Development Studies
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Item Internal migration and development in East Timor : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University, 2003(Massey University, 2003) Guterres, Aurélio Sérgio CristóvãoMigration has been a subject of interest for scholars and students of development studies for many years, yet the conceptual tools for linking the process of migration and development have proven to be limited. Recent studies in developing countries have begun a re-assessment. Eschewing some of the old macro-economic models, which lay emphasis on rural to urban migration, scholars have employed broadly ethnographic methods to look at population movement and migration in terms of the meanings people ascribe to moving. They see cultural and social factors as being of prime importance. This study extends these approaches and provides an alternative way of looking at migration and development by employing ideas from Development Studies to differentiate population movement and migration resulting from "immanent development" from that which follows "intentional development" or state-led development. This thesis presents a model of that approach and focuses on internal migration and development in East Timor. East Timor has had a long history of colonial development with extremes of government policy under two different colonial regimes, the Portuguese and the Indonesian. Under Portuguese colonisation little development occurred, as the Portuguese were more interested in trade. Forced labour practices, involving the local population in the agricultural plantation activities, were imposed by the Portuguese to provide agricultural export commodities for colonial benefit. The plantation policy was part of a colonial strategy to keep the general population in the countryside, away from the capital Dili. On the other hand, the Indonesian period shows in very stark form the underlying intent of much rural development policy: the desire to impose order through controlling the pace of migration and slowly incorporating rural economies into a widening market system .It also shows that, despite such heavy control, forms of immanent development once unleashed will exert a strong influence on individual and family decisions to move. This study provides a new way of understanding migration and development from a micro-level perspective using a migration life stories approach. Migration life stories enable us to understand the complexity of migration and the relationship with development. The most exciting novel element of migration life stories approach is the ability of migrants to recall their migration histories and experiences, and to show how migrants’ histories and experiences are connected to migration in a particular context of their life. Thus using migration life stories, this study was able to show how migration is linked to development in the context of East Timor.Item Assistive computer technology and empowerment : the vocational experiences of blind and visually impaired New Zealanders : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2003) Williams, Wendy ElizabethThe technology revolution which has occurred in New Zealand over the past 30 years has introduced an array of assistive mainstream and specialised computer technologies (ACT) such as the internet, voice and braille output systems. These technologies compensate for the information access limitations of the blind and visually impaired and promise eventual empowerment. In a few years New Zealanders with sight impairments have travelled from print illiteracy to print literacy, and the memories of the change, its impact, its success and pitfalls are still relatively recent. This thesis seizes the opportunity to explore their impact on empowerment using the vocational experiences of visually impaired and blind people as a case study. Underpinned by a philosophy of empowerment, the study targets individuals who are themselves visually impaired, are of working age and have come into contact with ACT, along with relevant individual specialists and organisations. In methodological terms it is mainly qualitative with a pragmatic and complementary mix of focus groups, personal and specialist (key informant) interviews and a survey. The study discovers that ACT has indeed spawned a range of benefits for participants in their personal and social contexts. It has improved users' information management abilities. Improvement in information management has led to spin-off benefits such as communication, which facilitates social involvement and participation. Participation and improved management of information have improved ACT users' response capability, or their ability to respond to changes in their external vocational environments. These three benefits when applied to the work context have led to increased access for users to another set of personal and social, tangible and intangible resources available through paid and voluntary work and self-employment. However some persistent social barriers and underlying structural factors impede the empowering potential of ACT.Item Integrating gender into planning, management and implementation of rural energy technologies : the perspectives of women in Nepal : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, School of People Environment and Planning at Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 2004) Mahat, IsharaWomen in rural Nepal are heavily involved in management of energy resources particularly biomass, which constitute the main form of rural energy as is the case in most developing countries. Women's most time consuming activities in rural areas of Nepal are cooking, collecting firewood, and processing grain, all of which are directly associated with the rural energy system. Despite women's strategic interests in improved rural energy in Nepal, energy planners (normally male) rarely consider women's roles, needs, and priorities when planning any interventions on rural energy. This study targeted at rural women in the mid hill region of Nepal, has examined the socio-economic implications of alternative energy technologies (AETs) especially in terms of saving women's labor and time and increasing opportunities for them to participate in social and economic activities. The analysis indicates that there is a positive implication of AETs on women's workload especially with access to the micro hydro mills available in the villages. In general, women have been able to save their labor and time in collecting firewood, and milling activities, although this is not always apparent due to women using the saved time for other household chores. However, AETs were rarely used for promoting end use activities (such as, energy based small cottage industries) in order to enhance women's socio-economic status. In addition, AETs had rather limited coverage and were not able to fulfill the energy demands of all rural households. There were also limitations in the adoption of such technologies mainly due to financial, technical, and social problems. For instance, the solar photovoltaic system and biogas plants were still costly for the poorest households even with subsidies. Consequently, socio-economic gaps within small communities widened and became highly visible with access to such technologies. Women's participation was mainly in terms of their involvement in community organizations (COs) and representation in Village Energy Committees (VECs) rather than their active participation in planning and decision-making processes with regard to AETs. Nevertheless, women were actively involved in providing labor in construction work relating to AETs, and creating and mobilizing saving funds as a means to be involved in small income generating activities associated with AETs. This study ultimately suggests a framework for increasing women's participation in rural energy plans and programs at local and national level, and develops policy measures to enable integration of gender into energy planning and policies. This would help to address practical and strategic gender needs in terms of fulfilling basic energy needs managed by women, and providing them with opportunities to be involved in some social and economic activities, which lead towards the self-enhancement of women.Item Participation and project sustainability : Participatory Integrated Development in Rain-fed Areas (PIDRA) project in East Java-Indonesia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2008) KomalawatiThis thesis examines the relationships between participation and project sustainability. By using the Participatory Integrated Development in the Rain-fed Areas (PIDRA), an integrated rural development project, in three districts of East Java, Indonesia, as a case study, it addresses the question about what kind of participation will lead the intended beneficiaries to continue to use and benefit from the services that remain beyond the project period. The research found that the project mostly targeted the poor, marginalised, and vulnerable people, and widows as household heads. However, some high school graduates and wealthy villagers were also included as target beneficiaries. Most participants were actively involved and participated in the project implementation activities, but rarely participated in project planning and design as well as monitoring and evaluation. The results also show that factors influencing participation of the intended beneficiaries of the PIDRA Project in the target areas were: the responsibility of the beneficiaries to the groups as members and as leaders part of the management team; the level of education, knowledge, and skills of participants; incentives provided to access credits; the availability and use of sanctions; the geographical situation; poverty; age; support from the government; and the role of facilitators. Analysis of the case study shows that the PIDRA Project in East Java will likely have some sustainable activities and benefits in the short term. Furthermore, participation is likely lead to the project sustainability of some project elements when participation is not only used as a means but also as an end. However, the results also suggest the increasing cooperation and collaboration of government and the NGOs, and defining participant groups based on similar educational background and socio-economic situation will enhance participation and project sustainability. This study would also raise the attention of development practitioners of the dangers of the participatory approach in their practice because it could be manipulative, harm people who are supposed to be advantaged, and hence create “new tyranny” in development interventions.Item Sustainable rural livelihoods, micro-enterprise and culture in the Pacific Islands : case studies from Samoa : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.) in Development Studies, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2006) Cahn, MirandaThis thesis is about the relationships between sustainable livelihoods, micro-enterprise and culture in Samoa. The 'sustainable livelihoods approach' provides a basis for analysis. The research focuses on one livelihood strategy, micro-enterprise, in order to illustrate and explain issues that are important in supporting sustainable livelihoods in Samoa. Micro-enterprise is regarded as a livelihood strategy that, if successful and sustainable, can support livelihood outcomes for rural Samoan people, and reduce poverty. The sustainable livelihoods approach is reviewed and the thesis argues that culture is integral to sustainable livelihoods, but existing theory and frameworks do not incorporate cultural aspects in a way that provides a sound theoretical basis for this research, or any sustainable livelihoods analysis. The thesis argues that culture is interwoven into each of the components of the sustainable livelihoods framework, and in fact culture is a context in which livelihoods exist. Each of the components provides an entry point for analysis of the relationships between culture and livelihoods. This concept was used as a basis for an analysis of rural livelihoods in Samoa, where fa'aSamoa was found to be interwoven with almost every aspect of rural livelihoods in a complex and influential way. A revised definition of a sustainable livelihood, and a revised framework were then developed which were more appropriate for this research. A strength of sustainable livelihoods theory, and the related frameworks, is that the theory embraces flexibility, and could thus be adapted to incorporate cultural aspects in this way. The thesis reviewed business enterprise in Samoa, and described the relationships between fa'aSamoa and business enterprise. The research revealed both harmonies and tensions between fa'aSamoa and business which influenced the success and sustainability of business enterprise. Two 'types' of small and micro-enterprise were identified in Samoa (with a continuum between): private sector enterprises and traditional 'sphere ' enterprises. 'Traditional sphere' enterprises, in order to be sustainable, normally operate within the cultural context of fa'aSamoa, ensuring that relationships, trust and harmony within the family and community are maintained and social and cultural assets, which provide a sense of identity and security, are sustained. The field research described in the thesis focused on two separate groups of micro-entrepreneurs in Samoa, fine mat weavers and village-based coconut oil producers. The case studies described the outcomes the micro-entrepreneurs aspire to, the risk, adversity, and challenges they face, and the work of the non-government organisations (NGOs) that support them. The case studies illustrated and further developed concepts developed in previous chapters, and also demonstrated just how the relationships between fa'aSamoa and sustainable livelihoods were expressed in practice. In the fine mat weaving case study there was considerable harmony between fa'aSamoa and the livelihood strategy. However, in the village-based coconut oil case study there were some tensions between fa'aSamoa and the venture that were causing vulnerability. The thesis concluded that understanding the relationships between culture, and sustainable livelihoods is critical for ensuring that good judgements are made about development intervention and policy. The revised sustainable livelihoods framework, and the concept of using the components of the frameworks as multiple entry points for analysis, provided an appropriate and useful theoretical framework for understanding the relationships between fa'aSamoa, sustainable livelihoods and micro-enterprise in Samoa.Item Islamic entrepreneurship : a case study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2006) Kayed, Rasem N.The point of departure in this study is that entrepreneurship, regardless of how it is defined, is more than a means to create employment opportunities and maximise economic returns; it is rather a development alternative with great potential to contribute to the well-being of individuals, communities and nations in developed, developing and less developed countries alike. The purpose of this thesis is to explore the entrepreneurship phenomenon from an Islamic perspective within the Saudi Arabia context. The thesis specifically seeks to examine the relationship between Islamic values and entrepreneurial activity and to establish whether these values can be more effectively tapped into to raise the profile of Islamic form of entrepreneurship and promote alternatives to development. The philosophical differences between the Islamic and the prevailing Western world-views on the theoretical as well as the practical aspects of development are fundamental, to the point where they cannot be marginalised or reconciled and integrated within a standardised single development model. Furthermore, the lack of cultural sensitivity on the part of the Western model and its inability to account for variables specific to the Islamic cultural and institutional environment justify the need to search for an alternative Islamic model of entrepreneurship that best serves the ultimate goal of the Muslim nation (ummah), that is, realising the state of well-being (falah). Despite the suggestion of modernisation theories of development and the prevalent conventional assumption that Islam is intrinsically anti-modernisation and anti-development, and that the religiously based Saudi culture would be the foremost obstacle in the way of cultivating a dynamic entrepreneurship class in Saudi Arabia, the findings of this study indicate otherwise. There is no evidence of incompatibility between Islamic values and entrepreneurship. Lack of entrepreneurial dynamism in Saudi Arabia by no means can be attributed to adherence to Islamic values and business ethics; rather, it can be linked to the state's failure to assimilate the implication of entrepreneurship and consequently to integrate Islamic values into its developmental process. This research indicates that Saudi entrepreneurs embrace positive perceptions and attitudes regarding the role of Islamic values in promoting productivity through entrepreneurship. This positive attitude is independent of both the demographic backgrounds of the entrepreneurs and the physical characteristics of their enterprises. Analysis of case studies of Saudi entrepreneurs revealed inconsistencies between the attitudes and practised behaviours of Saudi entrepreneurs, and the reality of the Saudi entrepreneurship landscape. The personal in-depth interviews with various stakeholders explained this divergence mainly in terms of entrepreneurship policy vacuity and incompatibility between Islamic values and the existing institutional framework, most evident in the financial sector. The findings of this study further confirm that Islamic entrepreneurship is a concept that is misread by the vast majority of Muslims at individual as well as at state levels. Arguably this misinterpretation has caused, and at the same time is largely caused by, the neglect of policymakers, lack of institutional support and deficiency in educational systems that lacked the focus on entrepreneurship development. The study therefore emphasises the need to rethink the current official approach to entrepreneurship, and highlights the importance of devising entrepreneurship policies that draw from local experiences and cultural values. Building a viable entrepreneurship sector also requires the intervention of the state, most likely through a combination of directive as well as facilitative policies. However, the exact form, scope and nature of government intervention should be mapped in line with the findings of future policy-oriented research. The main challenge for Islamic (development) remains operational in nature: how can the Islamic entrepreneurship model be transformed into working policies and enabling institutions? Furthermore, how can any Islamic business ethics be operationalised in the context of the contemporary business environment in order to reap the benefits of Islamic entrepreneurship? These basic questions bring about the inevitable question of whether or not the behaviour and the performance of Islamic entrepreneurship can be or should be judged in the absence of a true "Islamic state where the whole realm of socio-economic human behaviour is engineered according to Islam"1.Item Informal finance and poverty alleviation : a grassroots study of small farmers' credit in West Sumatra, Indonesia : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2006) Fitri, ResfaThe main objective of this study is to explore the credit and savings behaviour of small farmers in rural areas of Indonesia, with particular reference to informal systems of credit. It examines the relationship between credit and rural poverty and on identifying small farmers' credit and savings behaviour as well as problems they encounter in accessing credit programmes at the grassroots level. In this study, the extent of informal credit programmes in rural areas is identified and an assessment is made of how important these schemes are to rural people, especially small farmers, from economic, social and cultural points of view. The influence of local culture and values on informal rural credit systems is also examined. Fieldwork was conducted in three villages of Solok district, West Sumatra, Indonesia. This study reveals that credit programmes, whether from the formal or informal sectors, have not had a positive impact on poverty alleviation. The majority of formal credit programmes in the three case study villages failed to give service to the rural poor, especially small farmers. It is likely that the reason for the failure was the unmet demand between the formal financial institutions as the credit providers and the small farmers as the credit recipients. The informal credit programmes were also unsuccessful in helping the poor to increase their income because the loans were small in size and were mainly used for fulfilling basic and emergency needs. Credit from informal sources is used for survival rather than for development. However, informal credit schemes were favoured by the majority of the rural population due to their flexibility and adaptation to local cultures and values. This study finds that informal credit schemes in these three case study villages have potential to empower local people and to strengthen traditional rural credit systems in the era of decentralisation. Arisan Suku, Julo-julo and 'friendly moneylenders' are examples of these informal credit schemes, and they figured significantly in the credit and savings activities of the poor in the study area. Therefore, this study rejects the conventional assumptions that informal finance is exploitative, insignificant and unorganised. The positive impact of local culture and values on the informal credit systems in the study area mainly focuses on the influence of local culture of Minangkabau and the value of Islamic religion in shaping rural informal credit systems. In this case Minangkabau people have been practicing credit and savings activities for a long time, and this reinforces the informal credit system in the area. Regarding the influence of Islamic values, this is in line with the current growing attention paid to the Islamic finance system, both at national and international levels. The positive impacts of local culture and values are important for developing a more participatory rural financial system. This study recommends that the future rural financial systems can be developed by combining positive features of both formal and informal credit systems.Item Poverty in three villages in Papua : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University(Massey University, 2006) Rumbewas, SpenerThe principal objective of this thesis is to explore the issue of poverty in selected research sites in Papua. This objective is broken down to four questions: how is poverty understood, how is it measured, what are its causes and how is it alleviated? Two approaches were utilised to investigate the above questions. Macro level investigation was based on exploring data available in the official publications while the micro approach was based on fieldwork carried out in the selected sites. The results of the first approach are examined in chapters two, three and four, and the second approach are discussed in chapter five, six, seven and eight. In relation to the first question, the macro exploration found that poverty is understood mainly in terms of a lack of basic components of life such as income, consumption or basic needs. Understanding poverty from this approach normally uses the poverty line, which is set up based on these items, to separate the poor from the non-poor. According to this line, poverty refers to those people whose consumption falls below the line while the rest are non-poor. This view looks at poverty from one dimension that is an economic dimension. Hence, it does not provide a complete picture of human poverty, which covers not only the economic dimension but also others such as vulnerability, powerlessness, isolation, and a lack of choice. The micro investigation adopts a poverty understanding stemming from the experience of the poor. This investigation found that the poor understand poverty from what they feel to be lacking in their environment. In this approach, poverty is a lack of assets, in particular natural, physical, human, social and financial assets. Nonetheless, those affected by poverty argue that their poverty is not related to nature, but to physical, human, social and financial assets. This view seems to offer a broader picture of human poverty and hence, it is useful for formulation of or as a basis for a poverty reduction policy. With regard to the second question, the macro approach found that poverty measurement employs a quantitative measurement of both items and methods. The quantitative items can include income, consumption or basic needs (food and non-food), which are valued in monetary terms. The quantitative methods apply statistical techniques such as headcount index, poverty gap index, poverty severity index and others to measure poverty. This measurement only considers the quantitative aspect and, therefore, it does not pay attention to the qualitative aspect of human poverty. The micro approach on the other hand, attempts to amalgamate both aspects into a poverty measurement. One of the approaches that attempts an amalgamation of the two is the participatory approach, which is utilised in this study. Although it is a qualitative-based approach, it still opens the window to the use of quantitative approaches. The micro approach seems to offer some benefits such as giving more depth of information regarding human poverty, directly touching the lives of the poor, and facilitating a bottom-up policy to alleviate poverty in the local context. In the third question, the macro exploration demonstrates that structural forces such as agents, class and institutions bring about poverty through their policies, programmes and rules. The micro investigation on the other hand, shows that individual characteristics and a lack of assets contribute to poverty. This investigation sees that poverty at the micro level is a result of the mutual operation of structural forces, individual characteristics and a lack of assets. With regard to the last question, both approaches demonstrate a variety of polices to eliminate poverty as discussed in chapters three, six, seven, eight and ten. One framework for a poverty reduction strategy is the Asian Development Bank (ABD) three pillars strategy: social development, pro-poor growth and good governance. However the emphasis is for government commitment and the political will to alleviate poverty. Some experts underline this as a prerequisite to implement a poverty reduction policy because, as they argue, without this the policy will either not exist or will develop only very slowly. The selected sites experienced poor environments in terms of infrastructure, poor education and skills, poor health and nutrition. This is indeed a manifestation of poor government policies as identified by the poor. From the poor's point of view, it was found that all participants in the fieldwork identified poor policy as a contributing factor of poverty they experienced. This was also justified by looking at the ranking of institutions they gave. In these rankings, government institutions were generally given a rank of less importance by the poor. Participants stated that these institutions were not trusted and were not effective in providing support to the poor.Item A burning question? : fire, livelihoods and sustainability in the Navosa region of the Fiji Islands : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University(Massey University, 2004) King, Trevor GeorgeThe relevance of the sustainable development approach for land conservation in tropical hill regions is often assumed, but is seldom evaluated against local realities. This study analyses the causes of land degradation and unsustainability in the seasonally fire-prone region of Navosa, Viti Levu, Fiji Islands. A complex and multi-layered set of connections exists between livelihood strategies and the environment in this region where fire is used as a tool. Traditional institutions governing land management have been undermined, however, and the sustainability of the vanua (or land-people nexus) is threatened. Despite their reliance on fire, local participants reported uncontrolled burning (caused by a minority of villagers) and deforestation leading to land degradation, lower productivity and damage to fisheries. Degradation was increasing parallel with escalating human and animal populations, despite relatively equitable, resilient and livelihood-enhancing cultural institutions. Non-indigenous models of resource use, imposed by colonial and neocolonial authorities, have exacerbated land degradation and compromised indigenous resource management. Traditional tenure and leadership are impeded, leading to inequities in access to land as populations increase, and leaving local leaders unable to enact conservation. An intrusive market-based economic system encourages increased resource exploitation with little regard for environmental sustainability. A traditional model of agroarboriculture and indigenous development in the form of still-observable (but largely disused) irrigated terraces suggests the relevance of a sustainable alternative based on indigenous knowledge. To achieve sustainable development in Navosa, the emphasis should be on socio-environmental amelioration rather than on economic development (which exacerbates degradation), and to this end, local participants expressed a desire for particular conservation strategies.Item An examination of culture as a protective mechanism against gender based violence: a case study in Mt Bosavi, Papua New Guinea : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy (Development Studies), Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2009) Dogimab, Mirriam AdangDevelopment literature has not accorded sufficient attention to culture as a positive aspect of development until recently. Hence, in terms of using culture as a protective mechanism against gender-based violence, not much has been investigated or reported, since most studies on gender-based violence have focused more on cultural influences as the cause or effect of violence against women. However, in the case of Papua New Guinea (PNG) culture has always been the focus in regards to genderbased violence, portrayed as the cause of violence against women. Occasionally sources state there are traditional customs or beliefs that protect women from violence, but further explanation is not provided. Hence, this research investigated the question, “How can culture address gender-based violence in contemporary, rural Papua New Guinea?” This study offers an opportunity to view PNG culture as a solution to a problem, instead of as merely a problem to be solved. To investigate how culture can be used positively as a strategy to address genderbased violence, a case study was conducted among the Sulamesi people of Mt Bosavi in the Southern highlands province of PNG. This research was conducted in a rural area because in general Papua New Guineans perceive people living in the villages as the ones living a traditional lifestyle, where established cultural norms and behaviours prevail. Using a qualitative research approach, the research investigated whether there were any traditional protective mechanisms in PNG used to address gender-based violence. This thesis concludes that through the identification of culture-driven protective mechanisms, it can be demonstrated that culture can be used as a strategy to address gender based violence. However, caution must be applied, since not all the protective mechanisms identified are desirable or constructive.
