and description of the implemented Printing functions within the machine code ......................... 98 Table 24: Table containing Ultimate Tensile strength data from both the benchmark and controlled exposure studies [1, 2] ...................................................................................................................................................... 124 Table 25: Data relating to the resultant fibre alignment relative to the horizontal of the SEM utilised ............. 127 Table 26: Resultant mean ultimate tensile strength for each sample set exposed to corona plasma surface modification[10] ................................................................................................................................................. 130 Table 27: Data representing the angular characteristics of the fibre generated utilising the developed machine ............................................................................................................................................................................ 134 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644592 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644592 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644593 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644594 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644594 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644595 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644595 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 18 LIST OF EQUATIONS Equation 1: Coulombs law which describes the force between two charges q1 and Q2 in relation to the distance between these d 2 , where k is the electrostatic constant (k=9x109Nm2/C). .......................................................... 23 Equation 2: The algebraic relationship of Electric Field magnitude(E) to Coulombic Force (F) for a given charge q. ............................................................................................................................................................... 23 Equation 3: The use of Coulomb's Force equation in the ratio of electric field magnitude to identify relationships of magnitude (E) to distance (d) ...................................................................................................... 23 Equation 4: The nature of the surface tension force (Fst) in relation to the length at which it acts (in the case of a meniscus this is typically a circumference, L) and the contact angle between surface and solution θ are described. The relation of this to gravity in the case of a meniscus helps in determining integral values such as γsol the coefficient of surface tension for a derived solution. ................................................................................ 24 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644596 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644596 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644597 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644597 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644598 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644598 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644599 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644599 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644599 file:///C:/Users/jschutte/Desktop/PostDefense%20Thesis/JuanSchutte_ThesisDraft_2019_FinalDraft_PostDefense.docx%23_Toc24644599 MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 19 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS Papers The following papers are included at the end of this thesis in the form of Appendix A: Papers Published. Schutte, J., Yuan, X., Dirven, S., & Potgieter, J. (2017). The opportunity of electrospinning as a form of additive manufacturing in biotechnology. 24th International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice (M2VIP), 6. [8] Schutte, J., Potgieter, J., Dirven, S., & Yuan, X. (2017). The effects of electrospinning collection surface modification on nylon 6-6 placement. 24th International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice (M2VIP), 6. [7] Wjesundira, P., Schutte, J., & Potgieter, J. (2017). The effects of acetone vapour inter-layer processing on fused deposition modelling 3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. 24th International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice (M2VIP), 6. [2] Schutte, J., Wijisundira, P., Harris, M., & Potgieter, J. (2018). Evaluation of the effects of controlled ultrasonic acetone vaporisation on Fused Deposition Modelling 3D Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene. 25th International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice (M2VIP), 5. [1] Schutte, J., Leveneur, J., Yuan, X., & Potgieter, J. (2018). Evaluation of the effects of corona discharge plasma exposure proximity to Fused Deposition Modelling 3D Printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene. 25th International Conference on Mechatronics and Machine Vision in Practice (M2VIP), 6. [10] Posters The following posters are included at the end of this thesis in the form of Appendix B: Posters Published. New Zealand Product Accelerator: The Potential of Bioprinting Technologies in the production of Complex Collagen Tissues (2016) New Zealand Product Accelerator: The Potential for Biofabrication of complex collagen tissues through Bioprinting methodologies (2016) New Zealand Product Accelerator: Novel 3D printing technologies for the production of complex fibre structures (2017) National Science Challenge: The pathway to composite nanofiber based 4D Bioprinting (2018) National Science Challenge: The pathway to composite nanofiber based 4D Bioprinting (2019) MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 1 Figure 1: Flowchart depicting the materials and functionalities employed within 3D printing[8] Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Additive Manufacturing Manufacturing technology has predominantly specialised in the use of synthetic material for polymer based techniques. Additive Manufacturing is a form of manufacturing gaining much interest due to it’s potential for a more sustainable practice (in that it generates far lower waste by-product in comparison to Subtractive manufacturing) [12]. This technique relies on the successive introduction of material in a specific order to develop/generate a final structure [12, 13]. One of the most prominent forms of this technology is 3D Printing; this is a rapidly growing prototyping and manufacturing technology that occurs in many different forms for various materials and functionalities (depicted in Figure 1). The fundamental feature of this technology is the layer-by-layer introduction and processing of material to generate three-dimensional objects. Due to differences in the properties of various materials (e.g. viscosity thermal reactivity etc.) three distinct processing methodologies have been developed namely: material deposition, processing of powders or processing of liquids [14]. MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 2 1.1.1 Mechanisms for material interaction Many additive manufacturing methodologies rely on the application of pressure and heat to deposit or process the material into the desired form [12]. Deposition printing occurs through mechanical or pneumatic actuation often utilising heating elements to aid in the accurate deposition and post deposition fusing of material (an example of this process is illustrated in Figure 2). The processing of powders occurs through laser melting, laser sintering (Figure 3), electron beam melting, or binder jet application. The processing of liquids occurs through stereolithographic (photo-polymerisation) (Figure 5), inkjet (Figure 4), micro-valve, or acoustic techniques. The introduction of material differs between techniques of additive manufacturing generally, Deposition occurs as a continuous extrusion at predefined locations whereas in the processing of liquids through inkjet technology material introduction occurs as singular droplets onto a substrate. These techniques differ substantially to that of stereolithographic liquid processing and the techniques employed in most powder processing additive manufacturing. In these forms of printing material is introduced as a layer or ‘bed’ of material which then undergoes processing [15]. Figure 2: Elements associated with Extrusion based 3D Printing[2] Figure 3: Elements associated with Laser-Sintering based 3D Printing Figure 4: Elements associated with Inkjet based 3D Printing Figure 5: Elements associated with Stereolithographic based 3D Printing MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 3 Figure 6: Graph showing Organ transplant, donation and waiting list statistics [15] 1.1.2 Viscosity, support material and resolution Material viscosities restrict the type of methodology utilised. Higher and lower viscosities are better processed by deposition and liquid processing methodologies respectively [13, 15]. Both deposition and droplet-based liquid processing methodologies often require support structures/material when complex objects containing overhangs are produced. This must be removed through some form of post processing to yield the desired object [15]. Stereolithographic and powder processing additive manufacturing involves the layer-by-layer introduction of a bed/layer of powder material through a powder spreading/roller mechanism allowing previous layers to act as support material, thus this requires less post processing (material removal). Material deposition additive manufacturing in the form of extrusion techniques have relatively limited resolutions when compared to other forms of additive manufacturing [13] as well as having a dependency on ‘support material’ depositions for complex parts (e.g. having overhanging extrusions). Due to this dependency post processing to improve the surface quality of material deposition AM is often required. Currently the highest printing resolution occurs in liquid processing additive manufacturing, specifically that of droplet based printing. The above 3D printing technologies typically utilize common manufacturing materials (Synthetic polymers and Metals) however recently similar additive manufacturing methodologies have been utilized in tissue engineering. 1.2 Tissue Engineering and Organ Fabrication Tissue engineering is an interdisciplinary approach to the construction of biological substitutes for the repair or replacement of impaired biological systems through the utilisation of technology [16, 17]. This work is highly motivated by the increasing requirement for organ transplantation and the relative reduction of available transplantable equivalents (donor organs). This international shortage has been labelled as a public health crisis for international health [18]. Figure 6 demonstrates the disproportionate relationship between donor organs and organ requirement for the USA[19]. MODULAR MECHATRONICS TECHNOLOGY FOR FIBRE-BASED MANUFACTURING AND BIOFABRICATION RESEARCH 4 It is due to this donor organ deficiency that much research has been conducted regarding the generation of both synthetic and biological replacements in the form of prosthetics and engineered/manufactured tissue. Within this field Anthony Atala’s work (1999) in generating a synthetic bladder through the usage of a patients