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Item Non-suicidal self-injury and suicide risk among young adults : an examination of the role of perceived burdensomeness : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Edwards, LouiseBackground: Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is defined as direct, self-inflicted damage of body tissue in the absence of the intent to die, and outside of that which is socially sanctioned (Nock, 2009). The Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide (IPTS; Joiner, 2005; Van Orden et al., 2010) posits that serious suicide attempts occur when an individual experiences both thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness (leading to the desire to die) and the capability to act upon that desire (acquired capability). Current Study: The current research suggests the possibility that in addition to the role played in suicidal behaviours, perceived burdensomeness (PB) also plays a role in NSSI and conceivably in the transition between NSSI and a suicide attempts. The aims of the current study were to gain further insight into the role of PB and its relationship with NSSI and to explore themes, narratives and meaning making of PB amongst those who have engaged in NSSI. The study hypothesised that higher levels of PB will be present amongst individuals who have engaged in NSSI compared with those who have not. Methods: A mixed methods approach was utilised, consisting of an anonymous online survey completed by 159 young New Zealanders (18 – 24 years of age). Results: A total of 36.9% of participants endorsed perceiving some degree of burdensomeness towards significant others in their lives, while over half of participants (51.6%) endorsed having engaged in NSSI. Question responses were combined to produce an overall PB score to be used for comparison between groups. An interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was conducted consisting of six in-depth semi-structured interviews with individuals who had engaged in NSSI and made at least one suicide attempt. Study findings include the following, in a sample of individuals who engaged in self- injurious behaviours, scores on a measure of PB increased as self-injurious behaviour moved from NSSI to suicidal behaviour. Findings: Findings suggested that emotional regulation or reducing internal distress was a major driver for engaging in NSSI. Regression analysis suggested that scores on a screening measure for Major Depressive Disorder, scores on a screening measure for Borderline Personality Disorder, frequency of NSSI and number of NSSI methods used were independently predictive of PB score, accounting for 39.8% of the variation in PB scores. However Major Depression scores were most significantly predictive, accounting for 34.2% of the variation in PB scores. A model of the interaction of PB, guilt and shame has been proposed from the IPA findings. Major conclusions were that higher levels of PB are present in individuals who have engaged in NSSI compared to those who have not engaged in any self-injurious behaviours; that there is evidence to suggest that a continuum of PB may exist moving from NSSI behaviours to suicidal behaviours and finally that PB is an important construct both clinically and for research into NSSI and suicide prevention. Study limitations are discussed and suggestions for future research made.Item Extraversion and social competence in New Zealand dairy farmers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Neill, Frances LouiseExtraverts are purportedly more socially competent than introverts, which may allow them greater access to social resources. As social support is a key predictor of individual resilience, this implies introverts are less resilient than extraverts. This descriptive research with New Zealand dairy farmers explored how extraversion-introversion was related to three factors of social competence: (a) social confidence, (b) social intelligence and (c) social skills. The study also analysed how social competence is defined by a commonly used measure of individual resilience, the Resilience Scale for Adults, and how the connection between extraversion and social competence influences access to social support. A concurrent nested design informed the collection of data via an online survey and the use of bivariate correlation, multiple regression and relational analyses. Social competence demonstrated a large positive relationship (r = .679-.747, p < .01) with extraversion except in relation to enjoying company, which suggests introversion is not associated with social disinterest. Extraversion had a particularly significant correlation with social confidence (r = .773, p < .01), which surpassed the associations with social skill (r = .645, p < .01) and social intelligence (r = .433, p < .01). A moderate positive correlation between extraversion and social support (r = .457, p < .01) was identified, yet this relationship appears to be mediated by social competence. The findings indicate introversion may be associated with low perceived social self-efficacy in novel social situations with unfamiliar social partners, not a lack of capability. Like extraversion, the Resilience Scale for Adults’ social competence subscale showed a larger relationship with social confidence (r = .628, p < .01) than social intelligence (r = .522, p < .01) and skill (r = .575, p < .01). Due to the small sample size (n = 56), the study is limited in its inferences.Item "I am actually doing alright" : a grounded theory exploration of how women's online social support use affects maternal identity construction and wellbeing : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Swale, Lisa ElizabethIn the maternal transition constructing a mothering identity is challenging as maternal identities are shaped by socially constructed ideologies of “good” motherhood. These idealised constructions are conveyed through women’s social support – in both online and offline spaces – and ultimately influence wellbeing. Online support is growing in prevalence and women are increasingly going online for maternal support. This study explores how online social support use, particularly the Social Networking Site Facebook, influenced New Zealand women’s maternal identity construction and its potential effects on wellbeing. This grounded theory study analysed in-depth semi-structured interviews (n=14) to capture the experiences of New Zealand women who had recently undergone the transition to motherhood. The constant comparison approach was used for analysis. The findings provide insights into these new mothers’ experiences of using online social support in their maternal identity construction. The produced framework enables understanding of how women used online social support to negotiate their maternal identity construction. Women manage this identity by using online social media to: (1) create a “base” of support in gaining information; (2) create a “village” of support for intimate connections; (3) compare their mothering experiences; and (4) mentor other new mothers in re/constructing their maternal identity. The proposed framework explains how online social support access, particularly Facebook, gave women choice in support and enabled opportunities to create mothering communities. The analysis shows how “villages” were used in the negotiation of maternal identity and re/construction of what it means to be a “good” mother within women’s individual contexts. Thus, women learnt to manage their identity construction online in ways that enhanced perceived connectedness, support, confidence and overall wellbeing. Insights into new mothers’ use of online social support to manage the re/construction of maternal identity and its ability to shape maternal wellbeing have implications for support provision by healthcare professionals.Item Negotiating heteronormativity to challenge gender inequality : what's happening on Instagram?(Massey University, 2019) Marshall, KaylaGender is performative and embodied. Heteronormative performances and embodiments (re)produce gender inequality in part by maintaining the cultural stigmatization of femaleness and femininity, and the hegemonic function of maleness and masculinity. Those who choose to transgress heteronormativity threaten its cultural legitimacy as the only ‘natural’, ‘normal’ and ‘correct’ way to do gender. In doing so, they also challenge broader processes of gender inequality. In this thesis – through a critical, feminist, and social constructionist lens – I present a visual narrative inquiry into the ways in which female bodybuilders, male bodybuilders, and transgender men perform gender through representations of their bodies on the social media website, Instagram. Female bodybuilders, through representations of their muscular bodies on Instagram, present narratives around female strength, independence, and empowerment that challenge feminine expectations around female weakness, passivity, and subservience. Male bodybuilders, by objectifying their bodies, by being emotionally expressive, and by being emotionally intimate with other men on Instagram, present inclusive masculinities that challenge hegemonic masculine expectations around dominance, stoicism, and rationality. Through their visibility and advocacy on Instagram, trans men present gendered narratives that challenge the heteronormative assumption that all men are born with stereotypically male bodies. These trans men also challenge male hegemony through relatively soft expressions of masculinity. However, I also reveal how the gender-transgressive narratives presented by these groups remain heavily constrained by heteronormative surveillance, through which others heavily police their bodies and encourage them to limit their transgressions through various heteronormative bodily conformities. I argue that these bodily conformities function in part to negotiate, or preserve, the transgressive identities of female and male bodybuilders and trans men on Instagram. Through their exposure to heteronormative surveillance on Instagram, these individuals learn that, in order to have their transgressive identities recognized and validated by others, they must maintain some degree of heteronormative bodily intelligibility; otherwise, their transgressions are dismissed. This is counter to past assertions made by many gender scholars, who have claimed that the gender-conformities of these groups negate or outweigh their resistance. My conclusions take into account the relational and negotiated nature of gender; how our experiences of gender depend on, and manifest through, our interactions with others. Ultimately, I reveal contemporary ways in which cultural understandings of gender are diversifying through online social practices, while also revealing how bodily expectations in particular remain heavily involved in the (re)production of gender inequality. This thesis has important implications for the feminist quest towards eradicating dualistic understandings of gender and the power differentials that exist between the cultural categories of ‘men’ and ‘women’; ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’.Item Māori ways-of-being : addressing cultural disruption through everyday socio-cultural practices of [re]connection : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) King, PitaWithin the discipline of psychology, many Indigenous scholars have endeavoured to rethink and re-theorise the foundations, focus, and methods used in an effort to construct psychologies that are more reflective of their own cosmologies and contexts. The presented thesis contributes to this Indigenous project by exploring the ways in which the ruling psychology of our times, and its underlying philosophical assumptions, can disrupt Indigenous peoples’ attempts to articulate our own understandings of being. Drawing on emic and etic approaches and grounded within Kaupapa Māori approach, this thesis engages with the complexities of what it means to be Māori today through two theoretically (chapters 2 and 3) and two community-based publications (chapters 4 and 5). In the first article (chapter 2), I decentre the dominance of ruling psychology by challenging the idea of a single disciplinary space within the discipline and introduce the notion of multiple sphericules that carry numerous cultural philosophical perspectives that combine to make up the discipline of psychology. Building on these ideas in the second article (chapter 3), I contribute to efforts to theorize Māori ways-of-being by drawing on Māori cultural understandings and associated literature, ideas from the European continental philosophical tradition, and personal reflections. Taken together, chapters 2 and 3 carve out conceptual space within psychology that is then explored through culturally immersive and auto-ethnographic techniques in chapters 4 and 5. Specifically, chapter 4 is set within the context of the low socio-economic urban landscape in which I grew up. Chapter 5 speaks more to issues of [re]connecting with ancestral homelands, communities, and ways-of-being. In chapters 4 and 5, I document how Māori cultural selves are preserved amidst histories of colonization and urbanization by paying particular attention to the role of culturally-patterned social practices evident in the conduct of everyday life. Overall, this thesis contributes to present understandings of the ongoing development of Māori subjectivities that often shift in response to the socio-cultural conditions and structural inequalities that many of our communities continue to face. This thesis provides some insights into how urban Māori, such as myself, construct and reproduce novel, creative, and culturally grounded strategies for dealing with the disruptions that have come with colonization. These efforts work to strengthen and preserve cultural connectedness and distinct Māori ways-of-being.Item Athletes' experiences of being coached by their partner : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Science in Health Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Burrows, Steffi J.The professional relationship between an athlete and coach is a unique relationship due to the large quantity and intensity of time spent together. When athletes engage in consensual relationships with their coach, the professional and personal spheres within this relationship interact together. Previous high-profile sporting examples within the media, highlight the unknown area of athletes being involved in both personal and professional relationships with their coach. Within the professional relationship, the coach is viewed to hold power compared to the athlete; therefore, previous literature links consensual sexual relationships between an athlete and coach with abuse literature. The aim of this recent study was to separate the coach-athlete personal and professional relationships from abusive literature within sporting literature. To help gain an enriched understanding of athletes’ experiences of being coached by their partner. Five female athletes, who were married to their coach, participated in an individual open-ended semi-structured interview. Their responses were analysed to explore their experiences of being coached by their partner, creating an enriched understanding of the interaction between the home and sporting domain. Thematic analysis indicated four themes within the data analysis: emotional connection, power dynamics within the interaction of the personal and professional domain, pragmatic issues within the interaction of the personal and professional relationship and having your coach with you at all times. Findings suggest that through the interaction of the personal and professional relationship, athletes’ experience an additional component of being emotionally connected to their coach. The power which coaches hold within the professional relationship is viewed by the athletes to be at a diluted level. Within the interaction of the personal and professional relationships blurred boundaries arise which creates pragmatic issues for the athlete. Lastly, athletes suggest positives that occur from having their coach with them at all times. The results of this study point to the positive aspects of the interaction of the personal and professional relationship, for athletes who are coached by their partner. Future research could include the perspective of coaches to understand their experiences. Additionally, future research could explore gender differences between athletes and coaches’ perspectives.Item Playing and working together : can video games increase real world cooperation? : presented to the Faculty of the Department of Psychology, Massey University, New Zealand in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology(Massey University, 2019) Garea, Shaun S.Video games are incredibly popular and their prevalence in society increases year to year. Looking at the effects of video games, research has found that cooperative gameplay results in increased cooperation post-game. However, these findings have been mixed, and accordingly the true effects of in-game cooperation are unclear. This study investigated the relationship between short-term cooperation in a video game and post-game cooperative behaviour. Sixty participants were randomly assigned to play a non-violent game (Portal 2) either by themselves, or in a split-screen cooperative game mode for 20 minutes. Following this, cooperation was measured both by a digital form of the give-some dilemma (a coin sharing game) and by the Everyday Cooperation Scale (self-report questionnaire). As prior research has identified social dominance orientations as an important factor in cooperation, participants also completed a questionnaire assessing their Social Dominance Orientation. Based on the General Learning Model and past research, it was predicted that participants who played cooperatively would show higher cooperation levels post-game than those who played the same game in single-player mode. Results did not support the core hypothesis.--Shortened abstractItem The social-emotional needs of twice-exceptional learners in primary schools : perspectives of children and parents : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Educational Psychology at Massey University, Albany, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Bailey, TrudyTwice-exceptional children typically have unique and complex social-emotional needs that accompany their gifted abilities and disabilities/disorders. A review of the twice-exceptional research reveals that very few studies have explored the social-emotional needs of these unique learners, particularly in the context of New Zealand. This study aimed to bridge this gap in the research, generating some valuable insights into the social-emotional needs of twice-exceptional learners and how they are being met in primary schools across New Zealand. The study explored the social-emotional needs of six twice-exceptional children (ages 6 to 11 years) from their perspectives and lived experiences, giving twice-exceptional children and their parents a much-needed voice. A qualitative case study design was employed, and purposive sampling techniques used. Semi-structured interviews with the twice-exceptional children and their parents, as well as a document review, formed the data for this research. The interview narratives were used to create individual case stories for the twice-exceptional children, and broad thematic analysis was conducted across the cases. The findings revealed commonalities across the case stories, as well as unique experiences. Although some positive school experiences were highlighted, the participants mostly shared negative school experiences and teacher interactions, and minimal support or accommodations for the academic or social-emotional needs of the twice-exceptional children in this study. Additionally, the findings show the pivotal role that parents play in identifying and advocating for their children’s needs, and the continued lack of awareness about twice-exceptionality among educators in New Zealand primary schools.Item "I didn't need to know that!" : the regulation of women with endometriosis : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology (endorsement in Health Psychology) at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Westeneng, Tasha LeeEndometriosis is a condition that primarily affects women of reproductive age and has the potential to impact upon every facet of women’s lives. The relevance of gender to endometriosis is frequently acknowledged within the literature, although only a small number of studies have taken a gendered and critical stance to the topic. Using online illness narratives in the form of blog posts, this study uses a feminist post-structuralist perspective to explore how women construct their endometriosis experiences, drawing upon discourses that regulate the female body. This study found that women are regulated by discourses of Ideal Femininity, which encompasses discursive constructions of ‘silencing’, ‘sacrifice’, and a ‘disordered body’. Discourses of Legitimation involves the construction of an ‘open body’ and ‘dismissal’. These finding suggest that women with endometriosis have limited control over their bodies due to the negative and dominant representations of the female body. Therefore, representations of the female body should be considered when positioning endometriosis as an individual and pathologised issue for women. It is imperative that we challenge discourses that position women as responsible for their condition by way of being female and where endometriosis is constructed as a reproductive disorder; this could go some way to address the unjust social power relations that govern women’s bodies.Item How do psychologists maintain their professional competencies? : voices from the field : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Educational Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Brennan, JennyThis research explored how five psychologists in Aotearoa New Zealand maintained their professional competencies throughout their careers. Using a qualitative approach, and drawing from social constructionism and phenomenology, the collective case study research design facilitated the exploration of participants’ experiences of maintaining their mandatory competencies required to practice as psychologists, through semi structured interviews. The research found that the participants identified themselves as reflective and evidence-based practitioners, with a strong sense of personal responsibility towards maintaining their competencies. The challenges they faced in maintaining the competencies and the solutions to mitigate the challenges were all centred around the workplace. Based on the findings the key suggestions made include: Aligning policies and procedures in all psychologists’ workplaces with legislation and evidence based practice; aligning continuing competence programmes with performance planning; building leadership and cultural supervision, and making high quality supervision accessible throughout the profession; better access to professional information and new research in the field; adopting a coaching and mentoring approach to professional learning and development; and legitimising the valuable collegial support that psychologists relied upon to maintain their competencies. These suggestions are also well supported by the literature in helping psychologists to practice psychology competently in order to ensure public safety.