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Pasture utilization in relation to New Zealand dairy farming : a thesis presented in part fulfilment of the requirements for the Animal Husbandry section of the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University, New Zealand
(Massey University, 1949) McArthur, Alistair Thomas Giles
The world shortage of food is the most serious crisis which faces mankind today. It is a crisis which has no earlier precedent and one for which remedial measures will be hard to find. The problem, first mentioned by Malthus in 1798, is one of limited food resources combined with an increasing world population. The basis of food production lies in the soil mantle of the world which is limited in extent and decreases yearly both in quantity and quality through the use of bad farming practices which lead to soil erosin. The present level of human nutrition throughout the world is far from adequate. In North .America and Australasia, the average daily consumption of calories per head is above 3000 but in the Middle East it is only 2400 while in the Far East it varies between 1700 and 2100, which is well below requirements (Fawcett (1948)). Not only are these people in need of more food energy but they also require more protein, minerals and vitamins. Livestock products are, of course, rich in these 'protective' foods and the expansion of livestock production will play an important part in raising the level of nutrition of the world's population. [From Introduction]
The value of dried buttermilk as compared with skim milk for calf rearing, and the effect of feeding at two different levels on growth to weaning under New Zealand conditions : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science, University of New Zealand
(Massey University, 1949) Corbett, J. L.
It is startling fact that each year in New Zealand, the digestible protein lost for human consumption through the inefficient conversion of dairy by-products into pigment, is approximately twice the total annual output of protein in lamb and cheese; and the food energy lost nearly equals the energy in these two commodities (Filmer 1944). Though a proportion of the loss is through the associated feeding of coarse grain and meat meal, and also some from whey, the great majority arises from the feeding of skim milk and buttermilk which are of immediate human nutritional significance. The case for making these high quality foods directly available for human consumption is strong, despite any repercussions on the pig industry and notwithstanding such economic considerations as secure markets. In order to do so it is obvious that the raw materials must be processed to reduce bulk and improve keeping quality for transportation. The utilisation in this way of skim milk is set back by the considerable problem of its collection from the cream supplying farms, though it may be easier where the density of these in an area is high. Since the buttermilk is produced at the dairy factory, this difficulty does not apply. [From Introduction]
A comparative study of defoliation in Holcus lantanus and Lolium perenne pastures grazed by sheep : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Agriculture at Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Hu, Yankai
Objectives of this study were (i) to extend limited information on the assessment of relative defoliation of grass and legume components in mixed ryegrass/white clover and yorkshire fog/white clover pastures, (ii) to test whether the balance of preference between ryegrass and clover differed from that between yorkshire fog and clover, and (iii) to compare the behaviour and the potential reaction of the two grass species under grazing conditions. Observations were made on plots of ryegrass/white clover and yorkshire fog/white clover grazed by sheep at high (12% live weight) and medium (6% live weight) herbage allowance. There were four replicates of each treatment, which were grazed in rotation over a four week period. Detailed sward measurements were made before and after grazing. Measurement of herbage mass, sward height, sward components, pasture structure and defoliation are reported. Sward surface heights were very similar for the two swards both before and after grazing. The sown grasses formed the dominant proportions in both swards, while white clover proportions were similar. The proportion of dead material was higher for yorkshire fog/white clover pasture than ryegrass/white clover pasture both before and after grazing. Tiller populations were higher for yorkshire fog than ryegrass (10355 vs. 6505 ±919 m·2). Mean stem length was greater for yorkshire fog than ryegrass (62.3 vs.35.0 ±2.8 mm), and the distribution of stem length showed a stronger positive skew. Yorkshire fog had a shorter leaf length than ryegrass. The population density of white clover nodes was similar in the two swards. White clover nodes in the two swards were quite similar in leaf weight, number and area both before and after grazing. The defoliated heights for clover in ryegrass/white clover and yorkshire fog/white clover swards (3 cm and 5 cm respectively) were similar at both low and high grazing allowance. The proportion of grass in the grazed stratum was higher for ryegrass than for yorkshire fog pasture before grazing, but the proportion of white clover was lower. Three parameters estimated from pre- and post-grazing measurements on individual grass tillers and clover nodes were used in the interpretation of pasture defoliation: namely defoliation frequency, defoliation severity and defoliation pressure (frequency x severity). In ryegrass/white clover pastures, the defoliation of leaf was significantly higher for ryegrass than white clover for all three parameters. In the comparison within yorkshire fog/white clover pastures, the defoliation frequency was not different between grass and clover, but the severity of defoliation and defoliation pressure were significantly higher for grass than clover. Ryegrass stem was grazed more severely than white clover petiole in ryegrass/white clover pastures. Defoliation parameters for yorkshire fog stems and white clover petioles in yorkshire fog/white clover pastures showed smaller and not significant differences. There was a highly significant effect of allowance on leaf defoliation in ryegrass/white clover pastures, but the effect was less marked in yorkshire fog/white clover pastures. More ryegrass leaf was grazed per day than yorkshire fog leaf. The proportion of leaf removed and the pressure of defoliation were higher in ryegrass than in fog. When white clovers were compared between the two swards, there were no differences in any of the three defoliation parameters. Leaf defoliation effects were greater at medium allowance than at high allowance. For all parameters, allowance effects were greater for grass than clover. The fact that grasses were defoliated more severely than the companion clovers in both swards reflected the effects of vertical distribution of sward components. However, the much lower defoliated height for clovers in both swards strongly suggested that sheep actively selected clover in the mixed swards despite the fact that clover was distributed much lower in the sward canopies. The greater defoliation of ryegrass than yorkshire fog leaf was attributed to greater preference of the animal for ryegrass than yorkshire fog in comparison with the companion clover.
The derivation of a meal whey production function for pigs : a thesis presented at Massey University College of Manawatu in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Victoria University of Wellington
(Massey University, 1963) Townsley, Robert J
This chapter discusses in some detail, the usefullness of knowledge about technological relationships, in the form of a production function, in management processes associated with pigmeat production in New Zealand. 1.1 The Management Process In 1939 T.W. Schultz wrote a fundamental article(¹)"Theory of the Firm and Farm Management Research" T.W. Schults, J.Farm Econ., Vol.21, 1939, p.570. pointing out that the farm firm exists in a dynamic economy where production nay be adjusted and co-ordinated in response to changing conditions. The motivation for change at the farm level is generally the expectation of progress in the attainment of a set of objectives held by the entrepreneur. The whole process of making adjustments and changes within the framework of the firm has become known as the "Management Process". In the article referred to, Schultz pointed to the two main interests of Farm Management workers and Agricultural Economists, namely: (1) a desire to provide a basis for guiding entrepreneurial decisions under dynamic conditions; or, in more up-to-date terminology, to assist farmers in carrying out tho management process with the aim of maximising their objective functions, and (2) to provide results of use to policy makers in understanding the relationship between micro and macro adjustments in agriculture. [From Introduction]
The diet of feral goats (Capra hircus L.) in the Rimu-Rata-Kamahi Forest of Mount Egmont [microform] : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1985) Mitchell, Russell John
The diet of the feral goat (Capra hircus) in rimu-rata-kamahi forest on Mount Egmont was examined by sorting monthly rumen samples for one year. Seasonal changes in diet, relative plant palatabilities, differential fragmentation and digestion rates of plant species, nitrogen and mineral levels in principal foods, and several aspects of population biology were measured. Results show that individual goats contain at least 19 plant species on average and some more than 30. Presumably, they eat about this number daily. However, just two species (Asplenium bulbiferum and Ripogonum scandens) make up 44.8% of the total amount eaten over the year. There are significant seasonal changes in the amounts eaten for Coprosma grandifolius, Coprosma tenuifolia, Griselinia littoralis, Melicytus ramiflorus, Ripogonum scandens (fruit and vine) and Weinmannia racemosa. Goats clearly select or reject different plant species. Thus use of species is largely independent of availability. The most preferred foods are probably Schefflera digitata and Ripogonum scandens fruit and vine. In contrast the very abundant Microlaena spp., Uncinia spp., moss, Alsophila smithii and especially Blechnum fluviatile are among the most unpalatable. The low and probably variable availability of many species within the study area obscures their seasonal trends and palatability ratings. Asplenium bulbiferum, and probably Melicytus ramiflorus, are underestimated in the diet, whereas Ripogonum scandens vine may be overestimated. However, the magnitude of error is not sufficient to be a problem in this study. There is no obvious correlation between diet selection and the levels in plants of N, K, Ca, Mg, P, s, Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn. Only Na is deficient enough to possibly be selected for and highest levels occur in the very palatable Schefflera digitata. Age structure, body condition and reproductive data suggest a predominantly young, healthy population that is reproducing rapidly.
Biology of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792) in New Zealand with particular reference to diet in a Manawatu flax swamp : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1981) Kelton, Simon Douglas
This MSc. thesis is the first detailed account of the biology of sambar deer (Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792) in New Zealand. Observations were made for fifteen months on approximately 35 animals inhabiting flax swamp at Moutoa, southern Manawatu. Sambar are shy and cautious, mostly nocturnal and prefer dense cover. Methods used to overcome problems of direct observation of sambar are described and their relative effectivenesses are compared. Habitat requirements are also discussed. Diet of Moutoa deer was determined by analysing monthly faecal samples supported by direct observation of feeding and examination of feeding evidence. A quantitative method of faecal analysis based on the area of plant cuticle present is described. Seasonal changes in diet composition are detailed. Flax and rank grasses comprise the greatest proportion of the diet, while ryegrass was present in low proportions and clover was absent from the faeces. Evidence is presented suggesting sambar deer do not compete with domestic stock for high quality forage. The eight most frequent forage species found in faeces were sampled seasonally and analysed for Acid Detergent Fibre, energy, nitrogen (crude protein) and water content. There was no correlation between changes in forage quality throughout the year and seasonal changes in diet composition. Other factors involved in forage selection are discussed. The Moutoa breeding population is viable and had an estimated average age structure of 36% adult males, 46% adult females and 18% juveniles. In New Zealand sambar appear to breed throughout the year with two peaks of increased rutting activity in June, July and August, and in November. Evidence is presented that the majority of stags shed their antlers annually, in contrast to the previously accepted belief that they hold antlers for two or more years. Antler cycle is closely associated with the breeding cycle, most sightings of stags in hard antler occurring from June to November. Examination of available information on breeding and antler cycles in Australian sambar revealed similar cycles to those in New Zealand, whereas in India it appears a single peak in rutting occurs from October to December, with a corresponding antler cycle. Herds are loosely structured and generally comprise small family groups, commonly a hind, yearling and fawn. Young stags generally form groups of two to four individuals while old stags evidently lead solitary lives except in the breeding season when they were often observed with one or two hinds. Rutting stags are territorial with olfactory and visual cues apparently serving to exclude rivals. Roaring or fighting, apparently common in India during the rut, is rare in New Zealand. Evidence is presented that some hybridisation with rusa deer (Cervus timorensis Blainville, 1822) occurs in the Bay of Plenty. A comparison of cranial characters between Manawatu and Bay of Plenty deer was inconclusive because of insufficient numbers of skulls. Sexually dimorphic cranial characters are given for animals from the Manawatu area. Sambar deer skulls were aged by counting the number of annuli in the cementum pad of molariform teeth.
The effects of grazing management on pasture and bull production over the late-autumn to early-spring period : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science at Massey University
(Massey University, 1998) Coutinho, Henrique Barbieri
The Massey University Tuapaka farm has been operating a bull beef enterprise for 15 years. During this period, late autumn grazing management has been based on a rotation length of 50 days in order to save pasture for the winter. However this intent is seldom achieved, leading to low pasture cover at the end of the winter and low liveweight gain in early-spring, which in turn compromised final bull slaughter weights The objective of this research was to design and evaluate winter grazing management systems based on pasture condition targets and to compare the outcome with the normal Tuapaka management. The aim was to maximise pasture growth rate and animal liveweight gains in late-autumn in order to winter heavier bulls at higher pasture covers than the traditional Tuapaka grazing system. Wintering heavier bulls at the target pasture cover (1800-2000 kg DM/ha) the winter grazing management would focus on maintaining pasture cover around 2000 kg DM/ha throughout the winter in order to reach early-spring with an average pasture cover around 1700-1800 kg DM/ha. This way the grazing management in this period would again target sward conditions for high net pasture accumulation and liveweight gains. The trial was conducted at the Tuapaka bull unit, Massey University, from 1 April to 30 September 1997. It compared three contrasting managements, involving a total of 165 bulls stocked at 2.6 bull/ha. Treatment I followed a predetermined grazing plan based on a predicted the average pasture growth rate, the animal requirements needed to achieve performance targets, and on pre- and post-grazing pasture mass targets (2700-2800 kg DM/ha and 1500-1600 kg DM/ha for late-autumn and early-spring, and 3000-3200 kg DM/ha and 1100-1200 kg DM/ha for winter). Treatment 2 was managed according to the same pre- and post-grazing targets, except in this case post-grazing covers were monitored daily, and the bulls shifted when the post-grazing targets were achieved. No supplement was considered for Treatments 1 and 2. Treatment 3 followed traditional Tuapaka management, based on 50 day rotation over the autumn and winter, and 30 day rotation in August and bulls set stocked in September. Hay was fed as required in winter at the rate of 120.6 kg DM (pasture equivalent) per hectare. The initial pasture cover and bulls liveweight did not differ between treatments. Results showed a significant difference in average pasture cover (P <0.1) over the autumn, although no difference was found in pre and post-grazing cover, apparent daily dry matter intake, and net herbage accumulation. Over the winter, Treatments 1 and 2 pasture cover did not differ, and both were significantly (P <0.001) higher than Treatment 3. Pre-grazing cover was significantly (P <0.01) different between all treatments, while there was no difference between Treatments 1 and 3 in post-grazing cover and apparent daily dry matter intake, and both were lower (P <0.001) than Treatment 2. Net pasture accumulation of Treatment 1 did not differ from Treatments 2 and 3, however there was a significant difference (P <0.05) between these two last ones. In early-spring, Treatments 1 and 2 pasture cover and post grazing cover did not differ and were higher (P <0.001) than Treatment 3. Pre-grazing pasture cover was different (P <0.01) between all treatments. Net pasture accumulation of Treatments 1 and 2 did not differ and both were higher (P <0.05) than Treatment 3, while the average apparent dry matter intake of Treatments 1 and 3 were similar and both were different (P <0.05) from Treatment 2. The overall liveweight gain (0 84 ± 0.02, 0.87 ± 0.02, 0.74 ± 0.01 kg LW/head/day for Treatments 1, 2, 3 respectively) and liveweight (354.7 ± 3.54, 359.8 ± 3.65, 335.6 ± 3.27 kg LW) did not differ between Treatments 1 and 2 but both were significantly (P <0.001) different from Treatment 3. Total pasture production was significantly different (P <0.10) between Treatment 1 (6147 kg ± 369.34 DM/ha), Treatment 2 (7062 kg ± 319.86 DM/ha), and Treatment 3 (5277 ± 334.08 kg DM/ha). The total pasture production of Treatments 1 and 2 were 16 and 30% higher than Treatment 3. The extra pasture production per 100 kg DM/ha of increase in pasture cover was 1.64 and 3.38 kg DM/ha/day for Treatments 1 and 2 respectively. It was concluded that it is possible to improve both pasture production and bull beef performance when grazing management is based on pre and post-grazing pasture targets, and the practical implications of this were discussed.
Studies of grazing behaviour by lactating cows during winter, spring and summer : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Animal Science at Massey University
(Massey University, 1999) Watson, Lisa A
The work outlined in this thesis was intended to study the grazing behaviour of lactating cows during winter, spring and early summer, and the effects of maize silage supplementation during winter. It also derived monthly rising plate meter equations over the period of the experiments, in order to assist with the estimation of cow intake and sward characteristics. Supplementation influenced the quantity and relative proportions of grazing, ruminating and idling times. Total grazing times were 546 vs. 615-min./day, and total rumination times 403 vs. 333-min./day for supplemented and non-supplemented cows respectively. Substitution of pasture for maize silage occurred, with reductions in grazing time averaging 26-minutes per kg DM eaten as maize silage. Rumination values per kg of total DM eaten were similar at 29-minutes (supplemented) and 27-minutes (non- supplemented). Intake rate of pasture was not affected by offering maize silage as a supplement, but grazing time was reduced. Cows preferred to graze during daylight hours, spending 47-57% of daylight hours grazing irrespective of daylength. Grazing activity peaked after milkings, and before dusk. Autumn and spring calved cows were grazed together in two experiments in the spring and summer of 1998. Stage of lactation had no effect on bite rate, bite weight, and intake rate ot herbage. Grazing times were related to metabolic requirements, and grazing behaviour was similar for cows which had calved in autumn or in spring. Times for ruminating and grazing were similar for heifers and mature cows, with similar components of day and night-time grazing. Heifers have a lower intake rate (23 vs. 27-g DM/min), and smaller bite weights (423 vs. 507-mg DM/bite) without a faster bite rate (58 vs.56-bites/min). Heifers also ruminated for longer per kg DM eaten, with similar ruminating times to mature cows (380 vs. 380-min/cow/day), despite their smaller daily pasture intake (12.9 vs. 15.3-kg DM/cow). It is suggested that the grazing behaviour of heifers is influenced by social factors, such as their dominance position in a herd. Monthly rising plate meter equations were derived between July 1998 and February 1999. When used to rank pastures for grazing order, the importance of the slope rather than the intercept was demonstrated. However when the rising plate meter was being used to compare pasture with required target values (such as average farm pasture cover, and post-grazing herbage mass), the intercept was also important, to give an accurate pasture mass value.
Response of kiwi to a range of baits and lures used for pest control in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1998) Ward-Smith, Tamsin Elizabeth
The primary aim of this thesis was to assess the palatability to North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) of a range of non-toxic baits and flavours used to lure baits. During the wild bait trials incubation patterns of nesting male kiwi, chick behaviour and the presence of predators at the nesting burrow were recorded. A new 'improved' ground laid 1080 paste was also tested on a range of non-target bird species. All ten captive kiwi fed at least once on at least one bait type (i.e. carrot, No.7, RS5, apple pulp, and paste) but did not prefer any to their usual artificial diet. Wild kiwi did not feed on any bait type placed outside the nest entrance, but may have ingested apple pulp, or paste when they probed these baits. Results indicate that cereal-based baits are the safest bait type to sow aerially in kiwi habitat, while apple pulp baits are highly acceptable to kiwi. Cinnamon, aniseed, orange and clove flavours did not significantly attract or deter captive kiwi from feeding on portions of their usual diet. Insufficient flavoured cereal No.7 baits were eaten to determine whether any bait and flavour combination affected kiwi response to these baits. No wild kiwi fed on any cinnamon or orange flavoured No.7 cereal baits placed outside the nesting burrow, but kiwi did probe these baits. Incubating male kiwi left the nest once each night, except for two kiwi which sometimes left the nest twice in a night. One of these sometimes made three trips from the nest in a night. The active period of kiwi did not appear to be influenced by the number of times they emerged in a night. Male kiwi tended to spend less time away from the nest when chicks were due to hatch, following which they increased the time spent away. Possums, rats and mice regularly visited kiwi nests, but did not deter males from incubating, or harm kiwi eggs or chicks. Five species - robin, saddleback, blackbird, pukeko and weka, fed on a non-toxic cinnamon-lured form of 1080 paste. Species other than those mentioned rarely landed on the ground and therefore encountered paste infrequently. Captive weka found the paste highly palatable, while 24% of robins and possibly half of a pukeko family fed on the paste. All bird visits to the paste baits declined after the first day of exposure. Recommendations are made on the safe laying of paste baits in areas where robin, saddleback, weka or pukeko are present.
Studies on the effects of grazing regime on sward and dairy cow performance : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University
(Massey University, 1986) Hoogendoorn, Coby Jean
Grazed herbage is the major source of feed for dairy cows in New Zealand. The efficiency with which herbage grown is converted into animal product is thus of major concern to the dairy industry. The objectives of the present study were to assess sward response to different grazing regimes over a range of seasons, and to measure the performance, in short term trials, of cows grazing the resultant sward types over a range of herbage dry matter allowances (DA). Seasonal effects on sward structure and composition were great, with the effect of season often interacting with grazing regime imposed. Grazing regime had the greatest influence on sward characteristics in late spring. The cultivar mixture sown had a much less significant effect on sward characteristics measured. Swards grazed intensely and frequently had the lowest percentages of senescent matter, the highest values for herbage quality (DMD and N %) and optimal levels and patterns of NHA throughout the year. Intense grazint or topping (I) versus lenient grazing (L) in spring resulted in those swards maintaining high percentages of grass leaf and clover, low percentages of grass stem and senescent matter and a high herbage quality into early summer. The effect of sward type on dry matter intake (DMI) in early summer was variable, but milk and milk protein yield and sometimes milk fat yield were greater for cows grazing the I swards, at both a restricted and generous DA. When a common leaf allowance (LA) was offered, there were no significant differences in DMis or production between cows grazing the Land I swards. LA, rather than DA, was the best predictor of DMI and milk and milk protein yield over the three grazing trials conducted in early summer. Swards that had been allowed to regrow for 60 versus 120 days in autumn/winter had greater percentages of clover, lower percentages of senescent matter and a higher herbage quality in early spring, although pre-grazing total DM masses were lower. At a common nominal DA, milk, milk fat, and milk protein yields were greater on the 60 day regrowth swards despite DMis being similar. In all trials greater milk yields were attributed to greater percentages of grass leaf and clover and lower percentages of senescent matter and thus a higher herbage quality, both in the herbage consumed and on offer. Irrespective of sward type or DA on offer, the percentage of grass leaf was higher and the percentage of senescent matter lower, in the diet than that present in the herbage on offer. The results of the present study emphasize the importance of maintaining swards with a high percentage of grass leaf and clover and a minimal percentage of senescent matter. This is best achieved by maintaining an intense and frequent defoliation regime, especially during reproductive growth in spring.

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