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    Corticosterone responses of captive and wild northern brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2000) Adams, Dominic Christian
    Conservation strategies should work to mmnruse the occurrence of stressful situations, which are likely to result in chronic elevations of corticosterone. Consequently, identification of such situations would yield important information for conservation management. The objective of this study was to compare the basal levels of corticosterone and the corticosterone response of kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) in different management systems. Repeated blood sampling enabled us to describe the magnitude and duration of the corticosterone response, which is a measure of the sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HP A) axis to stress. All kiwi responded to capture and handling with a rise in plasma levels of corticosterone, which peaked 30 min after capture. Corticosterone levels immediately after capture in wild kiwi were significantly higher than those of captive kiwi. This was most likely due to the method of capture, as wild kiwi took considerably longer to catch than captive kiwi. The plasma level of corticosterone 30 min after capture in nocturnal house kiwi was significantly lower than wild kiwi, but similar to those in outdoor penned kiwi. The cause of these differences is unclear. Nocturnal house kiwi may have become habituated to the presence of humans. Alternatively, it may be due to nocturnal house kiwi being held on a different light cycle to outdoor pen and wild kiwi. In addition, corticosterone levels in nocturnal house kiwi returned to basal levels 2 h after capture and handling. There was no significant difference in the binding affinity (I(I) and binding capacity (Bmax) of corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) between nocturnal house, outdoor pen and wild kiwi. Furthermore, at no stage did maximum plasma levels of corticosterone exceed Bmax· Therefore, the Bmax of kiwi CBG was not a major factor when interpreting corticosterone responses of kiwi. Regularly handled kiwi do not respond to public display and handling with an increase in plasma levels of corticosterone. Therefore, these kiwi appear to have become habituated to this procedure. Elevated corticosterone levels in wild kiwi immediately after capture indicate that determining the precise location of wild kiwi is sufficient to induce a stress response. Therefore this practice should be kept to a minimum. Low basal levels of corticosterone indicate that captive kiwi have acclimatised to captivity. Furthermore, these results indicate that captive kiwi are not exposed to chronic elevations in corticosterone.
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    Nematodiasis and larval migrans in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) van Zyl, Nicki
    The aim of this thesis is to investigate the inter-relationships between host and parasite specificity and aberrant larval migration, using the kiwi family (Apteryx spp) and their nematodes as the study system. Kiwi are endemic to New Zealand, and have been estimated to have declined by 90% since human settlement in New Zealand. The effect of disease, mainly parasitism on kiwi populations have been a minor issue compared to predation, however with intensive conservation management the effect of parasites on kiwi are likely to increase. Very little is known about parasites in kiwi and how they impact the birds, especially the aberrant larval migrans syndromes. I determined the prevalence of nematodes in all kiwi species from 1991-2012 (n=642) that were necropsied at Massey University, using the National Wildlife Pathology Database (Huia), with a specific focus on larval migrans. Brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) were found to have the highest prevalence of nematodiasis, and were also the only species to show evidence of neural larval migrans. Visceral larval migrans were found in brown, rowi (A. rowi) and little spotted kiwi (A. owenii). With the brown kiwi showing the highest incidence of larval migrans, I focused on this species for further investigation. It has previously been proposed that the larval migrans could be caused by nematodes from the Toxocara spp, since wild kiwi can share habitats with wild cats and dogs, which are the normal host of this nematode). However, with specific PCR analysis conducted on archived tissue, I concluded that neither Toxocara cati or T. canis was present in the tissues. I also investigated the cause of cutaneous larval migrans (CLM) in rowi. Uniquely, CLM has not been previously recorded in any avian host. A generic nematode PCR analysis followed by DNA sequencing were used in this study to identify the nematode involved in CLM as being closely related to a nematode from the Trichostrongylus species. ii My results suggest that introduced animal hosts are having an indirect effect on our native bird populations, but to what extent is still unknown. The parasites transmitted between the introduced species and our native species are causing adverse effects to our native populations’ health, in the case of larval migrans; but how often are these introduced parasites infecting our native population and could our native species cope with this competition? From my study it can be presumed that our native species are struggling to adapt to new parasites, and competition between introduced and native species could be contributing to the decline in our species.
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    The triumphs, challenges and failures of young North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a study of behaviour, growth, dispersal and mortality : a thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Wilson, Alexandra Louise
    North Island brown kiwi (NIBK, Apteryx mantelli), an endemic New Zealand species, are estimated to have declined by 90% from pre-human colonisation numbers. Currently, at least 60% of mortality is attributed to introduced mammalian predators, namely stoats (Mustela erminea) preying on chicks. Therefore, conservation effort focuses on predator trapping/killing, and hatching and rearing NIBK chicks in captivity and releasing them back into the wild. These efforts are resulting in increased recruitment of chicks into populations. However, little is known about the biology and behaviour of NIBK chicks in the wild and how this may affect management of these populations. Consequently, the aim of this study was to examine the ecology of young wild NIBK in a natural high density population with reduced predator diversity on Ponui Island. More specifically, the goal was to determine their growth rates, behaviour around the natal nest, dispersal and mortality, and how these factors may be influenced by environmental variables. During the 2010 - 2011 and 2011 - 2012 breeding seasons 29 young NIBK were observed from hatching until mortality or the end of 2012. Remote video cameras were set up outside nests to record behaviour. Juveniles were located daily as often as possible and location, habitat type, roost type and visibility were recorded. Growth measurements of weight, bill and tarsus lengths were taken monthly in the first season and weekly in the second. Invertebrate abundance and availability were also measured using pitfall traps and soil penetrability. Lastly, young NIBK found dead were preserved in formalin and sent for autopsy to accurately determine the cause of death. NIBK on Ponui Island were found to grow slower Kg = 0.0052 than a NIBK population measured previously at Lake Waikaremoana (Kg = 0.006) and 296 other bird species measured to date using the Gompertz growth curve. Females grew faster than males for the first 90 days after hatching. Sample size was too small to do further comparisons after this age. The rate of growth for body mass increased with age whereas the rate of growth for bill length and tarsus length decreased with increasing age, until at least 90 days of age. On a monthly scale, with increasing temperature food abundance significantly increased and soil penetrability declined; on a weekly scale temperature significantly affected growth rates with NIBK growing fastest between 19 - 22°C. I hypothesised that this was because with increasing temperature, food abundance increased, until a point where the soil became too hard for NIBK to probe for food resulting in the optimum growth rate between 19 - 22°C. In 161 nights of nest observation I observed seven interactions between a chick and the adults at the nest. These observations are interesting because NIBK were not previously known to interact with their young outside the nest. The behaviours are ambiguous and therefore I was unable to be sure of the context. Juveniles changed roost location most days and the movements between roost sites of individuals were highly variable. Daily dispersal distance was significantly affected by temperature and season, juveniles moved further in the warmer seasons and there was a positive relationship between dispersal distance and temperatures. Lastly, the mortality rate of NIBK in this population was high at 87.5% with most young NIBK dying from natural causes such as starvation and disease before 90 days of age. Cat predation was found to be higher at 30% relative to mainland populations where cat predation contributes to 5 - 9% of mortalities. This study highlights that population density, temperature, food availability and causes of mortality other than predation are important factors to consider when researching, conserving and translocating NIBK.
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    Can microbes be contributing to the decline of the North Island Brown Kiwi (Apteryx mantelli)? : a thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Hiscox, Jessica Dawn
    North Island Brown Kiwi (NIBK, Apteryx mantelli) are considered nationally vulnerable. Current conservation efforts concentrate on the predator vulnerable chicks, through both intensive predator control and Operation Nest Egg (ONE), a captive hatching and rearing scheme for wild eggs. While these methods are having a positive impact on some NIBK populations, they are expensive to maintain and many NIBK populations are dependent on this intensive management to maintain and increase numbers. Ideally, a point will be reached when less intensive management is needed to maintain NIBK populations. Therefore, ONE is not a permanent conservation strategy; the aim is to phase out intensive management when predator control is deemed sufficient to protect a majority of chicks. However, even with intensive management, overall NIBK numbers are still declining. A potentially significant and previously overlooked factor in this decline could be that NIBK eggs experience high mortality. Indeed 60 per cent of NIBK eggs in the wild do not hatch. Both infertility and predators are unlikely to be major mortality factors in NIBK eggs. Consequently, predator control efforts do little to protect eggs. Research into why NIBK eggs experience such high hatching failure is needed and future conservation work needs to be adjusted in light of the results. The overall objective of this project was to investigate if microbes could contribute to NIBK egg mortality. This project had two aims within this objective: 1. to determine if microbes that could impact hatching success are present on and in NIBK eggs; and 2. to use the results to direct future work and conservation efforts for NIBK. These aims were addressed using four studies, which together support each other in terms of conclusions and give an understanding of the microbes present at different stages in NIBK egg development, in locations throughout the population’s range. The first two studies used 16S rRNA sequencing and/or phenotypic identification methods to identify 1. the bacteria and 2. the fungi on the shells of wild NIBK eggs. Together these provided an understanding of the types of microbes that are present on living eggs during active incubation. In contrast, the third study used 16S rRNA sequencing to identify the bacteria present inside un-hatched infertile NIBK eggs,collected from across the North Island. In the final study, a method was designed to determine if a target bacterium could penetrate through the NIBK egg’s defensive shell. This method was not finalised because the NIBK eggshells could not be sterilised. However, this result showed that NIBK eggshells harbour bacteria that survive even through medical grade cleaning. The consequence of this may mean that bacteria can survive in the shell during adverse conditions, which may result in increased penetration when conditions become suitable. Both the shell and the contents of NIBK eggs in this study had microbes present that could impact hatching success. Of these the most prevalent was Staphylococcus, and while no work has been done on the impact of Staphylococcus on NIBK, members of this genus have been shown to significantly impact the hatching of success of chickens and other birds. The prevalence of Staphylococcus in NIBK eggs indicates that it may be a significant factor in NIBK hatching success and warrants further, focused investigation. That potentially pathogenic genera were isolated from NIBK eggs in this study has consequences for both fieldwork and NIBK conservation. NIBK are known to have dangerous and contagious pathogens in their blood and digestive tracts, such as Cryptococcus spp. Through this research, the potentially dangerous genera Aspergillus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Pseudomonas are added to this list. The Kiwi Best Practice Manual states that ‘thin sterile latex gloves’ should be worn when handing eggs, however, to use dry, bare hands ‘rather than gloved’ when collecting an ONE egg from the wild, to ‘increase sensitivity to holding the egg ‘, as the eggs are cleaned upon arrival at the ONE facility. The eggshells in this project harboured bacteria that survive even through medical grade cleaning; therefore, the cleaning at ONE is unlikely to remove all bacteria. The conclusions of this project are that gloves should be worn at all stages of egg and bird handling, including collecting ONE eggs. This is because of the risk to the handler, as well as the egg. The results of this project also emphasise the need for all equipment used to be cleaned between individuals; this includes callipers, candling torches and weighing bags. In regards to NIBK conservation, the results of this project suggest that predators are not the only factor in NIBK mortality. This project has shown that there are potentiallyserious pathogens present on and in wild NIBK eggs that can kill avian embryos and could be contributing to NIBK egg mortality. We still do not know definitively what is causing the 60 per cent hatching failure in NIBK, but these results highlight the need for egg mortality and microbial factors to be factored in to NIBK conservation and recovery plans. Intensive management of NIBK should be phased out not only when predator control is deemed sufficient to protect the majority of chicks, but when researchers have a better understanding of what other factors contribute to NIBK mortality, at all stages of life. We need long-term, cost-effective ways to keep NIBK populations self-sustaining that protect the eggs as well as the chicks and adults. This means that phasing out of ONE needs to be considered in terms of egg mortality and not just chick survival. More detailed studies are needed to both further identify the microbes present on wild NIBK eggs and to experimentally prove/disprove that NIBK embryos can be killed by these pathogens. This can be achieved by infecting eggs, or by cleaning them.
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    The effect of light on the behaviour of captive brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli : implications for captive management : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Grant, Roseanne Kate
    The impact of light intensity and spectrum on the behaviour of captive brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli was examined through behavioural observation. This topic was chosen as most animals have a significant response to light and there are currently no guidelines for the light regimes of nocturnal houses or brooder rooms that house brown kiwi. In the first experiment the amount of time that a kiwi spent in enclosure areas illuminated by four different colours was observed. The behaviour of the kiwi was not affected by colour but significantly more time was spent in enclosure areas that were darker and close to the edge of the enclosure. A second experiment investigated the amount of time that eight captive display kiwi spent in areas of their enclosure based on illumination intensity; again more time was spent in darker and peripheral areas as well as in areas of moderate to high structural coverage though these factors were interacting and did not singularly explain where time was spent in the enclosure. Finally the effect of early brooder light exposure on the later outdoor emergence times of nine neonatal brown kiwi was observed. Chicks that were housed for their first month of life in brooders diurnally lit by 150-200 lux emerged sooner after sunset once they were later housed in outdoor pens; this is compared with chicks housed in brooders brighter than 300 lux. Overall, light intensity and structure appeared to be the most significant environmental factors though much individual variation was found. Based on my results nocturnal houses that are no brighter than five lux and have at least 50% structurally covered and peripheral areas are most likely to be preferred by kiwi. Brooder boxes may need to be dimmed if a long-term behavioural effect is occurring from current brooder light regimes. These results support the widely held belief that kiwi do not rely on vision for information about their surroundings but may have good perception of light intensity as a result of having high rod photoreceptor density. It is more likely that kiwi rely on highly developed tactile and olfactory senses than vision. Results may be applicable to nocturnal mammals that also show high predator avoidance behaviour and/or do not rely on vision, such as some primates and rodents.
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    Ancient DNA analysis of Māori feather cloaks and kete : implications for conservation and culture : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Molecular Biosciences at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand, 2012
    (Massey University, 2012) Hartnup, Katie
    Feather cloaks (kakahu) and bags (kete), particularly those adorned with kiwi feathers, are treasured items or taonga to the Maori people of New Zealand. They are considered iconic expressions of Maori culture. Despite their status, much of our knowledge of the materials used to construct these artefacts, the provenance of these artefacts and the origins of these traditions, has been lost. We used ancient DNA methods to recover mitochondrial DNA sequences from 849 feather samples taken from 109 kiwi feathered cloaks (kahu kiwi) and 161 feather samples from 55 kiwi feathered kete (kete kiwi). We show that almost all (>99%) of the cloaks and all (100%) of the kete were constructed using feathers from North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Just one cloak was found to have been constructed using feathers from little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii). The remaining three species of kiwi (Apteryx haasti, Apteryx rowi and Apteryx australis) were not found in any of the cloaks and kete sampled. Molecular sexing of nuclear DNA from 92 feather cloak samples also revealed that the sex-ratio of birds deviated from a ratio of 1:1 observed in reference populations, with a male skew observed. Additionally, a reference database of 185 North Island brown kiwi mitochondrial control region DNA sequences was constructed, comprising samples collected from 26 North Island locations together with data available from the literature. For contemporary populations, we saw a phylogeographic structuring of haplotypes using both SAMOVA and Nested Clade Analysis into Eastern, Northern and West and Central populations. Utilising this structuring, it was possible to infer the provenance of 847 kiwi feathers from 108 cloaks and 153 kiwi feathers from 52 kete. A surprising proportion of cloaks (15%) and some kete (5.5%) were found to contain feathers from different geographic locations providing evidence of either kiwi trading among Maori tribes (iwi), tribal displacement, or organised hunting trips into other tribal areas. The data also suggests that the east of the North Island was the most prolific of all kiwi cloak and kete making areas, accounting for over 50% of all cloaks analysed and over 58% of all kete. This could indicate that the East of the North Island was the epicentre for this cultural tradition. Also, the structuring observed in the reference database will prove to be useful to conservationists, such as the New Zealand Department of Conservation, when deciding strategies to maintain populations of New Zealand’s most iconic bird. The genetic analysis of these treasured items has been invaluable in enriching our knowledge and rebuilding their lost histories. Additionally, genetic data from historical items can aid our understanding or how populations change overtime, thus aiding conservation of valuable species.
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    Characterisation of limb development and locomotion in the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Jones, Erica Anne
    This thesis covers broad topics concerning limb growth and development and their effects on locomotion in the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). I begin by describing the morphological features of a collection of unknown-age wild kiwi embryos from early development to point of hatch. Using these features, I assign developmental stages to each embryo and compare the progress of development to the same-staged ostrich and chicken embryos. Measurements of the hindlimb, bill and crown-rump length are used to develop an aging scheme based on comparisons with the ostrich and the chicken. The ostrich model and chicken model create age predictions for the unknown aged kiwi embryos. One kiwi embryo was of known age and both models gave identical predictions for this marker embryo, but gave differing predictions for all other kiwi embryos. Using captive-reared kiwi chicks, I characterise hindlimb, bill and bodyweight growth from the time of hatch to 3 months of age. Growth patterns are very linear within this time period for all measurements but bodyweight. Female kiwi hatch with longer bills than males, but the growth of both sexes converges by the end of the 3-month period. Growth of bodyweight in the males slows earlier than in females. Bodyweight and bill length were then compared to a wild population of kiwi. Captive-reared chicks were found to hatch with shorter bills than the wild birds and to increase in bodyweight at a faster rate than wild birds. Rapid weight gain has been implicated in developmental limb deformities in other precocial and long-legged birds and has the potential to produce similar results in captive kiwi. I further studied the movement of the hindlimb during locomotion in two adults and one juvenile kiwi by filming them while they were walking on a treadmill. Kinematic parameters were measured from the video recordings and compared to overground parameters from another study. Similarity between the treadmill and overground locomotor parameters validates the use of a treadmill in studying kiwi locomotion. None of the birds achieved the theoretical transition from a walk to a run at a duty factor of 0.5. After normalising for size, the juvenile showed a longer stride length and lower stride frequency with increasing speed than the adults. Lateral head oscillations were observed during the stride cycle, which I propose having a sensory function as well as a biomechanical one.