Development Studies

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    New roles in civil society : current and potential roles in decentralised decision-making in rural Nepal : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2004) Sherpa, Helen Bernadette
    This study attempts to develop a better understanding of the roles civil society plays in rural Nepal. Makawanpur district has a diverse population and villages both remote and close to national highways and urban centres. The study was carried out during a period of political instability and civil war during which the functioning democratic government was replaced by an administration appointed by the King. At the community level an active civil society undertakes a range of roles and responsibilities. The most significant organisations involving large numbers of people were those contributing directly to supporting livelihoods, including dairy cooperatives, savings and credit groups, forest and water user groups. State-controlled sectors such as education and health had weaker participation. Religious and ethnic organisations do not play significant roles while non-government organisations are present and contribute to welfare and development but do not have large memberships Many civil society organisations were "induced" but over time had evolved and developed their own agendas. Roles being undertaken included management of resources and utilities, supporting poverty alleviation and improved livelihoods, participation in decentralised governance and addressing social issues. Microfinance was a powerful motivating factor used both to form and keep groups together. Groups claimed "inclusiveness" but this could not be independently verified in this study. Civil society theory holds that a healthy society balances the Prince (State), Merchant (commercial sector) and Citizen (civil society). Applying and understanding this theory in a rural environment is challenging and raises many questions as to what "balance" would look like. The State presence is small, mostly in the form of schools and health posts, but it controls policies that affect civil society. Organisations felt they had little influence on policy. The commercial sector is also very poorly developed. In this environment, community based civil society organisations undertake many roles. Civil society is complex and can only be viewed in context of the given point in history and specific community power relations. As communities undertake more roles and responsibilities, they will need to be better understood and supported by the development industry if they are to achieve their full potential.
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    Invasive alien species : a threat to sustainable livelihoods in the Pacific? : an assessment of the effects of Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant) and Achatina fulica (giant African snail) on rural livelihoods in the Solomon Islands : a dissertation presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Stronge, Dean
    Invasive alien species (IAS) are a global phenomenon and are recognised as a driver of environmental change which can affect the well-being of people in a multitude of ways. Despite this, the role of IAS in local livelihoods has received relatively little attention. Influencing all three of the sustainable development pillars (social, economic, environmental), IAS should be recognised as a significant development issue. But they are not. As such, IAS issues are new to many sectors and governments and therefore largely go unseen and un-actioned. Contemporary rural livelihoods in the Solomon Islands are heavily reliant on subsistence/semi-subsistence agriculture. Following a livelihoods’ framework developed for the Solomon Islands, this thesis explores the influence IAS have on rural livelihoods in this country. Using two qualitative case studies, Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant) and Achatina fulica (giant African snail), this study investigates how vulnerable/resilient rural livelihoods are to the effects of IAS and the implications IAS have for sustainable development in the Solomon Islands. The effects of IAS on rural livelihoods are complex and at times contradictory. W. auropunctata for the most part is not negatively affecting the dominant livelihood strategy (subsistence/semi-subsistence agriculture) practised in the Solomon Islands. While there are some social impacts associated with W. auropunctata, overall Solomon Island households can be considered resilient to this IAS. Achatina fulica is a different story. This species is negatively affecting the subsistence/semi-subsistence agricultural sector on which so many rural Solomon Island households depend. This has resulted in households implementing negative livelihood diversification measures as they fail to cope or adapt to the snails’ presence. Unlike for W. auropunctata, Solomon Island households have not demonstrated any resilience to A. fulica. Understanding how rural livelihoods are affected by various stressors and adverse events can help to design development policies and interventions geared towards building better lives for all people. This can only occur however, if the full range of shocks are recognised. To date, this is not the case for IAS, and as such, they are still a significant missing component of development policy.
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    The gender dimensions of environmental change : an exploration of the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women in Zimbabwe : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Shumba, Dorcas Stellah Tsitsi
    Processes of environmental change have taken place for centuries both as a result of natural variability and anthropogenic forces. As a concept however, environmental change continues to be used narrowly to refer to environmental changes which are biophysical in nature, and mostly those with global precedence. In recent times incidences of environmental change have become more complex as new patterns of change are threatening the livelihoods of those living in developing countries, undoing many development gains. As such, there is an increasing desire to understand the implications of environmental changes, particularly for those whose livelihoods are natural resource dependent, many of whom live in rural areas, and many of whom are poor. Despite this growing interest, rural people and especially the rural poor are little seen or heard; their environmental change experiences are thus misunderstood, and solutions proposed do not take into consideration the local context or experiences. There remains also a normative perspective which positions women as automatically vulnerable to environmental change, specifically vis-à-vis men. In doing so women’s experiences of environmental change are homogenised and men’s experiences are rendered invisible. Drawing on the case of Zimbabwe this study critically considers the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women to environmental change so as to ascertain gendered impacts and differential vulnerabilities. To capture fully the subjective lived experience of both men and women to environmental change, this study lends itself to qualitative research. Thus research methods such as semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and gender analysis are central to the methodology. In terms of findings, this study argues against looking at environmental change as a technocratic subject accessible only from a global frame and accessed only by a technocratic few, proposing that the people experiencing environmental change at a local level should determine the environmental changes of communal concern. This study also highlights the importance of understanding the vulnerabilities of rural men and women within a well-conceived notion of context, taking into account rural disadvantage resulting from colonialism, and the current Zimbabwean crisis.
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    Implementing asset-based community development : a case study from the Philippines : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2005) Anna, Bona
    Within the alternative development paradigm, needs-based models have been critiqued for the part they play in accentuating local deficiency and thereby increasing dependency on externally-driven development. The asset-based approach to community development (ABCD) has been presented as a capacities-focused alternative, aimed at establishing community-driven development and promoting authentic local empowerment. This thesis presents a case study into ABCD as it has been applied in a developing country context, analysing it in relationship to some of the theoretical premises of the approach and the wider development literature. The research, undertaken on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, describes how the ABCD model was implemented and adapted to local circumstances. The findings indicate that the ABCD intervention resulted in improvements within the case study community, particularly pertaining to the expansion of community facilities, livelihood choices, household incomes, individual and collective motivation, and community pride. Overall, this study endorses ABCD as an effective approach to development in the developing world, while at the same time highlighting issues associated with its implementation. Questions are also raised regarding three global development themes that emerged in the course of the study, namely the development of capacity, the management of social process and the meaning of empowerment.
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    Development possibilities and customary land tenure in the Pacific : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University
    (Massey University, 2007) Rockell, Dennis Graham
    In parts of Africa and the Pacific, the majority of land remains in customary tenure, perhaps in modified form. This thesis explores the question of whether it is possible to retain customary land tenure in a development context. Major development agencies such as the World Bank have, at times, placed pressure on developing countries to convert customary land into forms of tenure more compatible with boosting agricultural production. The Vanuatu constitution specified upon the nation's independence in 1980 that all land was to be returned to the custom owners. This thesis investigates how Vanuatu has grappled with the apparently conflicting objectives of customary tenure and economic development. An attempt was made to give the issue maximum possible focus by choosing the West Coast of Tanna Island as the location of study. Here, urbanisation and infrastructural development is attempted in surroundings where the majority of land has never been removed from customary tenure. The very small areas alienated during the colonial period have become the principal localities for such development. Must customary tenure or modernisation triumph, one over the other, or is it possible to achieve some of the benefits of modernisation without betraying the intent of the Vanuatu constitution? The thesis comes to no simple conclusion, but examines closely how this contradiction is unfolding and suggests that there are grounds for optimism, while noting the unrelenting nature of the forces for change.
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    Rural communities : expressions of 'community' in context : narratives from the Lower Mataura Valley in Southland : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2001) Howden, Shirley Isobel
    Focusing on the notion of 'community', this study utilises a qualitative research approach to analyse the changing nature of rural communities, as expressed by residents in the Lower Mataura Valley, in Southland, New Zealand. This study examines the changes in agriculture as a manifestation of recent economic and social restructuring in Western society, and explores the implications for a specific place-based community, by focusing on the ways in which local residents construct their ideas about this 'community'. The literature review examines past theories and draws from broader social theories to account for the complexity of the term. Likewise, the wider contexts in which the Lower Mataura Valley is influenced by, and exists within, were considered through exploring the socio-economic and environmental conditions occurring at various spatial levels: from local to global. Data collection utilized qualitative methods appropriate for a researcher with local knowledge: principally, in-depth interviews and informal conversations, as well as personal observations and secondary data while in the study area. Data analysis draws on a conceptual framework for reading 'community' by focusing on the meanings, practices, spaces and structures that were constructed, and the way that these constructions were interrelated processes which maintained, or challenged the situated meaning of 'community' in relation to the Lower Mataura Valley. Findings show the importance of understanding the place-specific arrangements and interconnections to local, national and global forces of change in accounting for people's reactions to transition. These constructions highlighted that 'community' is as much a negotiated phenomenon in perpetual process, as it is a form of social life indicative of a particular 'community'. These findings would suggest that there is a need to keep an open mind to how specific place-based communities will be materially and culturally expressed in the future.
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    The role of renewable energy in the achievement of sustainable livelihoods in rural South-East Asia and the South Pacific : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2007) Cole, Peter
    Access to an affordable and reliable supply of energy is an accepted part of our day to day lives. While the increasing price of oil and environmental issues are of concern, the great majority of people in developed countries are not yet faced with the prospect of energy becoming unaffordable or unavailable. The situation in developing countries is far less comfortable where the purchase of energy can account for 25% of total household income and price increases can mean that an energy source becomes no longer affordable. Given that energy supplies underpin economic and social development, such situations can not only hold up development and the consequential move out of poverty but actually move people further away from this goal. This thesis examines the role of energy in people's livelihoods in two locations, one in South East Asia and the other in the South Pacific. The first of these comprises six farming villages in the Kerinci Valley in Sumatra while the second is Niue Island. Both these communities rely heavily on energy supplies but in very different ways, this being a function of the different economic situation that applies in each location. Both communities have renewable energy resources which are yet to be used or yet to be used effectively or sustainably. The sustainable livelihoods approach is used to analyse existing livelihoods with particular reference to the role of energy. The available renewable energy resources are identified and the impact that increased use of these could have in terms of livelihood outcomes is determined. The conclusion is that renewable energy has the potential to contribute to the achievement of sustainable livelihoods. However, while the outcomes are positive, renewable energy will not by itself achieve the transformation necessary for sustainable livelihoods. There are also barriers to the implementation of renewable energy programmes, not the least being access to funding.
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    Reasserting the local in the global : local livelihoods and sustainable development in the proposed East Rennell World Heritage site, Solomon Islands : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Purdie, Nicholas Simon
    This thesis assesses the relationships between the sustainable development approach to integrating environmental and developmental concerns, and that approach suggested by the concept of sustainable livelihoods. In the context of the East Rennell World Heritage Project in Solomon Islands, the nature of sustainable development as it is operationalised at the local level, and the reality of people's livelihoods within the boundaries of that project, are assessed to determine where sustainable development meets livelihoods to both support and enhance them, and the implications which a sustainable livelihoods approach has for sustainable development. Over the last fifteen years the concept of sustainable development has been promoted at the global level as a means by which environmental integrity may be maintained, and at the same time allow for the continued development of human economic and social systems to improve the welfare of poor people. Arising out of the twin concerns that development was not meeting its primary goal of alleviating poverty, and at the same time was placing environmental systems in jeopardy, the concept of sustainable development is now a central theme within global development discourse. Alternatively, the concept of sustainable livelihoods has been presented as a 'new analysis' of the reality of the lives of local people and the problems they encounter as they attempt to construct viable livelihoods for themselves, and represents an alternative strategy for integrating environmental and developmental concerns at the local level. The rationale for using such an approach to environment and development is that only by ensuring that all people have access to an adequate and secure livelihood will further goals of sustainability be able to be obtained. This thesis presents the results of research undertaken in Solomon Islands over a three month period in 1995. The research is presented as two village case studies incorporporating the results of Participatory Rural Appraisal surveys undertaken at Tevaitahe and Niupani villages in the proposed East Rennell World Heritage Site. The general conclusion reached is that although sustainable development attempts to assist local people in conserving their resources and develop income generating business based on ecotourism, the nature of this sustainable development to a certain extent precludes the achievement of sustainable livelihoods.The suggestion is given, therefore, that the sustainable livelihoods infer an alternative approach to development.
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    Overcoming the inequity of isolation : small grants and guided self-mobilisation for microenterprise development in rural Papua New Guinea : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2003) Jennings, Shona
    Stimulation of an informal sector is seen as a key strategy for poverty alleviation in many parts of the developing world, including Papua New Guinea. The stimulation of microenterprises within this sector aims at enabling the poor towards 'self-help'. The two pillars on which microenterprise stands are empowerment and finance, yet very isolated communities, such as those in the East Sepik Province of Papua New Guinea, often lack access to such enabling forces. In the absence of other financial opportunities, they sometimes apply to donor agencies for small grant funding as a means of accessing seed capital. Yet they are hampered in their efforts by low literacy, poorly developed infrastructure, the absence of organisations supporting microenterprise development, aid agency criteria, and isolation. Using Papua New Guinea as the field of reference, this paper initially looks at aid and microenterprise development, using literature to develop best practice understandings. These best practice understandings, which concentrate on issues to do with sustainability, appopriateness, viability and empowerment, accompany three tiers of knowledge (formal, common and perceptive) to form a framework. This framework helps assessors deliberate upon key topics in a way that incorporates praxis when making decisions concerning funding I then propose a workbook-style application form, that: 1) feeds appropriate information from the community back to the funder for use in the framework; 2) can be completed by people with very low literacy; and 3) leads a community through participatory exercises at both the village and household/clan levels, enabling them to analyse, plan and act in the ways they choose to and value.
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    Agriculture and rural development : the case of Fiji : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Economics, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) Xing, Zhongwei
    Agricultural growth remains a key pillar for economic development in developing agriculture-based economies, however difficulties remained to integrate rural development, food value chains, technological and institutional innovations, environmental constraints that have changed in the context of agriculture’s role. The renewed attention on ‘new agriculture for development’ framework started to emerge to achieve several dimensions of development. This thesis empirically investigates the issues pertaining to new agriculture for development that can benefit economic growth and address the socio-economic dimensions of development in the case of Fiji. Utilising Fiji’s Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2008-09 dataset the study examines macro-micro-level role of agriculture that corresponds to new objectives and apply this approach to evaluate the agricultural efficiency-development linkages. The empirical methodologies apply appropriate time series, novel cross-sectional approaches, new agricultural indicators and its determinants that examines (1) the impact of agriculture and other sectors to enhance agriculture efficiency; (2) moving beyond farm income by assessing off-farm labour participation and supply allocation decisions in the agricultural households. To achieve desired dimensions of development beyond those driven by market competiveness, (3) the role of remittances in the agricultural production estimations provide a new direction and finding to increase income and identify the causes of success for scaling up agricultural output, followed by (4) reducing poverty and inequality in agricultural households. In addition to contributing to the broader debates about agriculture-economic development nexus, the findings are also the first on applying new agriculture for development framework in Fiji’s case. Results demonstrate that there exist sectoral linkages and to increase economic diversification developing forward linkages through innovations are crucial and advantageous for growth. Findings of double-hurdle factors indicate the push and pull factors that influence household heads’ decision to participate and allocate time in off-farm income-generating activities. This implies that demand for labour, even for low-wage workers will not increase without a dynamic rural economy. The failure of low-wage and subsistence living depends on availability of land tenure and investment in agro-based industry clusters. The effects of remittances on agricultural production and diversification show that remittances tend to encourage households to be more diversified in farming, and to grow more cash crops. Findings show that non-farm household income sources contribute significantly towards poverty reduction of the agricultural households. Policies aimed at low-wage to reduce income gaps and creating employment opportunities could exhibit higher labour productivity.