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    Development of a bakery snack for export from New Zealand to Malaysia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Product Development
    (Massey University, 1987) Lai, Pai Wan
    The use of consumers in the product development system for developing a food product was investigated. The investigation studied the techniques suitable for use with consumers and how well the development system worked in a cross-cultural situation. A bakery snack was developed for export from New Zealand to Malaysia, targetted at two major ethnic groups, the Malays and Chinese. Initial market research (including a consumer survey and a focus group) provided general information on the eating of snacks by the Malays and the Chinese. Multidimensional scaling also provided general information on their perceptions of bakery snacks and uncovered an area for further development work. The initial market research findings indicated that the Malays and Chinese were similar in their perceptions and preferences of bakery snacks. Their purchasing patterns of bakery products from bread and cake shops were somewhat different. Bread and cake were more popular among the Malays, while the Chinese bought more filled buns and currys puffs. Consumers generated 100 new product ideas for bakery snacks using brainstorming and nominal group technique. Both techniques were found to be useful under different conditions. The product ideas were reduced to seven using a series of quantitative techniques. The final selection of a macaroni and minced meat pie for further development was made by Malay and Chinese consumer groups. Formulation of the pie was studied, using sensory profiling with fixed "ideals", by a small panel in New Zealand. The panel consisted of Malaysian students who had been in New Zealand for one or two years. Data obtained from the sensory profiling were used to derive empirical equations relating sensory attributes and acceptability to ingredient levels, so that the formulation could be guided quickly and systematically. The final product was consumer tested in Malaysia using a central location test, focus groups and sensory profiling. Consumer input was useful in every stage of the development of the product. Their input was particularly important during the initial market research, the formulation stage and product testing. It was concluded that consumers were best utilised in as many stages of the development of a consumer product as possible, using groups of 10-30 people. Most techniques were found suitable for cross-cultural research. Exceptions occurred where questionnaires were involved (i.e. the initial consumer survey and the central location test) where it was found that Malays were reluctant to answer questions. Results from the different techniques at the various stages of the project correlated well with few exceptions. The pie developed was acceptable to Malaysians, both Malays and Chinese, but improvements are still necessary, particularly in the sensory properties before test marketing. The beef flavour was too strong and could possibly be reduced by decreasing the beef content and replacing it with textured vegetable proteins.
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    Changing patterns of consumerism : the rise and rise of the second hand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Visual and Material Culture at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2011) Noon, Deborah Jan
    The aim of this thesis is to investigate the popularity of the second hand. In the wake of the conspicuous consumption which dominates the western world, where everything is new and available en masse, it seems to constitute a paradox. With the vast array of choice the consumer has today, the question of why the material culture of the second-­‐hand market is so popular is intriguing. In this New Zealand study a two part approach was undertaken to answer this question. Firstly, interviews with both buyers and vendors of the second hand were conducted. Thirteen people in total were interviewed, six of whom were avid purchasers of the second hand and seven who were vendors of the second hand. Secondly, the voluminous popular literature was reviewed. This thesis takes a broader more holistic approach, rather than focusing on one particular aspect of second-­‐hand consumption, as has been the predominant case thus far in international studies. Because of this broader approach, four key categories were developed to make sense of and, frame the analysis of the research findings: the ‘aesthetic’, ‘values’, ‘practices’ and ‘identity’. Each was conceptually broad but each also allowed for a particular line of enquiry within the broader field of inquiry. Within the aesthetic category, the influence of lifestyle, style and fashion on second-­‐hand consumption was a focal point. This study identified the second-­‐ hand market as an important vehicle of inclusion, especially in light of the current fashion for vintage clothing and retro goods. Within the values category, the concept of ethical consumption and the second hand was explored. My respondents did not give ethical consumption as a primary consideration for the choice to purchase second-­‐hand goods. In contrast to iii the growing literature on ethical consumption, this study found greater consideration was given to a moral obligation to give back and the enactment of a conscience of care in second-­‐hand consumption. The concept of thrift and other hedonistic motivations were the focus of the practices category. Thrift has been given little consideration in the literature yet was found to be very influential in respondent’s choices especially in today’s economic uncertainty. Of the more hedonistic motivations the findings echoed much of the conclusions identified in earlier literature on the second hand. The final category of research was identity. Reinforcing the existing academic literature, the importance of defining oneself and place in the world was found to be paramount. Differentiation and uniqueness were most valued and the second-­‐hand market was privileged as the best source of goods with which to express one’s identity. The overall findings of this study endorse and also qualify the current academic literature on the second hand. Given the small sample size in this research, it is hoped that this study will act as a stimulus to further research.
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    Attitudes and behaviour of consumers to meat in Palmerston North, New Zealand, 1979-1985 : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Product Development at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1985) Wilkinson, Brian Herbert Patrick
    Consumer attitudes and behaviour towards meat products were studied as a basis for meat product development. Meat consumer studies have traditionally taken two distinctive approaches. Economists have tended to use demand analysis, concentrating on the effects of price, income, and family structure on the consumption of 'beef' or 'lamb' or other aggregated commodity. Market researchers have tended to concentrate on consumer requirements and attitudes, frequently ignoring price and income. The present study examined meat consumer behaviour from both perspectives and made a detailed study of some of the techniques using 15 meats and 41 meat cuts. In consumer preferences, the use of a Semi-structured Linear Scale with the most-preferred and least-preferred meats anchored at either end of the scale and the remaining meats arranged along the scale at distances that reflected the consumers' preferences was equally effective at determining interval scale distances between meats as the traditional methods of measuring preferences, the Thurstone Case V Interval Scale. Also for Multidimensional Scaling, substitutability measurements were the most appropriate data measurements as the resulting solutions were stable, whilst the preference solutions tended to degenerate into unidimensional solutions. The study also showed that less predictable solutions resulted from MDS if substitutability measurements were made on meat cuts rather than at a species level. Fenker's and Krusdal et al.'s methods produced very similar ideal point solutions which were slightly different to solutions from a newly-developed method. The latter had the advantage of being able to identify the dimension most sensitive to changes in preference and to indicate whether an ideal point or vector model was the most appropriate method of determining new product opportunities in an MDS space. Factor Analysis showed that it was possible to identify three main Factors underlying consumers' attitudes to meat in general. They included; a 'meat quality on buying' Factor; a 'meat quality on eating' Factor and a 'meat quality on cooking and serving' Factor. However, the study showed that the structure of the Factors changed depending on whether attitudes to meat in general, to specific cuts from each species of meat, or individual cuts of meat were being examined. The use of Q-Factor Analysis to categorise meats on the basis of consumer attitudes showed that it was possible to categorise meats into 9 Hypothetical Product groupings based on the consumers' attitudes to the products. The groupings were shown to be based on the similarity of the attitude profiles of the cuts, cuts with similar profiles being grouped in the same Hypothetical Product. Three quantitative regression models were developed for 41 meat cuts. The models showed that the situation was not quite as complex as other studies had indicated. Per capita consumption of meat was shown to depend on the price, preference and prestige ratings of a meat cut, i.e. a typical demand model. The model accounted for 61% of the variance in the dependent variable, substantially higher than other studies. Meat cut preference was shown to depend on the acceptability of the flavour, juiciness and presence of bone in the cut. The model typified a Fishbein/Rosenberg attitude model and accounted for 91% of the variance in the dependent variable. The proportion of households buying model accounted for over 93% of the variance in the dependent variable and typified a demand model. All the predictor variables in the model were consumer attitudes. The model indicated that the proportion of households that would purchase a cut was dependent on the tenderness, value for money and perceived price of a cut. The models indicated what had to be done to improve existing meat products and the areas that should be concentrated on for successful new meat product development.
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    Evaluation and measurement of consumer preferences for outdoor ornamental plants : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marketing at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1996) Brasamp, Wilmien; Brascamp, Wilmien
    For the New Zealand nursery industry to survive in an increasingly competitive environment, it is vital to cater effectively for its customers. One of the major factors complicating the required shift towards a consumer oriented industry, is a lack of information on consumer attitudes towards, and perceptions of nursery products. The current study was aimed at contributing to the future of the industry by enhancing knowledge and understanding of the consumer market for nursery products. Data on perceptions of outdoor ornamental plants were obtained through personal interviews with garden centre customers in three major areas within New Zealand. Compared to the New Zealand population in general, the sample of garden centre customers interviewed, included higher percentages of females, home owners, of families living without dependent children at home, and of people between the ages of 45 and 65 years of age. Interviews were structured according to a fractional factorial design that allowed for uncorrected estimation of eight plant factors and selected interactions. Of the plant characteristics included in the study, health was the main consideration to respondents when selecting a plant for purchase. The suitability of a plant for the growing conditions in the respondent's garden ranked second in importance, and was followed by plant shape and bushiness. Price and final height were the fifth and sixth most important factors respectively in determining the attractiveness of plants to respondents. Leaf and flower colours had a statistically significant effect on consumer evaluations, but contributed little to the ability to predict the responses from treatment variables. The effects of price on the perceived attractiveness of a plant depended upon its health status, suitability for the respondent's garden, and on its final height and shape. The effect of the interaction between shape and bushiness was also found to be of statistically significance. Healthy, cheap plants were preferred over highly or averagely priced plants with an average or poor health status. The nature of the interaction between price and health indicated that respondents were more likely to pay the difference between a medium and a high price level for healthy plants than they were for a plant with an average or poor health status. Where cheap plants were concerned, respondents paid more attention to the suitability of such plants for the growing conditions in their garden than they did for more expensive plants. For averagely priced plants, garden centre customers interviewed expressed a preference for plants reaching a final height of 1-2m. At lower or higher price levels they preferred plants growing up to 1m. Plants with an expected height of over 2m were the least attractive to respondents. A well-balanced shape was particularly important for cheap and expensive plants and for bushy plants. Based on the findings, recommendations were formulated to facilitate an alignment between the quality of plants offered for sale at garden centres and desires of the customers. Plant evaluations depended upon several respondent characteristics. Judgements of different health levels varied with the age of the respondent's house, and his or her marital status. Attractiveness ratings for plants differing in their suitability for intended growing conditions depended on the respondent's income level. Emphasis placed on the mature height and the shape of plants varied with the size of the respondent's section. Keen gardeners attached greater importance to a symmetrical shape than did others. Regional differences were observed between respondent opinions about price, health, suitability, and shape. Whilst garden centre customers interviewed in Wellington appeared to be mainly concerned with the two most important factors, namely 'plant health', and 'suitability', respondents in Palmerston North and Auckland paid relatively more attention to the remaining factors. Interactions between respondent characteristics and plant factors not only had implications for current production and retail practices, but also gave an insight into potential effects on plant perceptions of a change in consumer market composition. From the synthesis of results and observations, several methodology related issues emerged. Limitations and caveats were addressed for the benefit of future research into consumer perceptions of horticultural products and/or services.