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    A study of the effects of plant spacing and irrigation on seed production and seed development in Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Seed Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1983) Juntakool, Sunanta
    Since 1980 the Thai government has been interested and active in increasing livestock production by improving the productivity and quality of natural and sown grassland. The introduction of forage legumes, particularly Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), is one of the ways in which this can and is being achieved. The present study was carried out in two parts - the first involving two field trials conducted in Thailand during the wet and the dry season, and the second involving a controlled climate study at Palmerston North (N.Z.). The aim of the field trials was to investigate the effects of plant spacing, and during the dry season the effect of irrigation on Siratro seed production. In the controlled climate study a more detailed investigation was undertaken of the effects of water stress on plant growth and development and subsequent effects on seed yield. Particular attention was also given to relevant aspects of seed development in the latter study. Irrigation during the dry season produced relatively small but significant increases in plant dry weight and LAI and led to a sig­nificant increase in seed yield by the final harvest 40 days after peak flowering. By comparison, plant spacing had a marked effect on plant components and seed yield showing a negative response on a per plant basis but a positive response on a per unit area basis with increasing plant density. During the longer growing period of the wet season experiment, plant growth was substantial and again showed the same significant responses to increasing plant density stated above. Maximum seed yield per hectare was achieved at very high plant population densities approxi­mately 15 x 15 cm spacings. The major contributions to seed yield in both trials were inflores­cence numbers and especially pod numbers, reflecting their sensitivity to water stress and plant competition. Numbers of seeds per pod and individual seed weight were relatively insensitive to those environ­ mental factors. The growth room study clearly showed that early and extended soil moisture stress can cause a severe reduction in plant weight, branch development, leaf number and LAI, leading to a significant reduction in seed yield. However, soil moisture stress imposed at peak flower­ing resulted in a significant increase in seed yield compared with adequate moisture to final harvest. This beneficial effect was again due mainly to the increase in the number of inflorescences and pods formed on the primary and particularly the secondary branches. Numbers of seeds per pod and individual seed weight were again un­affected by water stress. The development of Siratro seed followed two obvious phases viz the growth and food reserve.accumulation phase and the ripening phase. Water stress reduced the time from anthesis to seed maturity and increased the percentage of hard seed at harvest when imposed early at the mid- vegetative stage. Plant spacing and irrigation had little or no effect on seed quality characteristics of Siratro, as quality appeared to be more dependent on stage of maturity. High seed quality can be achieved by harvesting Siratro 20 - 30 days after peak flowering. The possibility of growing Siratro for seed production in Thailand is also discussed.
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    Nutrient leaching under intensive sheep grazing : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Maheswaran, Sarmini
    The use of some alternative forages may help sheep farmers to reduce nitrogen (N) leaching while increasing production. This thesis explores the effects of four forages (perennial ryegrass/white clover: RGWC; Italian ryegrass/white clover: IRWC; plantain/white clover: PWC; and a winter brassica) on sheep performance, urinary N excretion and N loss in drainage over two and a half years (Year 1: July to December 2019; Year 2: January to December 2020; Year 3: January to December 2021). This study was conducted on an artificially drained, fine textured Tokomaru silt loam soil at Massey University’s Keeble farm, near Palmerston North, Manawatu, New Zealand. The study design included four self-contained farmlets (each approximately 3.3 ha): three farmlets had 0.8 ha (24% of their grazing area) sown to include one of three alternative forages (IRWC or PWC or brassica), and the remaining 2.5 ha was sown in a perennial ryegrass/white clover sward. The entire area (100% of grazing area) of the fourth farmlet was sown in RGWC. Approximately 0.4 ha of each farmlet was located in a paddock where a series of 20 drainage plots (each 40 m by 20 m) were established to measure N leaching. Each of the alternative forages, and the RGWC, were sown on five of the drainage plots i.e., five replicates (combined area of 0.4 ha), which composed about one-half of the area of each alternative forage on each farmlet. The amount of N leached through a mole-pipe network on each drainage plot was also measured. Breeding ewe productivity including liveweight, condition score and lambing performance, as well as N excretion was also measured. In addition, forage growth and DM production were monitored along with chemical and botanical composition. The inclusion of alternative forages into the RGWC system did not affect animal performance. This was due, in part, to animal management. The N leached under various forages was, therefore, able to be compared without the confounding effects of differences in animal performance. The daily urinary N excretion per animal by sheep grazing PWC or brassica was lower (18 to 70%) than the daily urinary N excretion by sheep grazing RGWC or IRWC. It is likely that the diuretic effect of plantain and a lower N concentration in the brassica caused lower N concentrations in urine. Nitrate (NO₃⁻) leaching losses under RGWC, IRWC and PWC were very small in Years 1 and 2 (ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 kg N/ha). The poor persistence of IRWC and PWC at this site and the need to re-establish these forages on the plots resulted in greater NO₃⁻ leaching under these forages in Year 3, negating some of the advantages associated with these forages in Years 1 and 2. In contrast, NO₃⁻ leaching losses were greater under brassica forages (ranging from 0.4 to 6.4 kg N/ha) than under RGWC (ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 kg N/ha). Although sheep grazing brassica forages excreted less urinary N (on an individual animal basis), leaching losses under the brassica treatments were higher. In addition to the effect of cultivation, this increased leaching was likely because brassica plots were grazed for a more extended period during winter than other forages, and there was no crop (forage) cover until the spring resowing; therefore, the urinary N accumulated during winter grazing was displaced by subsequent drainage. With the assumption that the cropped area occupies a relatively small portion of the farm, grazing brassica is likely to result in a relatively small increase in whole farm NO₃⁻ leaching. Overall, NO₃⁻ leaching losses under sheep grazing forages were lower (ranging from 0.5 to 9.5 kg N/ha) than those reported under dairy cattle grazing forages, which suggests that sheep production may offer an alternative land use option for dairying areas where it is difficult to achieve the large reductions in NO₃⁻ leaching required to meet water quality objectives.
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    Comparison of maize silage and traditional forage crops in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Plant Science at Massey University, Manawatū Campus, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) Thant, Aung Myo
    Cattle wintering systems using crops including grazing kale, swede, and fodder beet crops in situ have resulted in soil and water quality deterioration. Nitrate leaching is the most common problem due to the high deposition of urine N driven by excess N intake. Alternative cropping systems offer a potential solution to reduce these environmental problems while maintaining or maximising productivity. We proposed maize silage as an alternative crop because it has high yield potential, flexible feeding requirements, compliments the nutritive value of pasture, and is potentially suitable for more regions in New Zealand in the future due to climate change. However, research needs to determine whether maize silage yield, feed quality and potential nitrate losses during production and utilisation means it is a viable alternative to in situ grazed forage crops in these areas. Field experiments were conducted at Massey University, Tokoroa and Kiwitea to determine forage yield and feed quality, management effects and site differences in 2018/19 and 2019/20. Crop yields and forage N content were utilised to simulate urine N loads from the feeding of these forage crops. The excreted N loads were analysed in APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator) to predict nitrate leaching losses. Maize produced significantly higher yields compared with the winter forage crops at all Massey University trials while producing competitive yields at Tokoroa and Kiwitea. Yields ranged from 10,940 to 30,417 kg DM/ha for maize whilst wide and lower yield ranges were observed for the winter forage crops (4,579 to 22,928 kg DM/ha). Irrigation increased yields of forage crops by 29-63%. Similarly, nitrogen fertiliser increased yield by 30%, on average. The faster canopy development of maize has the advantage of intercepting more radiation in summer and suppressing weeds, contributing to greater growth and yield despite a shorter crop season. All forage crops produced forage with good metabolisable energy content (MJ/kg DM); higher values in swede (10.1-14.5) and fodder beet (10.8-14.9) whereas intermediate values in kale (8.9-12.7) and maize (9.9-12.2). However, maize was the highest energy-yielding crop, ranging from about 200-316 GJ/ha while other crops varied from 34 to 217 GJ/ha. Protein content in kale (7.5-16.6% DM) and swede (11.4-18.2% DM) were adequate for non-lactating cows whereas maize (5.4-9.2% DM) and fodder beet (7.6-11.2% DM) were lower than recommended protein levels for dairy cows but offering an opportunity to reduce urinary N excretion. Maize also had recommended fibre content. With higher sugar contents, swede and fodder beet were poor in fibre sources, potentially prone to rumen acidosis unless considered mixed diet with high fibre feed. APSIM modelling indicated that maize would produce the lowest urine N output while swede the highest in simulated feeding. Accordingly, N loads/ha was higher for winter forage crops especially when good yields were produced. When common feeding practices were considered, i.e., off-paddock maize feeding (no urine N deposition) and on-paddock grazing of winter forage crops (high urine N deposition), simulated nitrate losses from maize cropping systems were the lowest. Predicted nitrate losses were 21 and 32 kg N/ha for maize under irrigated and non-irrigated conditions. A ryegrass cover crop further reduced simulated nitrate losses by 20-30%. Predicted nitrate losses for fodder beet, kale, and swede crops were 126, 162, 154 kg N/ha under irrigated conditions and 72, 201, 199 kg N/ha under non-irrigated conditions, respectively in grazing systems.
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    Identification and characterisation of rumen bacteria with prominent roles in the ruminal metabolism of forages : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Microbiology and Genetics) at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) Mahoney-Kurpe, Sam
    This thesis documents the characterisation of two groups of rumen bacteria that are both prominent in forage-fed ruminants, with the aim to better understand their roles in ruminal metabolism. The first group, referred to as the R-7 group, has in recent years been shown to be one of the most abundant rumen bacterial groups, though the few isolated representative strains available were uncharacterised. Two strains of the group included in the Hungate1000 culture collection, R-7 and WTE2008, were selected for characterisation. To facilitate phylogenetic analyses of this group, the complete genomes of an additional three previously isolated R-7 group strains were sequenced. Genomic, phylogenetic and phenotypic characterisation of R-7 and WTE2008 demonstrated that despite their 16S rRNA gene sequences sharing 98.6-99.0% nucleotide identity, their genome-wide average nucleotide identity of 84% assigned them as separate species of a novel genus and family of the proposed order ‘Christensenellales’ using the Genome Taxonomy Database. Phenotypic characterisation showed that the strains were identical in morphology, and both possessed the ability to degrade plant cell wall polysaccharides xylan and pectin, but not cellulose. Acetate, ethanol, hydrogen and lactate were produced by both strains, though R-7 produced greater amounts of hydrogen than WTE2008, which instead produced more lactate. Based on these analyses, it is proposed that R-7 and WTE2008 belong to separate species (Aristaeella gen. nov. hokkaidonensis sp. nov. and Aristaeella lactis sp. nov., respectively) of a newly proposed family (Aristaeellaceae fam. nov.). The second bacterial group of interest, due to their dominant role in ruminal propionate production, was the Prevotella 1 group, following analyses of metatranscriptome datasets of rumen microbial communities of lucerne-fed sheep for dominant community members that express propionate pathway genes from succinate. Screening of 14 strains spanning the diversity of Prevotella 1 found that all except one P. brevis strain produced propionate in a cobalamin (vitamin B12)-dependent manner. To better understand the pathway and regulation of propionate production from succinate, a comparative multi-omics approach was used to test the hypothesis that propionate production is regulated by a cobalamin-binding riboswitch. Scanning of a completed genome assembly of Prevotella ruminicola KHP1 identified four ‘cobalamin’ family riboswitches. However, the riboswitches were not in close proximity to genes putatively involved in converting succinate to propionate, nor were these genes arranged in a single operon. Comparative genomics of the 14 screened strains found that all strains possessed all homologues of candidate propionate pathway genes identified in the KHP1 genome. However, the 13 propionate-producing strains possessed a putative transporter and three subunits encoding a putative methylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase upstream but antisense to two genes encoding methylmalonyl-CoA mutase subunits, whereas the non-producing strain did not. Comparative transcriptomics and proteomics of KHP1 cultures in the presence and absence of cobalamin demonstrated that some gene candidates were upregulated by cobalamin at the transcriptome level, including co-located genes annotated as phosphate butyryltransferase and butyrate kinase, despite the strain not producing butyrate, suggesting that propionate production may occur via propionyl phosphate. However, only both subunits of methylmalonyl-CoA mutase showed greater transcript and protein abundances in the presence of cobalamin. These results show that while some propionate pathway candidate genes were differentially expressed between cobalamin treatments, they did not appear to be under direct control of a cobalamin-binding riboswitch. This study has contributed to our understanding of the roles of both Aristaeellaceae fam. nov. and Prevotella 1 in ruminal metabolism.
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    The application of forage densification technologies to feeding systems for small ruminant production in the Caribbean : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Jack, Heidi
    Determining the potential of densified forage as a prospective substitute to commercial feed in small ruminant production systems in the Caribbean is critical. This may lead to the development of more self-sufficient feeding systems which incorporate more locally available ingredients and reduce the dependence on imported commercial feeds. There is currently a lack of information on the use of, or effect of, densified forage on performance in regional small ruminant production. Additionally, information is limited on the nutritive value of prospective forages, to which these technologies can be applied. Therefore, the aims of the thesis were to 1) determine the nutritive value of a range of tropical forages in the Caribbean that are used in regional small ruminant production systems; 2) determine the effect of densified diets comprising different levels of forage on intake in growing lambs; and 3) determine the effect of densified diets comprising forage on growth performance and digestibility in lambs. The results of the thesis showed that there is a range of forages of varying nutritive value that can be used to develop more sustainable feed systems for small ruminants in the Caribbean. Further, the results of the thesis showed that when Trichanthera gigantea (an abundantly available forage) was densified and fed to growing lambs, it resulted in similar intakes, digestibility and growth performance in growing lambs to that of commercial concentrates. The findings of the research can be used as a platform for future studies on the application of densification technologies to feeding systems for small ruminants in the Caribbean.
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    Measuring change in farmers' self-efficacy within the context of managing perennial summer forage crops : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Environment at Massey University, Manawatū Campus, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Drysdale, Douglas
    There is a continual need to consider ways of improving agricultural extension as concern is expressed with the slow farmer uptake of complex new agricultural technologies. Existing agricultural extension research suggests psychological drivers, such as farmers’ self-efficacy beliefs, may be a key variable influencing farmers’ adoption of new technologies. The focus of this study was to firstly measure change in farmers’ self-efficacy as they participated in an innovative agricultural extension programme designed to support learning about the management of perennial summer forage crops (PSF). The second aim was to identify factors that may have enhanced or undermined changes in the farmers’ efficacy beliefs in this domain. Finally, this study aimed to explore how changes in farmers’ self-efficacy might influence their future practice. The participants in this study were thirty-five sheep and beef farmers from the Hawkes Bay, Manawatū and Wairarapa regions of New Zealand. The Riverside Farmer Learning Project (RFLP) provided the platform on which to measure change in farmers’ self-efficacy. A multiphase mixed methods research approach was adopted for this study. A Farmer Self-Efficacy Measurement survey (FSEM) was developed to measure change in farmers’ self-efficacy within the domain of managing PSF. Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and field observations provided the opportunity to identify factors that enhanced or undermined changes in farmers’ self-efficacy to manage these forage crops. This study found that farmers’ self-efficacy increased during their 18-month involvement in the RFLP. The project’s collaborative style of knowledge sharing, as well as the opportunity to observe and share experiences with valued peers served to enhance the farmers’ self-efficacy and facilitated new learning about managing PSF. A lack of easily sourced, scientifically robust information concerning the economic effect of PSF weed and plant health management served to undermine the farmers’ self-efficacy within this domain. These new understandings and increased self-efficacy beliefs supported improved practices that lead to the potential to increase farm production. The results of the study suggest that a farmer’s belief in their ability to initiate change in the future is reliant on past successes that employed practices based on scientific evidence. The study also suggests that vicarious experiences are important for farmers where they can observe and talk about the practices of other farmers who have successfully made changes within their farm system, and engage in dialogue with scientists whose research interests focus on the domain of farmer learning. Considering how farmers’ new understandings and self-efficacy beliefs may shape future changes in farm practices, this study provides evidence regarding future development in the design of agricultural extension programmes.
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    The effects of defoliation and rootpruning on cocksfoot and perennial ryegrass and the influence of soil moisture on root initiation : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Field Husbandry, University of New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1949) Edmond, D. B.
    The world is short of food (1). The population of the world is unequally distributed in relation to the productive ability of the land. Countries, where an extension of the farmed area is possible, are handicapped by a lack of available labour. In general these are the countries where production has not, as yet, reached a maximum level. As labour hinders extension an endeavour must be made to utilise present farm areas in the most efficient manner possible, In this way surpluses of food may be accumulated in these countries, e.g. New Zealand, for despatch to needy areas where the consumption of food is at a low level. New Zealand produces animal products in quantity. To increase this quantity better use must be made of our chief stock food - grass. By more efficient use of our grasslands the production of our existing herds and flocks will be increased. while an increase in our animal population will be inevitable. [From Introduction]
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    Seasonal root changes and their relationships to leaf production and persistency of growth in some grasses and clovers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Field Husbandry at Massey University, by 550 [D.E. Yen]
    (Massey University, 1947) Yen, D. E.
    The seasonal behaviour of pasture plant species is of fundamental importance to the farmer as one of the indices of value of any particular species, and the uses to which it can be put; and to the plant breeder, since it is his primary object to produce pasture plants which suit the farmer under his particular system of farming. To illustrate this point specifically, the example of the ideals aimed at in the breeding of short rotation ryegrass in New Zealand may be cited. Quoting Levy (1945), "... Italian ryegrass is a one- to two-year plant for the temporary pasture, and the true perennial ryegrass can be used widely in rotational and permanent pastures. There is, however, too large a gap between true perennial ryegrass and true Italian ryegrass, and many years of breeding and selection within these species accentuated the gap rather than reduced it." It can be seen that the short rotation system of farming, incorporating pasture leys of 3-4 years was not well served in the choice of a suitable ryegrass. Thus the plant breeding section of the Grasslands Division (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research) turned its attention towards breeding by hybridisation of perennial and Italian ryegrass, a type that would possess as far as possible the desirable qualities of these two species in combination; that is, it would combine some of the rapid establishment, high winter and early spring growth and palatability of Italian ryegrass with an appreciable degree of persistency of perennial ryegrass. Seasonal growth thus played the major part in the objectives of the resultant programme from which short rotation ryegrass was produced. Comparative trials of yields of the three grasses, perennial, Italian and short rotation ryegrasses were conducted in different localities, serving a very important purpose in providing farmers with direct information regarding the seasonal characteristics of production of the new type. These trials, which are continuing, show that short rotation ryegrass conforms largely to the objectives aimed at, so that the requirement s of the man farming under short rotation system have been met, to a great extent, by the work of the plant breeder. [From Introduction]
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    Identification and evaluation of new Ornithopus L. germplasm with special reference to seed characters : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Seed Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1992) Fu, Shimin
    Serradella species (Ornithopus L.) are promising annual forage legumes used in many parts of the world, especially in sandy and infertile dryland areas. One hundred and seven accessions of serradella were described and evaluated in Palmerston North , New Zealand. Fifty accessions were part of a 1986 DSIR sponsored forage germplasm collection from Southwest Europe. The rest of the accessions were introduced and/or collected from Australia and New Zealand. The study concentrated on the morphological description and evaluation of agronomic characteristics of the serradella accessions, as well as seed characteristics, including seed development and breaking of hardseed. Four species (Q. sativus, 0. compressus, 0. perousillus and 0. pinnatus) and one subspecies (Q. sativus subsp. isthmocarous) of serradella were identified and described in terms of their morphological characteristics. Morphological characteristics varied less than agronomic characters in serradella. For most accessions seed multiplication was successful. There was a relationship between flowering date and days to maturity, with the days from appearance of the first flower to seed maturity (harvesting date) decreasing as first flower emergence was delayed. Within species some accessions ripened in significantly shorter periods than others. Some had significantly heavier 1000 segment weight than others. In species normally considered to have a characteristic of high hardseed levels, a wide range in percentage hardseed was found among accessions of yellow serradella and slender serradella. In a study of seed development, seed viability of two serradella cultivars Grasslands 'Koba' (Q. sativus) and a 'hybrid' (Q. sativus x 0. compressus) reached a maximum at 32 days after peak flowering. There was no germination unless fresh seed was dried. Hard seed developed at the age of 16 days in the hybrid. Soaking 0. compressus and 0. pinnatus seed in concentrated sulphuric acid for 30 minutes was the optimum treatment for breaking hard seed without causing seed damage.
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    Examining perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) persistence through identifying genetic shifts within two cultivars after nine years in the field : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Plant Breeding at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) O'Connor, Jessica Richelle
    Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is a commercially important forage species in New Zealand agriculture. Ryegrass persistence is important for farmers as it substantially decreases the costs associated with reseeding pastures. Breeding for ryegrass persistence is difficult because of the complex interaction between genotype and environment; and the short time of field trial assessment compared to the expected longevity of pasture. A nine year old cultivar comparison trial at Poukawa, Hawkes Bay, New Zealand was identified and plants surviving in the cultivar plots of ‘Grasslands Samson’ and ‘Commando’ were retrieved. These populations that had survived were termed Persistent. A sample of commercially sourced seed of these cultivars were also grown to represent the ‘Original’ genetic pool of the cultivars sown in the field. Persistent populations were compared to Original cultivar seed to characterise morphology and underlying genetics associated with persistence. Results were interpreted to determine if a genetic shift had occurred in Persistent populations due to advantageous phenotypes surviving. Three methodologies were used to compare populations: 1) In a glasshouse, eight morphological traits were measured after 10 weeks growth for Original and Persistent populations of ‘Grasslands Samson’; 2) Half-sibling families were generated from Persistent and Original populations for both cultivars and were assessed for additive genetic variation of seven traits as one metre rows in the field over 13 months; 3) Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used to explore the genetic composition of Original and Persistent populations of each cultivar. Analysis and interpretation of data showed genetic shifts were cultivar specific. The greatest differences were identified between populations of ‘Grasslands Samson’. Compared to the Samson Original population, Samson Persistent plants had significantly greater means for four traits in the glasshouse and half-sibling families showed evidence of shifting population means of traits associated with animal grazing avoidance. SSR marker results were confounded by late detection of contamination in samples. Analysis of a reduced sample size showed no significant differences between any of the four populations using F statistics and genetic structure analysis. These results suggest future studies could reduce risk of contamination by collecting single tillers from the field of Persistent populations. Further investigation of the genetics of persistence should focus on the role of lamina sheath lengths in tiller production, and using the half-sibling families identified in this study for germplasm development and quantification of genotype-by-environment interactions.