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    Characterisation of volatile constituents of six native New Zealand ferns and changes in volatile emission in response to herbivore, mechanical wounding and phytohormone treatments : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatū Campus, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Soriano, Keylee
    Evolution has led to the development of countless defence strategies in terrestrial plants to deal with the threat of herbivory and disease. The production of specialised morphological structures, such as thorns and trichomes, is a prominent defence mechanism that directly deters potential herbivores. However, plants are capable of enlisting the aid of natural predators and parasites of attacking herbivores as a means of indirect defence, through the production and release of volatile organic compounds. This has prompted much research into the regulation and ecological roles of volatile organic compounds in many higher plant groups. However, similar studies are seldom in lower plants such as the Monilophytes thus we know very little concerning the ecological importance of plant emitted volatiles in this group. In this study, I investigated the volatile compounds released by six abundant native fern species using direct solvent extraction and headspace collections, and characterized the volatile emissions under natural herbivory, phytohormone treatment, and mechanically induced stress. Solvent extracts and headspace collections were analysed using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry allowing the quantitative and qualitative description of the volatile profiles. These results were then used to relate volatile emission to the growth mode and other potential defence strategies of these species. A total of 15 volatile compounds were identified over the course of this thesis with links to fern physiology. Quantitative results revealed no differences in emissions under phytohormone treatment or artificially induced stress. The comparison of two methods, solvent extraction and headspace sampling, reveals the limitations the solvent extraction method has on elucidating fern-insect interactions. Research on fern volatiles could give insight into the evolution of anti-herbivore defence mechanisms in plants and the interactions between native ferns and arthropod communities. Potential applications of research in fern chemistry include pharmaceutical or perfumery uses and fern conservation, which should be incentives for further work. The results and conclusions made from this thesis does not only contribute to the limited pool of knowledge in this field of research but may also serve as a foundation for future studies.
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    Reproduction in selected New Zealand native ferns and their suitability for revegetation : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Plant Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2006) Denton-Giles, Matthew
    The potential to use New Zealand native ferns for revegetation was assessed in laboratory , nursery and field experiments. Laboratory experiments indicated that the three native fern species. Blechnum novae-zelandiae. Cyathea medullaris and Dicksonia squarossa, had different maximum levels of spore germination. These differences also varied in response to seasonal changes in the environment. The effect of three soil conditioners on the germination of the same three species was minimal Gametophytes appeared to be tolerant of low levels of maceration, as they were able to continue to grow and develop normally. Additional laboratory experiments indicated that B. novae-zelandiae employs a mixed mating system, which utilizes an "antheridiogen" signal. The development of fern spores, laboratory propagated gametophytes and segmented rhizomes, was assessed in the nursery. Each experiment was applied with a hvdroseeding mix of paper fibre, tackifier. fertilizer and water Spore of B. novae-zelandiae. C. medullaris and D. squarossa failed to produce any long-lived gametophytes The survival of laboratory propagated gametophytes of B. novae-zelandiae. B. discolor and B. colensoi was low. However, a large proportion of surviving B. novae-zelandiae gametophytes produced sporophytes. B. novae-zelandiae rhizome segments produced healthy young ferns within 3 months of application. Field experiments were conducted on a sandstone/loess bank. 5 km east of Palmerston North. Aspects of the substrate were analysed including. pH. N, P and organic matter. The results indicated that the bank had a high soil pH, was deficient in several macronutrients and had no organic matter. Hydroseeding was applied using spore of the species B novae-zelandiae, C. medullaris and D. squarossa Hydroseeded spore failed to produce any visible gametophytes Rhizome experiments using B. novae-zelandiae and Microsorum pustulatum were also established. Low water availability resulted in poor rhizome establishment. The results suggest that there is great potential for utilizing native ferns in revegetation. Blechnum novae-zelandiae is the best species for revegetation in accordance to the results. Propagation via rhizome segmentation and gametophyte hydroseeding appear to be the most successful methods for establishing native ferns. This TIF project was carried out in conjunction with Rural Supply Technologies. Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research. Massey University and FoRST New Zealand.