Massey Documents by Type

Permanent URI for this communityhttps://mro.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/294

Browse

Start date: 2020Subject: search.filters.subject.410401 Conservation and biodiversity

Search Results

Now showing 1 - 9 of 9
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Motivations, barriers, and enablers of native wildlife conservation in the Auckland region of Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2025) Piatti-Farnell, Lorna
    The decline of biodiversity is a global concern. In Aotearoa New Zealand, biodiversity conservation is considered to be of high importance by both the government and the public. Across landscapes, environmental managers have worked with communities to conserve biodiversity, including native wildlife. In spite of widespread conservation efforts, however, populations of native species have continued to decline. Engaging in conservation efforts is particularly challenging in urban contexts, as cities are known to have highly diverse social, cultural and ecological characteristics, making the design and implementation of biodiversity-focused management solutions a difficult process. In order for environmental management solutions to succeed, approaches must maintain an awareness of the factors influencing the motivations, barriers, and enablers that define the community’s interest in conservation, and will likely dictate the support for particular conservation efforts. This research examines the perceived motivators, barriers, and enablers of native wildlife and conservation in the Auckland region of Aotearoa New Zealand, as identified by people already involved in wildlife conservation efforts, in both paid and volunteer capacities. It also explores the primary threats native wildlife that participants identified as proper to the Auckland region, and the required conservation management actions. The research employs a mixed-methods approach comprising of a self-administered online survey and semi-structured interviews. Information was gathered regarding the participants’ primary concerns about the conservation of native New Zealand wildlife, and the factors influencing their conservation behaviours. Thematic and textual analysis were used to analyse the data, with the application of a theoretical framework sited in Conservation Social Science as a disciplinary field. Results revealed that the motivations for people’s involvement in conservation efforts are primarily intrinsic, commonly based on the love for nature. Barriers and enablers to conservation, for both individuals and organisations, were perceived to be interconnected, and chiefly related to factors such as funding, time, knowledge-sharing, and geographical location. Social media emerged as a particularly effective tool in maintaining community conservation networks, raising awareness about conservation initiatives, and encouraging involvement from potential volunteers. Habitat loss and introduced mammalian predators were identified as the primary threats to native wildlife in the Auckland region, with factors such as urban expansion and climate change being influential. The research concludes that determining their perceived motivators, barriers, and enablers of conservation efforts for people involved can be useful in facilitating decision-making and enhancing collaboration between various conservation stakeholders as part of larger environmental management frameworks.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Combating biodiversity decline in coastal waters with intertidal eco-engineering and Green Gravel : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biological Science at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Lis, Ella
    Biodiversity generates a multitude of benefits for humanity, such as food provision, maintenance of clean air and water, climate regulation, and soil erosion prevention. Widespread human activities in the oceans continue to cause declines in species diversity and abundance, threatening ecosystem services and ecological stability. The persistence of biogenic habitats emerges as a critical countermeasure against biodiversity loss and the preservation of ecosystem health. This thesis examines the effects of engineered coastal structures for rockpool biodiversity and a kelp forest restoration technique termed Green Gravel. In Chapter Two, I analysed differences in the biodiversity of natural and artificial rockpools, including riprap and concrete structures. Riprap and concrete exhibited comparable taxa richness and functional group prevalence to natural substrates; however disturbances, particularly smothering, significantly reduced taxa richness in all habitats. Distinct taxa associations emerged in response to disturbance and habitat type with encrusting algae and grazers favouring riprap habitats with normal pool conditions, and surprisingly, artificial structures showed resistance to nonindigenous species. This chapter underscores the importance of microhabitat diversity in supporting species and ecosystem health on artificial structures, guiding eco-engineering strategies to optimize their ecological value while accommodating inevitable urbanization. In Chapter Three, I explore the efficacy of different Green Gravel methodologies for restoring collapsed Ecklonia radiata forests and investigate the impact of environmental conditions on gravel retention and sporophyte length. Gluing gravel to the substrate significantly improved gravel retention, and interestingly sporophyte lengths varied between attachment methods, with sporophytes on placed gravel initially being 100mm shorter than sporophytes on glued Green Gravel. Notably, these initial differences in sporophyte length between placed and glued Green Gravel disappeared by the end of the experiment indicating that placed Green Gravel experienced greater growth toward the end of the experiment. Despite having 40% lower retention than glued Green Gravel, 20% of placed Green Gravel were still present after 14-months offering significant restoration potential, especially for resource-restricted community groups. Due to the relative ease of implementation, Green Gravel offers promise as a tool for community-led active marine restoration and ameliorating some of the challenges our declining kelp forests face. Addressing these biodiversity declines requires immediate and collective endeavors to facilitate transformative changes that foster nature conservation, restoration, and sustainable resource utilization, all while striving to achieve overarching global societal objectives.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Combining prior predictions with post-release data to guide ongoing management of a reintroduced population : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Macdermid, Kara
    Reintroductions have generally had a low success rate, and lack of monitoring has meant that for most species few data have been available to inform decisions. To help reduce uncertainties in these decisions, adaptive management (AM) provides a framework for improving management based on new information. I used an AM approach for a reintroduced toutouwai (Petroica longipes) population in Turitea Reserve. Prior to the reintroduction, monitoring data from 10 previous reintroductions were combined into a Bayesian hierarchical model to make population predictions based on the site’s rat density and habitat connectivity to the surrounding landscape. This prior model predicted that population establishment and growth were likely, so the reintroduction was conducted. I monitored the population over its first breeding season to collect site-specific survival and fecundity data. These new data were combined with the prior model to create an updated model to improve predictions. Turitea data showed lower adult survival and fecundity compared to the prior model predictions. The combined model estimated a finite rate of increase (l) of 0.97, compared to 1.33 from the prior model, suggesting that persistence was less likely than originally predicted. These updated predictions were used to guide the first post-release management decisions following the end of the first breeding season. As rats are known to impact toutouwai fecundity and female survival, I created a set of alternative management options for different rat control options and modelled population predictions for each of these alternatives. Based on these predictions, stakeholders chose the alternative that best achieved the fundamental objectives of the reintroduction – population growth and minimal cost – which was increasing rat control in a core area around the toutouwai territories. This alternative was implemented before the 2022/2023 breeding season to improve survival and breeding success. I continued to monitor the population over the 2022/2023 breeding season so that models could be updated again once the season was over, continuing the AM cycle. Initial analysis of the 2022/2023 nest success suggested that the management change had a positive effect, with the probability of a nest succeeding nearly doubling compared to the previous season. This project highlights the importance of monitoring reintroduced populations to be able to improve reintroduction outcomes through informed management. I recommend using AM to manage reintroduced populations so that better outcomes can be achieved, and the knowledge gained can also inform future reintroduction decisions.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Breeding season behaviour, reproductive success, and dispersal after translocation in tūturuatu (Thinornis novaeseelandiae) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa, Tāmaki Makaurau, Aotearoa (Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand)
    (Massey University, 2022) McKay, Hamish MacKenzie
    The tūturuatu (tchūriwat’, shore plover, Thinornis novaeseelandiae) is an endangered shorebird endemic to Aotearoa (New Zealand). The remnant wild population of approximately 45 breeding pairs appears stable but is confined to Hokorereoro (Rangatira, South East Island), a small island in the Chatham Islands group. Since 1994 efforts to translocate captive-bred juvenile birds to other island sanctuaries free of introduced mammalian predators have met with mixed success. This study investigated the behavioural ecology of a population of eighteen tūturuatu on Motutapu, an island in the Hauraki Gulf near Tāmaki Makaurau (Auckland), which were either survivors of or descended from 92 captive-bred juveniles released between 2012 and 2017. The behaviour of each breeding pair, and their chicks once hatched, was recorded every two minutes at their nest site or territory for two hours each day until the last chick had fledged, a total of almost 20,000 observations. Trail camera recordings of the nest site and surrounding area augmented my direct observations. Behavioural time budgets were constructed for adults and chicks allowing comparison between sexes, phases of the breeding season, and between the Motutapu population and published reports on the Hokorereoro population. Display activity was observed and circa-tidal effects on behaviour were investigated. Comparison of foraging time budgets with published reports on tūturuatu and other plover species suggested that adequate food resources were available for both adults and chicks. Display activity was primarily directed at competitive species; and increased in frequency and intensity during the chick-rearing phase compared with the earlier phases of the breeding season. I suggest that this behaviour is linked to the sudden increase in vulnerability of tūturuatu chicks after hatching rather than the gradual increase in “reproductive value” through the season. Patterns of foraging and inactive behaviour in tūturuatu appeared to be affected by circa-tidal rhythms. Reproductive success was investigated, with an emphasis on egg survival, and chick survival to fledging. Egg survival rates were high, which I suggest is at least partly attributable to the unusual covered nest of this species. Chick mortality rates were high, with avian predation and female desertion identified as the primary causes. Female desertion is a common sequel to a male-biased adult sex ratio in other plover species but has not been observed previously in tūturuatu. Deleterious outcomes were observed both for chicks and deserted male partners, prompting wildlife management recommendations. Thirty-six captive-bred juveniles were closely monitored after translocation to the island with the aim of distinguishing between mortality and dispersal in those that disappeared. Subsequently the records of all 128 birds translocated to the island between 2012 and 2019 were investigated to compare the effects of various predictors of detection probability. The timing of release with respect to the summer solstice was identified as a key predictor of detection probability with the most successful outcomes aligning with the timing of juvenile independence in the wild population.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Motivators, barriers and enablers of biodiversity protection in Mōtū, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Ford, Britney
    Despite one-third of New Zealand's land being protected under public conservation estate, the country is facing significant biodiversity loss. Much of the remaining flora and fauna in New Zealand exists within the public conservation estate. However, remaining indigenous vegetation on private land can be representative of land environments that have been heavily deforested, providing an opportunity to protect biodiversity that is underrepresented within the public conservation estate. A critical step towards protecting biodiversity on private land is to understand the current level of protection, and associated conservation behaviours. Understanding landowners’ and managers' perceived motivators, barriers, and enablers of biodiversity protection is a key step towards ensuring positive behavioural change. A case study using the Mōtū catchment, located in the East Coast of the North Island of New Zealand was used for this research. Surveys and interviews underpinned by the Theory of Planned Behaviour were used to collect data on the motivators, barriers, and enablers of biodiversity protection along with information on the current level of engagement in biodiversity protection in the catchment. The research found that respondents were motivated less by financial, economic and social factors and more by conservation and lifestyle motivations, emphasising the strong environmental stewardship ethic of respondents. Lack of resourcing and labour were found to act as strong conservation barriers along with financial impediments. Critical enabling factors were personal motivation and financial and economic incentives while government environmental regulation and environmental management plans were found to be the least important enablers for biodiversity protection. The Theory of Planned Behaviour was used to explain the results of this research. Negative perceived control factors in the form of financial and resource constraints, and positive perceived control factors in the form of financial assistance were found to either prevent or stimulate participation. On the basis of the empirical evidence provided by this study, governments and policy makers would be advised to harness the motivations of private landowners and take into account their perceived motivators, barriers, and enablers when designing conservation programs. Conservation programs need to consider private landowners and managers environmental stewardship motivations and the need for financial incentives to push behavioural intention towards action.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Ex situ conservation of Myrtaceae : a response to myrtle rust in the Pacific Region : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctoral of Philosophy (PhD) in Plant Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) van der Walt, Karin
    Many Myrtaceae species are threatened with extinction due to the arrival of myrtle rust (Austropuccinia psidii) in the Pacific Region. Ex situ conservation, in particular seed banking and cryopreservation, requires knowledge of the seed biology of the species to develop optimum long-term seed storage protocols. This information is limited for many New Zealand species. This study investigated ex situ conservation options for five critically endangered Myrtaceae species; Lophomyrtus bullata (ramarama), Lophomyrtus obcordata (rōhuto), Neomyrtus pedunculata (rōhuto), Metrosideros bartlettii (rātā moehau) and Syzygium maire (swamp maire). Less than 14 individuals of M. bartlettii remain in the wild. Using six trees in cultivation, the breeding system was found to be self-incompatible, thus an unrelated pollen donor is required to produce viable seed. With many trees in cultivation closely related, hand-pollination is an essential management tool. For hand-pollination to be successful, viable pollen must be available at the precise time. This study compared viability of pollen sourced from different trees and for the same tree over two years. Pollen germination protocols, which can be used to quantify pollen viability, were developed while short- and medium- term pollen storage methods are described. The seed morphology, seed germination requirements, seed desiccation tolerance, the combined impact of desiccation and freezing, and storability at 5°C, -18°C and -196°C of Lophomyrtus bullata, L. obcordata and Neomyrtus pedunculata were investigated. All three species were found to have intermediate seed storage physiology. L. bullata and N. pedunculata were sensitive to desiccation (~15% equilibrated relative humidity). Lophomyrtus bullata was also found to be freezing sensitive, while two of the three L. obcordata seed lots tested also displayed significant seed viability loss following storage at -18°C. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis revealed that lipid crystallization in all three species occurred between -18°C and -52°C, and it is postulated that the lipids are in a metastable state when stored under conventional seed banking temperatures (c. -18°C). It is recommended that seeds of these three species are best stored outside of their lipid metastable temperature ranges. Syzygium maire seed and embryos are highly recalcitrant. This study investigated the oxidative stress, thermal properties, and ultrastructure of zygotic embryo axes (EAs) desiccated to various moisture contents (MC). Using rapid desiccation, moisture content in EAs were lowered to ~0.3 g/g resulting in ~50% of the EAs surviving. Exposure to liquid nitrogen was however fatal irrespective of the moisture contents tested. The enzymatic antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPOX) significantly decreased following desiccation, while there was a corresponding 7-fold increase in the production of protein carbonyls and lipid peroxides. Exogenous application of ascorbic acid (AsA) increased antioxidant activity in desiccated EAs but not by a significant amount. The decrease in antioxidant activity following desiccation as well as the presence of melt enthalpies observed on the DSC thermograms, confirmed that for cryopreservation of S. maire EAs to be successful, rapid desiccation needs to be combined with cryoprotection. Plant Vitrification Solution 2 (PVS2) moderated the thermal behaviour in S. maire EAs with the novel droplet vacuum infiltration vitrification (DVIV) significantly improving embryo survival and plantlet development compared to droplet vitrification (DV). Neither method however resulted in embryo survival following exposure to liquid nitrogen. Longer incubation times using DVIV combined with physical desiccation should be investigated for the cryopreservation of S. maire. The four fleshy New Zealand Myrtaceae species, Lophomyrtus bullata, L. obcordata, Neomyrtus pedunculata and Syzygium maire were not amenable to conventional seed banking. Seed from Lophomyrtus and Neomyrtus displayed intermediate storage physiology due to sensitivity to desiccation and storage at -18°C, while S. maire seeds were highly recalcitrant. Cryopreservation, including the use of cryoprotectants and optimisation of cooling/warming rates, should be investigated for Lophomyrtus and Neomyrtus. Syzygium maire embryos did not regenerate successfully following any of the cryopreservation methods tested in this study (rapid desiccation, encapsulation-dehydration, cryoprotection). Further optimisation of cryopreservation methods for S. maire should be investigated. This includes application of exogenous antioxidants, increased cooling/warming rates, longer PVS2 incubation times and combining DVIV and rapid desiccation.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Pre-translocation health assessment and conservation priorities for Conolophus iguanas in the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Heng, Colin Zhao Jie
    The conservation of biological diversity worldwide requires an understanding of the biology of species and ecosystems to protect, as well as information sharing between scientists and managers. However, it is common to encounter delays between the production of research results and the refinement of conservation plans based on these findings. The Galapagos terrestrial iguanas (Conolophus spp) are a group of three endemic species in the Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador. In the last 90 years there have been numerous actions with the goal to preserve these species, significantly the reintroduction of Galapagos land iguanas (Conolophus subcristatus) to various islands in the archipelago. However, important aspects of the biology of Galapagos terrestrial iguanas remain undocumented. In this thesis I present the first analysis of pre-translocation effects of ectoparasites on the body condition of Galapagos land iguanas on the island of Seymour Norte. This analysis is however incomplete due to significant logistical challenges imposed by the global 2019 COVID-19 pandemic. I also present information on the body condition and approximate density of the elusive Pink iguana (Conolophus marthae) on Wolf Volcano, and a preliminary description of the status of Galapagos land iguanas reintroduced to Santiago Island. Once again, the major logistical difficulties imposed by the ongoing COVID-19 global pandemic mean that the results presented in this thesis are only preliminary as there no possibility to complete data collection in the field at the time of submission of this thesis. Nevertheless, I hope that some of the information contained in this thesis can assist the Directorate of the Galapagos National Park in its mission to preserve all the known populations and species of Galapagos terrestrial iguanas.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Spatial and environmental patterns of rare lotic macroinvertebrate diversity : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatū, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Rados, Dimitrios A.
    Stream macroinvertebrate communities comprise a few common taxa and many rare ones. Small populations of rare taxa can be more vulnerable to environmental change than those of common taxa. However, they are often discarded from community analyses on the grounds that they complicate data interpretation. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the effect of rare taxa on assessing ecosystem health and on interpreting biodiversity patterns based on lotic macroinvertebrate communities. I assessed the effect of multiple types of rare taxa exclusion on biomonitoring, using macroinvertebrate data collected for the National River Water Quality Network of Aotearoa New Zealand. I compared the effect of different sampling methods on biodiversity patterns of rare taxa in pristine streams in the Tongariro National Park and determined the local environmental variables most strongly linked with common and rare taxa. Finally, I evaluated the effect dispersal processes and local environment have on structuring the common and rare components of lotic communities, considering the position within the stream network and the dispersal mode of the invertebrates. Exclusion of rare taxa led to significant misclassifications of ecological quality by biomonitoring tools that use presence-absence data, such as the Macroinvertebrate Community Index, and often masked their relationship with nutrient stressors. Different sampling methods collected clearly differentiated rare components of lotic assemblages, depending on the habitat sampled (riffles, non-riffles) and the life-stage of the invertebrates (benthic larvae, flying adults). A comprehensive species inventory can be compiled by combining methods, with benthic samples as the basis. Biodiversity metrics of the common and rare components of macroinvertebrate communities were related to similar environmental variables. While the structure of the two components was related to different variables, in combination they revealed a greater number of relationships with the environment. Rare taxa assemblages were not structured clearly by either local environment or dispersal processes, however their inclusion was necessary to demonstrate that the complete communities were determined by the local environment. Overall, I did not find any reason to exclude rare taxa from lotic macroinvertebrate studies, but rather found they can facilitate community analyses. Given the increasing threats on lotic macroinvertebrate biodiversity, it is also crucial to include them in such studies, hopefully so we can prevent their complete extinction.
  • Thumbnail Image
    Item
    Predator-prey interactions in subtropical forest and ecology and conservation of swamp deer or barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Yadav, Hemanta Kumar
    The tiger, an apex predator, is an indicator of a healthy ecosystem. Therefore, the conservation of this immensely important umbrella species necessitates ecological knowledge on its interaction with co-predators and status of significant prey species sharing the habitat. Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) and common leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) are two sympatric carnivores in suitable habitats of the Indian subcontinent where sympatric ungulates cervids are prevailing as major prey species. This thesis investigated the diet overlap of these sympatric apex predators and the population status of prey species in the subtropical lowland landscape popularly known as Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), Nepal. This thesis further explored ranging behaviour, habitat preference, movements, conservation genetics and food habits of the swamp deer or barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii), the largest cervid prey species of tiger in the western portion of TAL, Nepal. The line transect survey revealed high density and biomass of major cervid prey species compared to other tiger bearing protected areas, with large-sized swamp deer, medium-sized spotted deer (Axis axis) and hog deer (Axis porcinus) being main prey species. Scat analysis revealed that wild ungulates were the main food of both predators. Large-sized wild preys (mainly swamp deer) were found more frequently in tiger scats, and domestic cattle were found more frequently in leopard scats. Both predators consumed the medium-sized spotted deer in high proportions resulting in a high diet overlap. Swamp deer played a critical role in diet partition between the two cats. Dominant tigers displaced leopards to the degraded fringe habitat where the latter subsisted on the domestic livestock, a major cause of human-wildlife conflict. The monitoring of nine radio-collared swamp deer showed a high 95% Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) and 95% Fixed Kernel (FK) home ranges compared to other sympatric ungulates such as spotted deer, hog deer, and barking deer (Muntiacus muntjac). There was no significant variation in 95% FK annual home ranges between sexes and across three seasons. Overall, the grassland was the most preferred habitat of swamp deer in all the seasons, and the dense Sal (Shorea robusta) forest was the least preferred. In the monsoon season, the moderately dense Sal forest followed the grassland. Within grassland, swamp deer preferred Imperata cylindrica assemblage followed by Imperata cylindrica – Narenga porphyrocoma and Narenga porphyrocoma assemblage. A range shift from the grassland to the Sal (Shorea robusta) forest, only during the monsoon season, indicated that the grassland had reached the carrying capacity during this season. The radio-collared swamp deer crossed the international border. During the rutting season, they consistently used contiguous habitat patches of Lagga-Bagga area of Pilibhit Tiger Reserve, India, thus emphasising the need for transboundary cooperation to conserve this species. The genetic variability, population structure and effective population size of Shuklaphanta National Park (SNP) and Bardia National Park (BNP) populations of swamp deer were examined using the mitochondrial (mt) DNA and microsatellite markers. The analysis revealed moderate to high genetic diversity compared to other swamp deer populations in India. Neutrality tests, which are used to evaluate demographic effects, did not support population expansion. The multimodal pattern of mismatch distribution indicated that both swamp deer populations are under demographic equilibrium. Furthermore, population bottleneck analysis indicated no signature of a bottleneck for both populations. Bayesian cluster analysis and population differentiation test revealed two population clusters with low population differentiation. The effective population size in BNP was below 50, which is often regarded as a threshold below which inbreeding depression is likely to occur. It is recommended to design and implement an effective conservation strategy to enhance the genetic diversity and increase the population size of swamp deer in BNP through an in-situ conservation program and translocation of some breeding individuals from SNP to BNP. Faecal microhistological analysis of swamp deer, sympatric hog deer, and spotted deer from both grassland and the Sal forest habitats revealed that graminoids constituted the majority of the diet of these species in both habitats. However, the proportion of woody plants in diets of spotted deer was significantly higher than the other two. Apart from the graminoids, woody plant Shorea robusta and herb Phoenix humilis were major plant species consumed in the Sal forest. Among graminoid species, early successional tall grasses, especially Saccharum spontaneum, were the dominant food of all three deer species in both habitats. The importance of early successional tall grasses in their diet emphasised the key role of the threatened alluvial floodplains in conserving threatened mammal species in South Asia. Swamp deer foraged more in late succession tall grasses (Saccharum narenga and Themeda spp.) and short grasses (Imperata cylindrica, Cyperus spp., Chrysopogon zizanioides, Cymbopogon spp.) than hog deer and spotted deer. Despite the similarity of their diet, the three ungulates coexisted through differential consumption of plants species and seasonal habitat partitioning.