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    A record of natural and human-induced environmental change from Lake Horowhenua : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Earth Science, School of Agriculture and Natural Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Bevins, Celeste
    Lake Horowhenua is a hypertrophic turbid lake located in the western coastal plain of the lower North Island of New Zealand. In order to effectively restore or manage modified systems such as Lake Horowhenua, an understanding of past environmental change and natural variability is essential to provide a benchmark for ‘natural’ conditions. Cores from the bed of Lake Horowhenua have been analysed to reconstruct a detailed environmental record for the last c. 4,200 cal yr BP. Prior to lake formation, the area now occupied by the lake was subject to fluvial deposition from the Ohau River sometime prior to 7,500 cal yr BP. Dune transgression began in the region c. 7,700 cal yr BP at the very earliest, and drainage of the small streams and springs was impeded, allowing for the formation of a proto lake. A tidal surge up the Hokio Stream may have occurred c. 7,100 cal yr BP. Clastic delivery into the lake from the inflowing streams was high from 4,200 cal yr BP until sometime around 3,200 cal yr BP. The lake then transitioned into a phase of increased autochthonous sedimentation. During this phase, stable bottom water oxygenation, high water quality, and little catchment disturbance dominated. The pollen record indicates that the pre-human vegetation was a lowland podocarp-hardwood forest, dominated by Dacrydium cupressinum. There is some evidence of vegetation response to long-term climate change associated with increasing intensification of the westerly circulation regime through the mid to late Holocene. Proxy evidence implies human arrival to the Lake Horowhenua area occurred c. 519-486 cal yr BP, and land clearance was initiated on the plains inducing erosion within the catchment. However, sedimentation rates did not change from pre-human levels and water quality remained high. European arrival c. 1840 AD saw a further acceleration of land clearance on the plains and in the uplands, the introduction of exotic plant species for forestry, increased pastoral land for agriculture, and a reduction in water quality. Aquatic weed growth began at 1898 AD and was prolific from 1985 AD. High nutrient levels are evident from c. 1985 AD. Sedimentation rates and erosion increased significantly to 0.34 cm a⁻¹ compared to pre-human (0.08 cm a⁻¹) and Māori settlement (0.07 cm a⁻¹).
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    Mangrove forest in sustainable development : a research project presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Development Studies in Social Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1993) Punnoum, Siluck
    The project is concerned with the depletion of world environmental resources and the philosophy of sustainable development as a desirable approach for the protection and conservation of resources. A further interest is also paid to the environmental problems facing developing countries and to the issue of how these nations have responded to their environmental degradation at the sustainable level with special reference to Southeast Asia. Moreover, the project deals particularly with the problem of the mangrove forest depletion in this region. The major issues raised include benefits of the forest, its pressures and impacts, responses on the sustained yield basis towards the mangrove degradation and some recommendations on sustainability, based on the experiences of the Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand.
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    Using marine ecoengineering to mitigate biodiversity loss on modified structures in the Waitematā Harbour : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) McKenzie, Connor James
    The construction of infrastructure on the foreshore is an unavoidable consequence of an ever-expanding human population. Traditionally, this infrastructure has replaced softsubstrates with hard substrates. Furthermore, even for native biota which occupy hard substrates, the flat, featureless construction of most marine infrastructure provides little habitat heterogeneity and results in depauperate communities with little biotic resistance against non-indigenous species. Marine ecoengineering provides a possible solution to this global phenomenon by using intelligent construction techniques that promote the accumulation of native biodiversity. Here, I used eco-engineered settlement plates to examine the effect of habitat complexity on the biodiversity of communities inhabiting existing. Additionally, we examined the effects of climate change driven increases in rainfall on the performance of ecoengineered substrates in the mid-intertidal zone. Last, we reviewed and synthesised the available literature on the species present in The Waitematā Harbour and, to the best of my knowledge, provide the most complete species lists to date. In chapter two, we transplanted eco-engineered settlement plates seeded with local bivalve, Perna canaliculus, onto an existing seawall and monitored the accumulation of biodiversity. Overall, we show that both structural and biological habitat heterogeneity enhanced the biodiversity of the seawall community. Additionally, we found that the cemented pavement of volcanic rock that constituted the existing seawall, accumulated biodiversity faster than flat concrete settlement plates, supporting the use of this type of seawall construction over flat concrete seawalls. However, benefits to biodiversity could be further enhanced by explicitly adopting ecoengineering designs that provide crevices for intertidal organisms. In chapter three, we examined the performance of ecoengineered substrates under the prediction that climate change will enhance rainfall by 20% in the Auckland region. While no effect of increased rainfall was observed for the mobile invertebrate community or the flat plates, increased rainfall did influence the biodiversity of the fouling community on the ridged plates, likely as a consequence of reduced desiccation stress. Although this was only a short-term experiment we predict that given time to develop, a distinct fouling community could influence the diversity mobile invertebrate community, shifting the whole community vertically up the seawall. The review of the Waitematā taxonomy presented in chapter four, provides a reference for future studies of the biodiversity of the Waitematā harbour as well as identifying several gaps in our understanding, a cause for concern. Specifically, we show that non-indigenous species make up a considerable proportion of the fouling species listed for the Harbour and suggest that some of this could have been avoided by the adoption of ecoengineering techniques. Overall, this thesis recognises that habitat heterogeneity, be it natural or man-made, is a vital driver of biodiversity. Each chapter provides additional insight, supporting the benefits of marine ecoengineering. These positive results within the Waitematā Harbour show potential for larger scale experimental trials and for the broader application of these techniques in other locations. By implementing intelligent design and eco-friendly materials in marine infrastructure, we can reduce the impact on local intertidal communities and indirectly reduce the spread of non-indigenous species.
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    The gender dimensions of environmental change : an exploration of the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women in Zimbabwe : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Shumba, Dorcas Stellah Tsitsi
    Processes of environmental change have taken place for centuries both as a result of natural variability and anthropogenic forces. As a concept however, environmental change continues to be used narrowly to refer to environmental changes which are biophysical in nature, and mostly those with global precedence. In recent times incidences of environmental change have become more complex as new patterns of change are threatening the livelihoods of those living in developing countries, undoing many development gains. As such, there is an increasing desire to understand the implications of environmental changes, particularly for those whose livelihoods are natural resource dependent, many of whom live in rural areas, and many of whom are poor. Despite this growing interest, rural people and especially the rural poor are little seen or heard; their environmental change experiences are thus misunderstood, and solutions proposed do not take into consideration the local context or experiences. There remains also a normative perspective which positions women as automatically vulnerable to environmental change, specifically vis-à-vis men. In doing so women’s experiences of environmental change are homogenised and men’s experiences are rendered invisible. Drawing on the case of Zimbabwe this study critically considers the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women to environmental change so as to ascertain gendered impacts and differential vulnerabilities. To capture fully the subjective lived experience of both men and women to environmental change, this study lends itself to qualitative research. Thus research methods such as semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and gender analysis are central to the methodology. In terms of findings, this study argues against looking at environmental change as a technocratic subject accessible only from a global frame and accessed only by a technocratic few, proposing that the people experiencing environmental change at a local level should determine the environmental changes of communal concern. This study also highlights the importance of understanding the vulnerabilities of rural men and women within a well-conceived notion of context, taking into account rural disadvantage resulting from colonialism, and the current Zimbabwean crisis.
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    Ideal integrated national environmental management system for South Africa : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1995) Utlwa, Abel Pheello
    The South African environmental management system has been characterised by fragmentation and the lack of effective legislation. The number of statutes concerned with conservation issues is an associated problem. The implementation of the Environmental Conservation Act 1989 has been viewed as inefficient because of the lack of enforcement and control of environmental management issues. The Act has not provided opportunities for public participation, particularly from black communities, in decision-making about environmental matters. The South African environmental management system has not recognised and integrated indigenous peoples resource management systems into the country's legal framework. This is illustrated by the impacts of conservation programmes which have resulted in black communities being uprooted from their lands for the establishment of national parks and tourism facilities, without compensation to traditional owners. Research has identified the need for a revision of environmental impact assessment (EIA) practices in South Africa. There is also an associated need to integrate environmental impact assessment (EIA) into the planning process to achieve sustainability. Studies carried out in South Africa have identified the lack of effective regulations for enforcing the provisions with regard to the status of the coastal zone. The criticisms of the White Paper delivered by participants at the Conference held at Megawatt Park, Sandton, 10 June, 1993, highlight the need for a comprehensive environmental management system to ensure the sustainable management of natural and physical resources. An ideal system would improve the quality of life in the South African community, while maintaining the integrity of the natural resource base. Even though the criticisms have been valid, they fall short of suggesting ideas for the formulation of a new integrated environmental management system for South Africa. Research carried out in South Africa has also identified the inadequacies of the proposed Integrated Environmental Management procedure referred to in the White Paper. This procedure has been perceived as inadequate to achieve the universal principles of sustainable development. This project evaluates the White Paper, the submissions criticising the White Paper and the proposed Integrated Environmental Management system in South Africa. A matrix is used as a method to examine both the New Zealand Resource Management Act 1991 and the South African environmental management provisions against the recommended national actions in the IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) and Agenda 21. Research from a number of disciplines concerned with integrated environmental management, are used to recommend changes to the South African environmental management system. Criteria derived from the IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) strategy and Agenda 21 are used in the thesis to evaluate the White Paper, submissions criticising the White Paper, and the proposed Integrated Environmental Management system. Finally, An ideal National Integrated Environmental Management System for South Africa is proposed.
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    Prey, predator, human and climate change interactions in the Himalaya, Nepal : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Aryal, Achyut
    This thesis evaluates prey-predator, climate change, and human-wildlife interactions in the Nepalese Himalayas and contains 12 scientific papers which were prepared from 2009-2012 to explain these interactions. The content of this thesis is categorised into four broad themes; wildlife ecology, human-wildlife conflict, the influence of climate change on human-wildlife interactions, and recommendations for developing strategies to balance wildlife conservation and human needs in Nepal. The findings summarized below based on their relevant themes.  In the study of human wildlife conflict in the upper Mustang region, Nepal, I recorded a total of 1,347 km2 of pasture land utilised by the local people from six village development committees, 706 livestock animals were killed during the study period by predators (equivalent to US$44,213 every two years), and 75% of the total livestock predation was attributed to snow leopards. I also found that the movement of livestock drives the snow leopards to lower elevations and into closer proximit to villages.  Rangelands are considered to be critical ecosystems in the Nepalese Himalayas and provide multiple ecosystem services that support local livelihoods. This study analyses the conflict over the use of rangeland by two villages in Mustang, Nepal. The conflict suggests that excessive demand for limited rangelands motivates local villagers to gain absolute control of the resources. In such contexts, external support should focus on enhancing the management and production of local foraging resources, which requires the establishment of local common property institutions to facilitate sustainable rangeland management.  The northern Barandabhar Forest Corridor (BFC) in southern Nepal, which consists of 10,644 ha with 15 community forestry (3,184 ha) that connects Chitwan National Park to the Mahabharat range, was studied. BFC has the potential to contribute to the improvement of Nepal’s ecological integrity. We propose that the northern BFC should be managed via a 5 new participatory scheme, the Barandabhar Forest Management Council, to foster ecological integrity of the area while providing forest products to communities.  The presence of brown bears in the Manasalu Conservation Area and Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal, was confirmed. Results showed that brown bears are potentially distributed between 3800 m and 5500 m in the high mountainous region of Nepal, across an area of 4037 km2. Small mammals were the preferred prey of brown bears (75%) with marmots (Marmota himalayana; 46%) being the largest contributor to brown bear diet. Finally, a three stage brown bear conservation programme is recommended: (a) detailed research activities both inside and outside protected areas of Nepal (b) livelihood and conservation awareness support at local and national level (c) strengthening of the local capacity and a reduction in human-wildlife conflict in the region.  The Nepalese Himalayas provide habitat for the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its principal prey species, the blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). A total of 939 Blue sheep were recorded at altitudes ranging from 3209 to 5498 m on slopes with gradients of 16–60° and aspects of 40°NE to 140°SE. The upper Mustang had the lowest population density of blue sheep recorded within their distribution range in Nepal (0.86 blue sheep/km2). It is estimated that the existing blue sheep population biomass of approximately 38,925 kg in the upper Mustang region could support approximately 19 snow leopards (1.6 snow leopards/100 km2).  Habitat suitability analyses of snow leopards in Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal indicated that an area of 3248 km2 was suitable for snow leopards. Genetics analysis of the collected scats were successfully genotyped (62%) using 6 microsatellite markers, and identified as having originated from five different individuals and suggested minimum home ranges of 89.4 km2 (male) and 59.3 km2 (female). Microhistological analysis of scats (n=248) 6 revealed that blue sheep are the primary prey species (63%) and that livestock contributed 18% of the snow leopard diet.  The Hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus) is one of the least studied endangered small mammal species in the world. The diet and habitat use of the hispid hare was studied at Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), Nepal. The population density of the hispid hare was 5.76 individuals/km2. Hispid hares mostly prefer grasses (Saccharum spontaneum and Imperata cylindrica) and more that nineteen plants were indentified in their pellets.  The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) was found to inhabit warmer valleys close to water resources in areas between 3200m and 5300m above sea level. Plant diversity was higher in the marmot habitat. Seventeen of plants were recorded in marmots scats over three seasons (summer, autumn and spring). Soil pH, organic matter and organic carbon were not significantly different in habitat occupied by marmots compared to area where marmots were absent. Phosphorus (P2O5) levels were significantly higher and potash (K2O) levels significantly lower in marmot burrow habitat.  I found that the average annual temperature in the upper Mustang region has increased by 0.13 °C per year over the last 23 years. A predictive model suggested that the mean annual temperature will double by 2161 to reach 20 °C in the upper Mustang region. A reduction in suitable agricultural, grassland, and forest land was recorded. Furthermore, grasses and many shrub species are no longer found in abundance at higher elevations and consequently blue sheep move to forage at lower elevations which attracts snow leopard (Panthera uncia) from their higher elevation habitats to lower sites, where they encounter and depredate livestock. Increased crop raiding by blue sheep and depredations of livestock by snow leopards have adversely impacted the livelihood of local people.