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    Balancing cultural and commercial imperatives : a study of Māori and Aboriginal entrepreneurs : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management, School of Management, Massey Business School, Massey University, Palmerston North
    (Massey University, 2022) Manganda, Admiral Munyaradzi
    Indigenous entrepreneurship is increasingly establishing itself as a legitimate research discipline, with theoretical development as one of the priorities. This thesis seeks to explain how Māori and Aboriginal Australian entrepreneurs balance cultural and commercial imperatives in their entrepreneurial practice. The research is contextualised around Ngāti Porou entrepreneurs in the Tairāwhiti East Coast region of Aotearoa New Zealand, and Noongar, Wanghkatha and Gumbaynggir entrepreneurs located in the Perth locality of Western Australia. The research is approached with an integrated research epistemology consisting of Kaupapa Māori, Indigenous standpoint theory and Western methods including semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis. The thesis finds that Māori entrepreneurs negotiate cultural and commercial imperatives whilst Aboriginal entrepreneurs navigate cultural and commercial imperatives. Negotiation is taken to mean an ongoing interaction to reach an acceptable accommodation of both cultural and commercial imperatives; and navigation suggests a process of overcoming or working around barriers to achieve cultural and commercial imperatives. A conceptual framework of reconciling cultural and commercial imperatives is developed that illustrates the process of reconciling imperatives in Indigenous entrepreneurship. The thesis suggests that identity and contextual factors inclusive of Indigenous culture, colonial and postcolonial structures such as racism, mainstream attitudes, and discrimination, play a significant role in determining how Māori and Aboriginal entrepreneurs balance imperatives.
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    Risk management by entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial micro and small-scale firms in the agriculture food-processing sector in Sri Lanka : a mixed method approach : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in Agribusiness at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Ganegoda Hewage, Ishara Anjalee
    Risk, risk-taking, and risk management have been identified as integral components of entrepreneurship since the inception of the concept of entrepreneurship. However, the relationship between these components still puzzles scholars as different scholars have presented often contrasting theoretical notions and empirical findings regarding how entrepreneurial firms take and manage risk. Despite the importance of risk in entrepreneurship, the attention given to risk management and the adoption of specific risk management strategies is limited in the research literature. The firms operating in the MSME sector play a vital role in economic development in developing countries, particularly in Sri Lanka. The term entrepreneurship is frequently associated and investigated along with the term MSMEs where many researchers have used these two terms synonymously or alternatively. Literature supports the notion that entrepreneurial firms and small businesses are related but they are two different entities with distinctive features. However, the lack of specific criteria to differentiate between the two firm groups is identified as a major hindrance in the sector that negatively affects the development of beneficial policies and scholarly work. With the above questions identified, the overarching research question of this study is; “Do the entrepreneurial micro and small-scale (MSE) firms in the agriculture food processing sector in Sri Lanka manage the risks they face any differently from other MSEs operating in the sector?”. To address this question first it was necessary to assure the existence of such entrepreneurial firms within the sector. For that, the study devised a method to differentiate entrepreneurial firms from their non-entrepreneurial counterparts. Moreover, the study also aimed to investigate the factors that determine the differing risk management behaviour of these MSEs operating in the agriculture food processing sector in Sri Lanka. The research process began with a preliminary study to investigate the context of agriculture food processing MSEs in Sri Lanka. With the support of the findings of the preliminary study and the literature, the five-dimensional Entrepreneurial Orientation approach (i.e. innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-taking, competitive aggressiveness, and autonomy) was identified as the best-fitting method to differentiate between the two firm groups. Upon confirming the existence of entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms in the sector, the study adopted an exploratory sequential mixed-method approach consisting of two phases; a qualitative phase with selected case firms to explore the nature of their EO followed by a quantitative phase with survey data to investigate the risk management behaviour of a population of these firms. The qualitative phase was conducted with four selected case firms; two entrepreneurial and two non-entrepreneurial to explore the level and nature of EO. The quantitative data were gathered from a sample of 206 MSEs using a structured, researcher-administered questionnaire. The results confirmed that entrepreneurial firms do exist in the agriculture food processing sector in Sri Lanka. Proactiveness, innovativeness, risk-taking, and competitive aggressiveness were identified as the more suitable EO dimensions that can be used to identify and differentiate between entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms in the Sri Lankan context, with autonomy being identified as not strongly contributing to this differentiation. The study agrees with the existing body of literature on “entrepreneurs are risk takers”, yet goes much beyond of this common notion to prove that they are not only they are risk takers, but also better risk managers compared to their non-entrepreneurial counterparts. The uniqueness of this study is that it has not inly investigated the risk management behaviour of entrepreneurial small firms but also comapred it with a group of non-entreprneurial firms. Quantitative study found significant differences between entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms in terms of their adoption of risk management strategies. More entrepreneurial firms adopted knowledge-related, strategic, and product price-related market risk management strategies compared to non-entrepreneurial firms. This was also found in the qualitative phase where the entrepreneurial firms were more proactive and showed a notable orientation toward adopting strategic, and knowledge-related, risk management strategies. The two firm groups showed clear differences in their propensities to risk, with two categories of risk propensities identified as entrepreneurial risk (seeking) propensity attributes and non-entrepreneurial risk (averting) propensity attributes. The entrepreneurial risk (seeking) attributes were found to strongly contribute to the differentiation between entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial MSEs while the adoption of strategic and knowledge-related risk management strategies was negatively affected by the non-entrepreneurial risk (averting) propensity. Investigating how sources of risk are perceived, both as opportunities and threats, for both entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms was another important contribution of this study. The results highlighted that the entrepreneurial group perceived more opportunities arising from the sources of risk than the non-entrepreneurial group, with both groups perceiving the threats in a similar manner. Having a proper identification of entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial firms is useful for policymakers to devise their policies more strategically. Finally, this study expands the current understanding of entrepreneurial/non-entrepreneurial firms, especially in terms of strategic planning and knowledge-orientation of entrepreneurial firms in managing risks, risk propensity, and perceiving different sources of risks based on the strong foundation of their proactive and opportunity-oriented nature.
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    Lupe fa'alele : releasing the doves : factors affecting the successful operation of Samoan businesses in New Zealand : a thesis presented in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology, Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Vao'iva Tofilau, Ma'atusi S.
    This thesis explores levels of Samoan entrepreneurship in New Zealand. It identifies unique challenges and opportunities Samoan entrepreneurs face when establishing businesses in a migrant setting. There is a growing body of knowledge in New Zealand on ethnic businesses, in particular, what constitutes an ethnic business, what facilitates and impedes their success, and the contribution they make to the New Zealand economy. Samoan entrepreneurship, however, remains an academic terra nova. Little is understood about what Samoan entrepreneurship looks like; is there a typical Samoan business, for example; what sorts of challenges do they face when negotiating and navigating cultural and business challenges in the New Zealand business environment; and what does this all mean in terms of success in both the business and community contexts? This thesis considers a qualitative research approach to investigate the lived experiences of Samoan entrepreneurs in New Zealand. The research draws on the experiences of fifteen male and six female Samoan entrepreneurs. The participants interviewed for this study included entrepreneurs who were born and educated in Samoa, those born in Samoa and partly educated in both Samoa and New Zealand, and entrepreneurs born and educated in New Zealand. The research examines how entrepreneurs differ from one another in the way they operate their businesses and the manner in which they negotiate their obligations towards family, religion, community and business responsibilities. Earlier literature on ethnic entrepreneurship has emphasized the importance of ‘social embeddedness’ of entrepreneurs in their social and community networks as key factors in operating a successful business. This study however looks to build on and extend this concept to a mixed embeddedness focus that highlights the combination of cultural, institutional, structural elements of the business environment and relevant strategies that entrepreneurs use to create a successful business. The findings in the study emphasize that the mixed embedded approach produces more successes and a variety amongst Samoan entrepreneurs especially when they negotiate the requirements of both fa’a-sāmoa in conjunction with the institutional and the regulatory responsibilities of the New Zealand business environment. The implications of these findings would be valuable for other migrant operated businesses in New Zealand.
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    A configuration study based on performance of nascent ventures : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) Zwiegelaar, Jeremy Basil
    This research provides explanations for the reasons why one group of entrepreneurs start a venture early, while a second group starts later to create their venture. It also considers what factors contribute to some entrepreneurs quitting the venture early while others quit later. There is a dearth of studies that have explicitly considered the performance for both starting and quitting over time from the same dataset. There are methods limitations when analysing nascent entrepreneurs developing new ventures which are limited by a focus on mainly regression analyses. Research is sparse for uncovering types of new venture by examining similar contexts of new venture performance from a multidimensional view. Data from a sample of nascent entrepreneurs (people in the process of setting up a venture) were analysed over a six-year period. An initial sample of 1135 nascent entrepreneurs was drawn from a US dataset, and then the second, and last years’ interviews were used to assess their progress. There were 690 early starters amongst this group and 248 respondents were later starters. There were 219 respondents who quit their venture early compared to 51 who quit their venture later. The thesis focuses on explaining the relative importance of a variety of factors affecting performance for new ventures by explaining causal relationships beyond the correlation analyses perspectives. These factors are organised in terms of Gartner's (1985) framework of new venture creation. This framework suggests that start-up outcomes depend on the characteristics of the individual(s) starting the venture, the organisation that they create, the environment surrounding the new venture, and the process by which the new venture is started. The research also considers the strategy which is not part of Gartners framework but considered important to understanding performance outcomes for nascent entrepreneurs. The research applies the method fuzzy sets qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), (Ragin, 2008) to compare nascent entrepreneurs and explores links between various configurations of attributes known as domains and new venture performance which is a contribution to knowledge on new ventures performance. This is important as the method provides better explanations of the combination of sets necessary to create recipes for performance. The results show for both early and late starters that when high need for achievement is coupled with better access to financial resources, and the absence of external support, then starting a new venture is likely to occur. This suggests that for nascent entrepreneurs, they need to have entrepreneurial personality trait need for achievement which is a trait showing the propensity to be entrepreneurial, or be engaged in entrepreneurial activities and a clear access to financial resources. External support is not as relevant to starting new ventures when financial resources and need for achievement are present. The overall findings for configurations based on early versus late quitters suggest that unlike the later quitters, early quitters were limited in relation to financial resources and external support. The early quitters had a high need for achievement, at least moderate levels of specific human capital, limited external support and limited access to financial resources. In contrast, the late quitters had higher levels of specific human capital, higher levels of entrepreneurial intensity but limited external support which suggests that they were able to quit later because they had other options, such as other ventures or employment available to them. Keywords: new venture performance, qualitative comparative analysis, configurations, asymmetry, new ventures, fsQCA
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    Relationships between entrepreneurial orientation and firm performance : the role of family involvement amongst small firms in Vietnam : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) Vu, Hoang Nam
    This thesis broadly investigates entrepreneurship and its intersections with other related research fields, principally family business and organisational behaviour, using multiple studies with different respondent groups in the context of Vietnam. The thesis follows a PhD by publication approach by presenting four studies that examine different sets of relationships among the research variables and presents each of these as a separate paper. Studies 1 and 2 use resource-based theory to test the influence of entrepreneurial orientation and family involvement (i.e., involvement of the owner-manager’s family in the firm in terms of the family’s power, experience, and culture) on firm-level performance. Using a firm-level dataset of 170 Vietnamese small firms, the research confirms the direct effect of entrepreneurial orientation and the moderating effect of family culture, based on results from two hierarchical moderated regression models for firm outcomes (Study 1) and the owner-manager’s goal attainment (Study 2). Study 3 employs social contagion theory and crossover theory to test the crossover from the owner-manager to his/her employees under the involvement of the ownermanager’s family. Results from a multilevel analysis using a dataset of 67 small firm owner-managers and 343 employees confirm that the owner-manager’s entrepreneurial risk-taking has a detrimental effect on both employee job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Study 3 also found the power dimension of family involvement reduces the negative effect of the entrepreneurial risk-taking as the family pursues socioeconomic wealth preservation. Finally, Study 4 explores the notion of becoming an entrepreneur and tests whether the employee’s turnover intentions, under the proximal withdrawal states approach, contribute to development of their entrepreneurial intentions. Results from a structural equation modelling analysis use a dataset of 147 employees to confirm that turnover intentions are positively related to entrepreneurial intentions, but this effect is fully mediated by personal attitudes towards being an entrepreneur. Overall, this thesis contributes to the literature of entrepreneurship and its intersections with family business and organisational behaviour. Based on the research findings, the thesis suggests further research and discusses implications for researchers, policy makers, and business practitioners.
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    The impact of the small and medium enterprise support programmes on the livelihoods of micro-entrepreneurs using sustainable livelihood framework : a case study of Enterprise Mongolia Project Phase 2 by United Nations Development Programme in Mongolia : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Ganbold, Mongoljin
    The aim of this research is to explore the impact of Enterprise Mongolia Project EMP-2 project on the livelihoods of the Small and Medium Entrepreneurs (SMEs) using Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) in the context of Mongolia. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods are used in order to carry out this research. The study started firstly with the review of existing literature followed by field research to explore in depth rural livelihoods and SMEs in Mongolia. The research is conducted in two phases. The first phase comprises examining the case study of Enterprise Mongolia Project 2 (EMP-2) and discusses the role of SME support programmes in poverty reduction. The second phase of the research method comprised of conducting in-depth semi-structured interviews with 20 entrepreneurs. The overall objective of the research is to identify the changes resulting from the project intervention (EMP-2) using sustainable livelihood approach and to find out the relationship between the livelihood assets and enterprise of SME owners. The researcher uses Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) to explore the human, social, financial, and physical and natural resource based assets that enable the poor to enhance their capabilities and reduce their vulnerabilities. A qualitative study is conducted by consenting the SME owners who were beneficiaries of the EMP-2. Unstructured and in-depth interviews were conducted; interviews were taped, transcribed and thematically analyzed by using NVivo 10. Data has been collected from three major regions of Mongolia which are Selenge Aimag, Khenti Aimag and Uvurkhangai Aimag. Out of 20 respondents, 8 belong to Selenge Aimag, 6 belong to Khentii Aimag and 6 belong to Uvurkhangai Aimag respectively. Results are extracted from Nvivo 10, word frequencies, word trees, results previews and qualitative model is generated with the help of Nvivo 10. Results clearly demonstrate that the EMP-2 project provided support in terms of financial capital, human capital, physical capital, social capital and natural capital and this improves the livelihoods of the small and business entrepreneurs in Mongolia. Findings of the study also illustrates that EMP-2 project ease out the funding’s and loan processes, provide training to their workers and resolve the issues in regards to water shortage and energy shortage. The results of this study can be used by the NGO’s and other charity organizations to go in Mongolia and introduce projects like EMP to provide support to SME owners so that their livelihood can improve and poverty can be reduced or eliminated. Keyword: EMP, SMEs, Mongolia, Livelihoods, Sustainable Livelihood Framework
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    In the mood to innovate : a multilevel study on the interaction of entrepreneurs' innovative work behaviour and affect : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Studies in Management, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Williamson, Amanda J
    Affect is a hot topic in entrepreneurial research. However, extant literature is lagging behind in its use of affective theory and methodology, and furthermore, attention resides in isolated topics of inquiry, rendering the field stunted and disjointed. The purpose of this research is to adopt burgeoning affective theoretical perspectives to anticipate daily fluctuation in entrepreneurs’ innovative behaviour. The circumplex model of affect is utilised in this research to challenge the rhetoric that all spectrum of pleasant moods lead to beneficial work behaviour. Though multilevel modelling based on 3360 data points nested within 160 entrepreneurs (21 surveys per participant, completed over two weeks), support is found for the proposition that pleasant moods do not necessarily result in productive behaviour. Specifically, activation (the energising dimension of affect) has greater influence on propelling entrepreneurs’ innovative behaviour than valence (affect’s pleasant or unpleasant nature), such that high activation unpleasant and pleasant affect (worried, anxious, inspired, enthusiastic) predicts innovative work behaviour, while low activation pleasant affect (calm, relaxed) does not. The affect-behaviour relationship is examined from several perspectives resulting in a feedback model between high activation moods and innovative work behaviour engagement. Engagement in innovative work behaviour positively correlated to entrepreneurs’ experience of high activation unpleasant affect, and negatively related to high and low activation pleasant affect. Thus although innovative work behaviour benefits from high activation pleasant moods, engagement essentially decreases them. Affective dispositions correlated with daily affective experiences also, as such entrepreneurs with low levels of trait negative affect experienced more pleasant moods during the day and visa versa. Findings confirmed the hypothesis that the quality of previous night’s sleep both moderates the link between affect and innovative work behaviour, plus predisposes entrepreneurs to pleasant or conversely unpleasant affective daily experiences – illustrating the importance of sleep in affective research. Additionally innovative work behaviour was predicted via “the affective shift model”, which was adapted to include the influence of activation. The results further attest to the relevance of temporal dynamics of affect perspectives in entrepreneurial research. Specifically, the model demonstrated that innovative work behaviour ensued when high activation unpleasant affect was followed by high activation pleasant affect, or simply with an increase in the level of high activation affect, of either valence between morning and afternoon. Empirical, theoretical, and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
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    Equitable development? : good governance, women and micro-enterprise initiatives in the Cook Islands : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2000) Lawrence, Christine
    In light of the importance that development agencies have placed on good governance policies, micro-enterprise initiatives, and the role of women in development in recent years, this thesis addresses the question: Have the incentives for Cook Islands women to begin micro-enterprises under good governance reforms led to equitable development? It begins by examining the ways in which good governance policies could both stimulate and detract from equitable development for female micro-entrepreneurs both in theory and practice. An evaluation of the impact that the Cook Islands' Economic Reform Programme has had on equitable development for former public service employees who began a micro-enterprise follows. In accordance with Longwe's (1994) Women's Empowerment Framework, equitable development is measured in terms of material welfare, access to the factors of production, society's willingness to alter the gendered division of labour, participation in decision-making processes, and control over both the factors of production and the benefits of development. This thesis argues that an expansion of the micro-enterprise sector of an economy will not automatically follow the implementation of good governance policies. While the land tenure system could favour smaller businesses in the Cook Islands, Western-style business practices have sometimes conflicted with cultural norms, and micro-entrepreneurs have been disadvantaged in international and local markets by their limited resource bases and poor economies of scale. In addition, by reducing the amount of cash available to consumers and stimulating significant migratory outflows, the economic reforms have further fuelled regional inequalities by making it more difficult for entrepreneurs residing on the outer islands than those based on Rarotonga to begin businesses. This thesis also concludes that the operation of micro-enterprise initiatives has had a mixed impact on equitable development for Cook Islands women. More men than women have benefited from Government business incentives and Cook Islands women have typically been restricted to industries that yield low returns because of their skill mixes. In addition, while many have enjoyed increased flexibility in their time use, fewer Government services coupled with the effort required to manage their businesses have increased some women's workloads, causing poor health, reducing the time that they have spent with their families and precluding some from participating in decision-making processes. On a positive note, the growth in tourism has supported the micro-enterprise ventures of Cook Islands women. In addition, successful female micro-entrepreneurs have been empowered by improvements in their self-confidence, personal income, and access to credit, together with more equitable divisions of labour and greater control over family businesses and household incomes.
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    The role of publicly funded enterprise assistance in Māori entrepreneurship in Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business
    (Massey University, 2015) Mika, Jason Paul
    Maori entrepreneurship in relation to enterprise assistance is rarely subject to academic enquiry, inhibiting theoretical development. This thesis examines the role of publicly funded enterprise assistance in Maori entrepreneurship in Aotearoa New Zealand. Publicly funded enterprise assistance includes formalised business support—financial and nonfinancial— offered by government. Kaupapa Maori research is the overriding research epistemology, with Western pragmatism integrated within this. The thesis is critical, inductive and exploratory, using interviews for data collection. The thesis finds that Maori entrepreneurship is an expression of Maori selfdetermination, Maori potentiality, and substantive freedom. Maori entrepreneurship contributes to Maori development in terms of social, cultural, economic, environmental and spiritual outcomes. Maori entrepreneurs proudly identify with being Maori and doing business in a Maori way, predicated upon principles of duality, collectivism, permanence and intergenerationality. Maori enterprises are mainly defined by Maori ownership, values, assets and institutions, and represent the organisational context of Maori entrepreneurship. The thesis suggests that publicly funded enterprise assistance serves three roles in Maori entrepreneurship: (i) satisfying firm-level business needs; (ii) building Maori entrepreneurial capabilities; and, (iii) enabling Maori enterprises to develop. A conceptual model of Maori enterprise assistance is developed that illustrates the relationship between Maori entrepreneurship and enterprise assistance. The thesis suggests principles for enterprise assistance design based on an ideal delivery model. Strong support for the role of government in public enterprise assistance for Maori entrepreneurship is evident. Tribes also have a role in this, but are not to be viewed as a substitute for the government’s role.
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    Building an enterprising generation : an evaluation of the young enterprise scheme : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Business Studies in Management at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Lewis, Kate
    Enterprise education aims to develop in individuals (particularly the young) a set of skills and/or attitudes that will allow them to be both job creators and job seekers. In the context of the heightened interest in the potential contribution of enterprise education to the 'knowledge economy', the promotion of self-employment as a legitimate work option in schools is evidenced by increasing participation levels in programmes like the Young Enterprise Scheme (YES) (administered by the Enterprise New Zealand Trust). Currently there is little empirical evidence in New Zealand relating to the impact of enterprise education programmes like the YES, or the different ways students manifest the qualities of enterprise. This responsive evaluation of the YES was grounded in the axioms of the naturalistic paradigm. It was based on parallel cycles of data collection that involved observation, interviewing and the dissemination of a questionnaire. Respondents included both adult stakeholders and YES student participants. The evaluation established that the benefits of an experiential, enterprise education opportunity like the YES are wide ranging. They vary from issues of personal development to the accumulation of a portfolio of 'enterprising' skills. It appears that the YES also has some influence on the career intentions and employability of participants. This impact appears more influential on students who are exposed to enterprising role models through their own family or friends. In terms of programme delivery, stakeholders described teachers as the primary influence on how successfully the YES is facilitated. The evaluation identified a number of areas for future research including the role of mentors in the programme, aspects of regional diversity in terms of programme delivery, the need to track the future activities of YES participants, and compare the attitudes and behaviours of YES participants and non-participants. Within the evaluation a transferable framework is proposed for classifying enterprise education programmes in terms of key definitional criteria and proposed programme outcomes.