Development Studies

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    The Indonesian House of Representatives : the behaviour and effectiveness : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1998) Retnoastuti, Endah Tjahjani Dwirini
    There is a widespread opinion that the performance of the Indonesian House of Representatives, the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Indonesia, shortened as DPR, is weak. In other words, they have not been optimum In carrying out the legislative functions they are responsible for. In this thesis I critically assess the behaviour and effectiveness of the legislative institution, and in doing so, examine the Constitution and the Rules of Procedure to define the role and functions of DPR in the political system, breakdown the DPR structure to see its working process, and explore a bill deliberation. I conclude that DPR performances are inhibited by inadequate regulations and unconducive political systems. However, to some extent they have experienced considerable changes.
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    Decentralization, identity construction, and conflict : education under Aceh's special autonomy : a dissertation presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) Fitriah, Amaliah
    This study contributes to the existing literature on decentralization by exploring the relationship between decentralization, identity construction and conflict in the context of decentralization reform in Indonesia. Using the concept of bottom-up autonomy as its theoretical lens, this study explores the impact of political decentralization on the autonomy of Aceh and examines the notion that autonomy can contribute to peaceful management of intra-state conflict. The study involves research into education stakeholders in the two districts of Aceh and uses the qualitative methods of pairwise ranking, semi-structured interviews, observation, and document analysis. More specifically, the impact of decentralization on the autonomy of Aceh is investigated through perceived changes in three areas of education: the curriculum, the structure, and the financing of education. The results demonstrate that the autonomy agreed between Aceh and the Indonesian government has contributed to extensive bottom-up autonomy for Aceh by accommodating the distinct identity of the Acehnese and by providing a political framework for local empowerment. Through providing frameworks for the accommodation of local identity and for local empowerment, the form of bottom-up autonomy resulting from political decentralization has offered negotiated avenues for managing intra-state conflict peacefully. These frameworks have hopefully created common ground for both parties to sustain peace. However, this study also revealed that there is potential for internal discontent within Aceh society as a result of perceived unequal access to resources. This study does not, therefore, emphatically conclude that political decentralization necessarily reduces conflict. Instead, this research suggests that political decentralization which results in extensive bottom-up autonomy may be a tool for promoting a more peaceful management of conflict between regions and the central state than would otherwise be possible.
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    Sustainable development : a model Indonesian SRI co-operative : this research paper is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development, Massey University, New Zealand
    (The Author, 2016) Sharp, Gawain
    This research report explores how ‘sustainable livelihoods’ have been achieved at a model cooperative using the ‘System of Rice Intensification’ named SIMPATIK. To conduct the research a novel template was developed. The framework was required following a review of sustainable livelihood literature which found deficiencies with the ‘sustainable livelihoods framework’, particularly its treatment of equity, social capital, culture and agro-ecology which disqualified the framework as an appropriate approach for the research. Amekawa’s (2011) ‘Integrated Sustainable Livelihoods Framework’ which synthesises agro-ecology and the sustainable livelihoods framework is then discussed. Further work is then presented on social capital which this paper argues has a critical role in facilitating access to livelihood capitals. A discussion of the significance of culture then follows to underline its importance as a form of livelihood capital. The research then introduces an operational model that is appropriate to the local cultural, institutional and geographical context to demonstrate how livelihood capitals are linked to livelihood outcomes, a model I have labelled the ‘Apt-Integrated Sustainable Livelihoods Framework’. This framework is then informed through field research at the SIMPATIK co-operative. Impact pathways through ‘synergetic forms of social capital’ and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) are shown indeed to lead to sustainable livelihood outcomes for research participants. The ‘sequencing’ of livelihood capitals is seen to be critical and the research culminates in the development of a ‘SRI Co-operative Template for Sustainable Livelihoods’; a transferable model that shows how SRI can be promoted as a sustainable livelihood strategy.
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    Divergent expectations : case studies of community-based tourism on the island of the gods, Bali : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) Martokusumo, Kathlia Sari
    This thesis examines the success of community-based tourism in Bali, a popular mass tourism destination in Indonesia. Presented as an unalloyed good and the antithesis of ‘bad’ mass tourism, community-based tourism is expected to create broad equitable distribution of benefits, expand livelihood options, empower local communities, and conserve both culture and the environment. In practice, however, it is difficult to find successful examples of community-based tourism. Most projects have failed to produce significant benefits and are too dependent on external assistance. Using four Balinese villages as case study sites, the views of the local community and support organisations were explored to find out what they perceive as successful community-based tourism. The results indicate that while there are many benefits enjoyed by the communities, most residents see that the community-based tourism initiative in their village is not yet successful. A key finding of the research is that while the communities recognise the socio-political, environmental and cultural benefits of the initiative in their village, they would like to enjoy more significant economic benefits, both at the community and individual household level. The thesis concludes that there are divergent expectations at play among the communities and the organisations supporting them as there is a difference in the emphasis of what success means between the community and the support organisations.
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    Forced assimilation and development : the Chinese-Indonesians under Soeharto's New Order (1965-1998) : a research project presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development, Development Studies, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (The Author, 2014) Sidjaya, Calvin Michel
    Chinese Indonesians are an ethnic minority who have settled in Indonesia since at least the 15th century who comprise 1.2% of the Indonesian population. From 1965-1998, Chinese-Indonesians became subject to various assimilationist laws under the rationale that this ethnic minority had failed to integrate into Indonesian society. Under Soeharto’s administration, Chinese-Indonesians had to give up their political and cultural rights, although they were allowed to participate widely in the economic sector. This desk-based research studied assimilationist laws and their impact on the ‘development’ of Chinese-Indonesians by studying various laws and through the use of an online questionnaire to a sample of Chinese-Indonesians. At first glance, this ethnic group can be classified as ‘developed’ at least economically, however when investigated further, systemic political and cultural exclusion has harmed their full human development. The case of Chinese-Indonesians reflects Amartya Sen’s argument in ‘Development as Freedom (1999), that wealth is only one aspect of human development. However care should be taken when considering the Chinese-Indonesian case. Generalisations should not be made about the harms that can result from assimilation policies as they were formulated during the Cold War. Assimilation is still important but should not be coercive and ensure multiple identities (such as ethnic and national identity) can coexist. This research report also uses right to development as framework. It concludes that the right to development may not be inclusive to Chinese-Indonesians’ situations because it still narrow down development as ‘growth’.
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    Homecoming : reverse culture shock : an investigation of New Zealand trained graduates returning home to Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia : a thesis presented in (partial) fulfilment for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1998) McGrath, Terry
    The aim of the study was to discover and describe how International Graduates experience and adjust to their home country upon re-entry. Sixty seven graduates of New Zealand Universities were interviewed. Twenty eight in Singapore, twenty five in Malaysia and fourteen in Indonesia. The interviews were conducted face to face without undue time constraints. The first phase of each interview was non-directed and simply asked the graduate to describe their experiences of leaving New Zealand and re-entering their home society. In the second phase, the graduate was directed to comment on their experience in the light of the general categories of graduate re-entry adjustment listed in the rather sparse literature on the subject. The first phase elicited information relating to graduate re-entry adjustment from the viewpoint and perceptions of the graduates themselves. Each had a unique experience of re-entry. In the second phase interviewees covered the full range of adjustments mentioned in the literature on graduate re-entry, but the categories listed proved to be indicative rather than exhaustive and some categories featured very little in the lives of interviewees. What stood out in this study were three areas of adjustment common to all who were interviewed, and felt strongly by all. These three areas were drawn from the non directed phase and carried a strong sense of perception amongst those interviewed as being the areas of readjustment for them. Certainly the three areas were universal to all interviewed and although there was overlap with the categories used in phase two of the interviews, it was apparent that such universality made these three the major adjustments graduates face. Therefore, the three categories of: work environment; world view change; and lifestyle expectations are the three major areas focused on in this study. Several non-universal indications were found in this study. In phase II of the interviews a check was made of a category list of indications of potential re-entry problems compiled from a literature search. This enabled some comparison with other studies. Additionally several other non-universal indications were found that are significant in preparing graduates for re-entry and in helping them in the process of re-entry. The findings of this study differ from the findings of other studies due to method used. The prime method used in this study was non-directed face to face interviews in contrast to the few, but major studies, which used surveys and sought answers to directed questions. The method of this study allowed the findings to be described as the perceptions of the graduates involved and the universality of the three major areas across the interviews allowed for the conclusion that these are the areas of adjustment, that graduates returning from New Zealand to their home countries, will encounter. This study describes in detail the three universal areas of work environment, world view change and lifestyle expectations as detailed by the graduates in their interviews. In the discussion of these, some understanding is sought as to why these three stand out. Culture distancing occurring during the sojourn experience is postulated as one possible reason. This study highlights areas for further research: The world view change that occurs in students while studying overseas; The effect on re-entry of the country chosen to study in; and what assists graduates in the re-entry process.
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    Profiles and dynamics of the urban informal sector in Indonesia : a study of pedagang kakilima in Bandung : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Suharto, Edi
    This study analyses the ways in which the trajectory of development in Indonesia affects the poor who work in the urban informal sector. Situated in the context of Bandung, the third largest city in Indonesia, this study targets street traders, pedagang kakilima, to pursue three areas of inquiry: the economics of the street enterprises; human development of the traders; and coping strategies of the households. The data cover the period of economic crisis, notably between 1997 and 1999. This allows the study to emphasise how the crisis - along with the processes of capitalist industrialisation and urbanisation - affected the activities and lives of street traders and how they coped with the problems they faced. This study has seen that the current economic crisis in Indonesia, following the advent of structural changes of the 1970s and 1980s, has been followed by the prevalence of employment shifts from the formal to informal sector. At the macro level, the informal sector continues to cater for a majority of total employment in the Indonesian economy and thereby sustains livelihoods, especially of the low-income households. The data on the economics of pedagang kakilima show that profiles of the small and informal enterprises are distinctively different from those of larger and formal businesses. Although a few of the street traders demonstrate characteristics of successful merchants, most of their features still exhibit vulnerability These include volatile incomes, insecure premises, limited economic resources, inadequate technology for advancement, and lack of access to formal financial services. These limitations are generally typical of small-scale production and were already in existence prior to the crisis. On the basis of human development indicators, the findings suggest that there is no automatic link between street trading and poverty, but equally there is no such link belween street trading and prosperity. The widespread economic crisis detrimentally affected pedagang kakilima, especially their economic capital. Reduced consumer demand and price rises, for example, were widely found to diminish income earnings in street trading during the period of recession. With specific reference to human capital, however, it is clear that the crisis had not yet had a detrimental effect on their access to education, health, and housing facilities. Information about coping strategies adopted by street trader households reveals that the urban informal sector is dynamic. Instead of being passive and static, pedagang kakilima make every effort to succeed in the city during economic hardship and try as best as they can to curtail the effect of the crisis. Those participating in this street trading, including men, women and children, prove to be active and creative in the ways they manage and manipulate a threatening situation in both enterprise and household settings. This study ultimately suggests that together with the existing conventional approach, the holistic framework drawn from the human development and coping strategy perspectives can be combined and developed to shape thinking and actions concerning the urban informal sector. This combination will enable research and policy to become more sensitive to the needs and reality of urban development in Indonesia that more often than not neglects the reality of its human, social, and cultural fabrics.
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    Corporate governance in the Indonesian state-owned enterprises : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2006) Indreswari, Meidyah
    Concern regarding corporate governance is a new phenomenon in Indonesia. It became apparent in the business community when the economic crisis hit the country in 1997. Due to its recent recognition, it appears that very little is known about corporate governance in Indonesia and there has been no academic study conducted on corporate governance in the Indonesian Stateowned Enterprises (ISOEs) despite the fact that their performance is closely linked to the development of the country. The main objectives of this study are two-fold: first is to examine corporate governance systems and the roles of the Boards of ISOEs; and second is to assess the effectiveness of government initiatives in improving corporate governance practices in ISOEs. This study employed both qualitative and quantitative methods. The quantitative analysis was derived from numerical data obtained from government reports and other public documents. The qualitative analysis was based on the results of in-depth interviews with key individuals and other sources such as public opinions published in the mass media. Several key findings were obtained from the results of this study. Firstly, the study found that using agency theory to explain the relationships between the agents and the principals was more problematic in ISOEs than those in private enterprises. This is because an ISOE is a loose coalition of various agents with no real owner. Consequently. agency theory, if it is used to redefine the relationships among parties in ISOEs. should be approached at two different levels. At the micro level the agency theory examines the agent-principal relationships among the ISOE management, the Boards and the government-the corporate governance tripod. At the macro level it examines the agent-principal relationships between the corporate governance tripod and the ISOEs stakeholders (the public, labour unions, politicians in the People's Representative Assembly and others). Secondly, the results of this study confirm the results of previous studies which found that Boards in SOEs were largely ineffective. To enhance Boards' effectiveness, this study suggests that as a quasi-owner the government needs to reduce its intervention in ISOEs' operations and empower the Boards by establishing employee representation on the Board. In addition, Board training and assessment should be a mandatory in the ISOEs. Thirdly, this study found that the initiatives on corporate governance carried out by the Indonesian government had been ineffective due to the lack of incentives, lack of commitment and consistency, lack of understanding of corporate governance and unclear programmes. Here, the key factor required to enhance effectiveness is strong-willed commitment of the government and ISOE management. Lastly, other factors such as culture, public governance and law enforcement have a great influence in the process of attaining good corporate governance practices. Therefore, there should be joint efforts among parties in the public sector to ensure that good corporate governance is achieved in conjunction with the attainment of good public governance.