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Item Quantification and description of braking during mountain biking using a novel brake power meter : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport & Exercise at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Miller, Matthew CurtisOlympic format cross country mountain biking is both physically and technically demanding. The demands of this cycling genre are in contrast to road cycling because of the demanding off-road terrain. With its many obstacles and different surfaces, riders must make their way up and over steep hills a number of times throughout a lap. It’s very easy to be able to measure the performance of the riders on ascending sections of the track thanks to on-the-bike personal power meter that measure the propulsive work rates in the pedals. However, there is currently no commercially available method to assess the way the rider handles the bike on descending sections. This thesis first highlighted the differences in physiological demand of descending on off-road versus on-road (Chapter 4). An interesting finding in Chapter 4 also showed that riders might be able to save energy by adopting a coasting strategy down hills. This caused the researchers to question the bicycle handling attributes that might allow this, which led to the development and validation of a device designed to measure how the rider uses the brakes while riding/racing (Chapter 5). From there, we completed an investigation akin to the early mountain biking descriptive studies (Chapter 6), but instead of focusing on data related to respiratory and metabolic load, the brake power meter was employed. The finding that braking patterns were related to mountain biking performance was not surprising, but being the first team to quantify this was very exciting. Since most of the braking was occurring on the descents in that study, we examined the differences in braking between training groups on an isolated turn (Chapter 7). The finding that inexperienced riders use their brakes differently—and that this results in reduced performance—left no doubt to the importance of braking. From there, we revisited the method used to calculate rear brake power, since current methods led to inaccurate measurement during skidding (Chapter 8). This thesis culminated with the exploration of an algorithm that could quickly and easily describe mountain bike descending performance with one single metric (Chapter 9); the hope is that the normalized brake work algorithm should increase the utility of the brake power meter for training purposes and post-competition performance analysis. Overall, this thesis highlights the need, importance and utility of a bicycle brake power meter to assess mountain bike performance.Item Perceptions and determinants of healthy eating in high performing male adolescent rugby players : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Stokes, Emily GraceBackground: Rugby is a competitive sport in New Zealand, with the leading team, the All Blacks, ranked first in the world. Since nutrition plays an important role in sports performance, understanding how to facilitate young high-performing rugby players to eat healthy will help to optimise their performance. Research is lacking regarding perceptions and determinants of healthy eating for young rugby players, both in New Zealand and internationally. This study aimed to explore perceptions and determinants of healthy eating for high performing male adolescent rugby players living in New Zealand. Methods: Perceptions and determinants were explored using semi-structural individual interviews. Participants were 20 male high-performing rugby players aged 16 to 18 years. Interviews were recorded and transcribed for thematic analysis of themes. Results: Perceptions of healthy eating included balance and variety, portions according to energy needs and specific foods. Numerous determinants of healthy eating were described including factors related to the general lifestyle of an adolescent, including peers, family and food availability, cost, convenience and taste of food. Sports-specific determinants relating to participants’ athletic lifestyles were sports performance, motivation to perform, team culture and the timing, amount and types of food on the gastrointestinal tract. Some determinants were both general and sports-specific including the media, physical appearance and feeling good. Conclusion: High-performing male adolescent rugby players living in New Zealand have a good general understanding of the meaning of a healthy diet. A range of determinants influence the diet of these young rugby players, including general and sports-specific determinants from the macro-level, social and physical environment, as well as individual factors. Further research is required to explore the determinants of healthy eating in high-performing male adolescent rugby players both in New Zealand and internationally.Item Dietary antioxidants and the efficiency of oxygen transport and uptake during endurance exercise : a thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, School of Sport and Exercise, College of Health, Massey University(Massey University, 2018) Crum, Emma MayThis thesis aimed to determine whether various dietary antioxidant supplementation protocols could enhance the efficiency of oxygen (O2) transport during endurance cycling, and subsequently improve exercise performance. Two naturally-sourced supplements (keratin; KER and pomegranate extract; POMx) were selected for investigation, based on their rich content of either thiols (KER) or polyphenols (POMx). Study One was a crossover study which compared the effect of chronic KER intake compared to a sodium caseinate placebo (CAS) of equal protein content. Fifteen endurance-trained males consumed the supplement on six days per week, for a period of four weeks (0.8 g.kg-1d-1), while participating in endurance cycling training. Blood samples collected throughout each intervention period were unchanged by either supplement for any parameter measured (all p > 0.05). Likewise, neither the O2 consumption (VO2) required to sustain a given level of submaximal cycling exercise, nor the maximal VO2 attained during a graded exercise test to exhaustion were affected by KER or CAS (submaximal VO2, p = 0.13; VO2max, p = 0.25). Further, the maximal power output obtained in the VO2max test was not significantly different between treatments (p = 0.51). Consequently, KER was not recommended as an ergogenic aid for athletes. Study Two investigated the effects of acute POMx supplementation on VO2 during submaximal and maximal cycling exercise, in normoxic (sea-level; SEA) and hypoxic (1657m altitude; ALT) environments. In a randomized, double-blinded, crossover study design, eight highly-trained cyclists ingested 1000 mg of POMx or a placebo (PLAC), 2.5 hours prior to completing three stages of submaximal cycling at 50%, 65% and 80% of maximal O2 consumption (VO2max), followed by a time trial to exhaustion at a workload calculated to elicit 100%VO2max (TTE100%). The protocol was completed on four occasions: in SEA and ALT, with a POMx, and a PLAC trial in each environment. POMx did not alter VO2 during submaximal exercise in either environment (p = 0.67), or during the TTE100% in SEA (p = 0.46). However, its intake allowed maintenance of SEA VO2 values during intense exercise in hypoxic conditions, as indicated by the VO2 measured five minutes into the TTE100% (+3.8 ml.min-1kg-1, 95% CI, -5.7, 9.5, p = 0.001). However, despite this, POMx did not significantly affect TTE100% performance in either environment (p = 0.41), possibly due to the highly-trained nature of participants, who may have required a longer supplementation period for an ergogenic effect to be observed with POMx. Study Three was based on the above findings, and aimed to determine whether an 8-day supplementation period with POMx would be sufficient to alter VO2 and cycling performance at sea-level. Further, this study explored the benefits of combining thiol and polyphenol antioxidants to take advantage of their theoretically complementary effects on erythrocytes and nitric oxide (NO). Eight trained cyclists completed four supplementation protocols in a randomized, blinded, crossover designed study: placebo (stevia, PLAC), POMx only, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) only and POMx + NAC (BOTH) for eight days (15 mg.kg-1d-1). On the eighth day, 2.5 hours after the final dose, the participants completed a submaximal cycling protocol, as described for Study Two, followed by a five-minute time trial. As opposed to the acute supplementation protocol in the previous study, short-term POMx supplementation decreased the VO2 required to complete each stage of the submaximal part of the exercise test compared to all other supplement conditions (-2.1 ml.min-1kg-1, 95% CI, -2.8, -0.23, p < 0.04). In contrast, NAC significantly increased submaximal VO2 (+1.9 ml.min-1kg-1, 95% CI, 0.26, 3.6, p < 0.03), negating the POMx-lowering effects on POMx when the two were co-supplemented. Regardless, none of the treatments significantly altered performance in the subsequent time trial (p > 0.05). Thus, it is suggested that this test was too short for the increased VO2 efficiency to show any meaningful effects on performance. In conclusion, based on the lack of evidence for enhancement of performance, this thesis does not support the recommendation of the selected dietary antioxidant supplements for athletes, for performance-enhancing effects at least. However, because the primary outcome measure of this thesis, VO2, appears to be altered by POMx, the intake of polyphenol-rich products warrants further investigation. Based on the results of Chapters 6 and 7, it appears that the benefits of POMx become more significant as demands on O2 transport and utilization processes increase. Therefore, the suggested areas of future research would involve exercise of greater duration, and environmental conditions where O2 availability and/or limitations to the various transport parameters differ.Item Whāriki : beyond simple : an exhibition report presented as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Māori Visual Arts, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2016) Henare, Te Hemo AtaThis thesis/exhibition report is an explication of the significance and relationship of Kai rāranga, rāranga whāriki and their relationship with whānau, hapū and iwi. It explores the impetus behind and relationships important in, and to the production of whāriki. Through the exploration of these relationships the necessity for whāriki wānanga throughout Aotearoa and having wānanga as the preferred medium of imparting knowledge pertaining to rāranga whāriki and for continuity in the production of whāriki is emphasised. It touches on the Māori convention of tono that facilitates interaction between the Kai rārangaresearcher and the Kai tono-researched negating the sometimes invasive convention of ethics approval and formalised contractual obligations. It follows the pathway of author and Kai rāranga, Te Hemo Ata Henare’s, coming to be of her mahi whāriki practice. It is an intimate account that extends from function and technique to foundational connectivity to the wider roopu whāriki and those who have preceded us with templates of excellence that recognise the importance of the whakapapa of Māori whakaaro, our epochs and eons of transcendent time and the interconnectedness of all things in and through these patterned processes (Jackson, 2013; Marsden, 2003; Tamanui, 2013). As Karani Sonny Pāpuni said; “…you take this whāriki home with you and then a piece of us will always be with your whānau” (Mate ki Tātahi [Sonny] Pāpuni, personal communication, May 17 1991). A clear objective emerging out of this research exercise was to produce a body of work in the form of an exhibition of whāriki and to produce a pictorial and written explication of the process and praxis of whāriki wānanga. However, through the research process, I was returned; i hoki atu ki te timatatanga ō oku mahi, so I could come to know and be. The theme that emerges through rāranga whāriki is the inseparability and the multiplicity of whakapapa and/or whanaungatanga that the Kai rāranga embodies essential for the continuation of the praxis of rāranga whāriki that can only be described as extraordinarily ‘Beyond Simple’.Item Old age, retirement villages and New Zealand society : a critical narrative analysis of the experiences of retirement village residents : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate in Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Dodds, Antonia TiffanyThere is a paucity of critical research that examines the experiences of retirement village residents in New Zealand. The research objective was to critically analyse how retirement village residents in New Zealand made sense of their experience of living in a retirement village and to locate these experiences within the wider socio-political context. Multiple interviews were carried out individually with fourteen retirement village residents from one retirement village in Auckland, New Zealand. Their personal narratives, about their experience of moving to and living in a retirement village, were analysed using a critical narrative analytical approach, based on a social constructionist perspective. The way that the participants made sense of old age drew on ageist societal narratives that depict old age as a time of physical decline and loss of ability, mobility, social supports, independence and autonomy. These loss narratives devalue older adults and so undermined the participants’ ability to locate themselves positively in the interview. Consequently, they drew on a young-old subject position in order to resist loss narratives. This research considers the socially constructed nature of loss narratives, by discussing the Western cultural values and assumptions that underpin them. The participants made sense of their move to the retirement village as a solution to decline and loss in old age. Analysis of the solutions that the participants sought at the village highlights that societal practices in New Zealand contribute to losses in old age. Yet, the participants indicated that the retirement village did not always provide the solutions they had hoped for and presented them with additional problems. Therefore, the retirement village represents an imperfect solution to problems in old age that are partly created by current societal practices. This study explores how retirement villages are a culturally specific solution that reflects dominant political ideologies, cultural values, and societal narratives that exist in New Zealand society. Overall, this study argues that alternative societal narratives that ascribe value to the ageing process will better promote the interests of older people. Furthermore, the problems that older adults face will be better solved by directly addressing the societal practices that create them.Item Prevalence of nutrition risk and associated social risk factors in community living older adults in the New Zealand Health, Work and Retirement Study : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Tkatch, Melaney TemaBackground: The New Zealand population is ageing as a result of declining mortality and birth rates. In order for older adults to remain in optimal health, good nutrition is vital. Previous research indicates approximately 50% of New Zealand’s community living older adult population are at some degree of nutrition risk. Understanding nutrition risk prevalence and factors associated with increased nutrition risk is vital to reduce healthcare spending. This study aims to determine nutrition risk prevalence and associated health and social risk factors amongst community-living older adults across New Zealand. Methods: A total of 3050 community-living older adults were invited to respond to the 2014 Health, Work and Retirement (HWR) postal survey. This included a nutrition risk assessment using the Seniors in the Community: Risk Evaluation for Eating and Nutrition, abbreviated version (SCREENII-AB) as well as demographic, social and health characteristic measures. Social provisions were determined with the 24-item Social Provisions Scale, and Social and Emotional loneliness were assessed with the 6-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale. Alcohol intake was determined by using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C), and living standards assessed with the Economic Living Standards Index Short Form (ELSI-SF). Overall, 136 participants did not complete one or more of the SCREENII-AB items, reducing the sample size to 2914. Results: Of the 2914 participants, 37.2% were found to be at nutrition risk. Half (51.2%) of Māori participants were at nutritional risk compared to a 32.7% of non-Māori. Independent risk factors for Māori were being un-partnered (OR 1.87) and rating general health as fair (OR 4.83). Independent risk factors for non-Māori were being un-partnered (OR 1.94), rating general health as good, fair or poor (OR 2.03, 3.18, 4.39), life satisfaction (OR 0.40), as well as increased total health conditions counts (OR 1.11), and emotional loneliness (OR 1.35). Conclusions: These findings suggest that social eating is required to reduce nutrition risk amongst older adults. Those who are un-partnered may benefit from public health intervention promoting social eating. As Māori had a higher prevalence of nutrition risk than non-Māori, culturally appropriate strategies are needed to encourage healthy eating practices.Item Dairy farmers' responses to water quality interventions : a case study in the Manawatu-Wanganui region of New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Environment, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Collins, Heather MildredNew Zealand freshwater quality has declined, and dairy farming is one identified contributor to this decline. This research provides insight into dairy farmers responses to the water quality interventions introduced to mitigate diffuse pollution, and the socio-cultural dynamics that shaped their responses. Putnam’s (2000) social capital theory was the theoretical framework used to explore how and why New Zealand dairy farmers responded to water quality interventions and the role of social capital in shaping dairy farmers’ responses. A single qualitative case-study research design was undertaken in one Water Management Zone of the Manawatu-Wanganui Region. Data was drawn from semi-structured interviews with dairy farmers and key informants, and from documents. Farmer response is identified as a multi-dimensional rather than a uni-dimensional phenomenon. The dairy farmers responded to water quality interventions as individuals and collectively, and these responses were linked and interwoven. Individual farmer awareness and understanding, emotion and behaviour changed. Collectively, resistance, social learning, formation of a farmer-led action group and changes in accepted farming practices occurred. In addition, social interactions through social networks, trust, social norms and being a ‘good’ farmer that uses ‘best’ farm practice (farmer identity) emerged as key influencers of the dairy farmers’ individual and collective responses to water quality interventions. The socially constructed collective agreements on accepted behaviour, or cultural, personal and practice norms, influenced farmers’ individual and collective responses to interventions. The identified cultural norms associated with private property ownership, equity and fairness, social responsibility and relationships, and personal norms associated with the stewardship of land and water, reflected the farming culture of the farmers interviewed and the broader group to which they belong. A broad collective change in what farmers believe are the expected farm management practices around farming and water quality (practice norms) influenced individual farm practice change. In addition, informal farmer sanctioning of practice norm violation was found to be a key part of the process by which farm practices that had a negative effect on water quality were challenged, and new practice norms were fostered. The collective farmer resistance to regulation and the actions of a farmer-led collective action group were in fact resistance to an intervention that was perceived to challenge their social norms, their identity as ‘good farmers’ and to disregard their local knowledge; not resistance to practice changes that will improve water quality. Dairy farm management practice change is a social process of exchanging information and knowledge, questioning, challenging current practice and reinforcing what is considered accepted practice around farming and water quality. This understanding provides a valuable contribution to the design and implementation of environmental policy interventions.Item Health justice for all : the development of alternative health system capabilities in the conflict-affected context of Shan State, Myanmar : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Bell, Sharon MargaretAs the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development advances, it is vital to determine how conflict impacts on the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in conflict-affected contexts. The United Nations (UN) regards conflict as the leading risk to development progress as these contexts have high rates of poverty and limited access to crucial healthcare services. Shan State, Myanmar is one such context, facing a critical shortage in its health workforce, considered one of the building blocks of an effective health system. Approaches to building health workforce capabilities can meaningfully contribute towards meeting SDG 3 – ‘to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages’, and consequently, health justice for conflict-affected communities. This research aims to understand how the approaches taken by an international nongovernmental organisation (INGO) support the development of alternative health system capabilities in a conflict-affected context. A global development agenda of state- and peace-building has meant that INGOs have been criticised for undermining state legitimacy. Meanwhile, non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in areas like Shan State, Myanmar, have established alternative regimes which seek self-determination as well as attempting to provide for the social and economic wellbeing of their people. However, little is known about how a partnership between an INGO and a NSAG contributes toward enabling alternative health system development in these contexts. This research contributes to new ways of understanding this through the development of a capabilities framework for health system development in conflict-affected contexts. This was used to analyse findings from the qualitative case study of an INGO’s health workforce training programme on the Myanmar-Thailand border. The research found that a positive partnership between the INGO and the NSAG has played a crucial role in enabling the workforce capabilities of the alternative health system, leading to promising improvements in health outcomes in communities. However, the effectiveness of the programme is restricted by the INGO’s reliance on volunteerism for staffing, where expatriate medical volunteers are selected based on their availability, rather than the appropriate skills and experience for this context. The international aid community has also reduced its funding for cross-border development programmes in Myanmar which has constrained the activities of the INGO and the NSAG. For Myanmar to achieve health justice and SDG 3, supporting health system development that focuses on improving health outcomes needs to be a priority for the international community.Item The nature of the gaze : a conceptual discussion of societal privilege from an indigenous perspective : a thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, SHORE & Whāriki Research Centre, College of Health, Aotearoa New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Borell, BelindaThis thesis explores how Kaupapa Māori paradigms can make important contributions to research topics that may not be of direct or immediate relevance to Māori communities. Insights gained from a Kaupapa Māori investigation of white privilege in Aotearoa New Zealand are discussed. I argue that cultural hegemony is maintained through structured forgetting, silence, and suppression of dissent that has dire consequences for dominant cultural groups as well as marginal. Structural racism and privilege are amenable to analyses utilising similar frameworks albeit from opposite sides that can provide valuable insights to understanding inequity more broadly. I also examine ways in which Kaupapa Māori analyses of white privilege can illuminate pathways of redress that will benefit all New Zealanders and provide more embracing perspectives of nationhood.Item Nutrition risk in age-related residential care : prevalence and associated factors in adults of advanced age : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Senior, Stacey MarieBackground: The New Zealand population is rapidly ageing. Adults of advanced age (≥85 years) are one of the fastest growing population groups with numbers expected to double by 2036. Increasing longevity is associated with reduced mobility, health loss, cognitive decline, and nutritional vulnerability. This often results in increased care requirements and movement into age-related residential care (ARRC). Overseas research indicates an increased prevalence of malnutrition in ARRC residents. Malnutrition in older adults is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, and consequently increased cost of health care. This study aims to establish the prevalence of nutrition risk and associated factors among adults of advanced age recently admitted to ARRC within the Waitemata District Health Board (WDHB) region of Auckland, New Zealand. Methods: A total of 97 participants aged ≥85 years were recruited within five days of admission to WDHB ARRC facilities. Sociodemographic and health characteristics of participants were determined during a single 60-minute interview. Standardised measures were used to measure body composition, grip strength and gait speed. Nutrition risk was assessed using the Mini Nutritional Assessment-Short Form (MNA-SF), dysphagia risk using the 10-Item Eating Assessment Tool (EAT-10) and cognitive status using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Results: Of the 97 participants (mean age 90.9 ± 3.8 years), half (50.5%) were malnourished, 40.2% at nutrition risk and a third (37.1%) were at dysphagia risk. Malnourished participants were more likely to be ≥90 years (p = 0.019), admitted to ARRC on a permanent basis (p = 0.016), at dysphagia risk (p = 0.015), have a BMI <23 (p = 0.022), lower fat mass (p = 0.005), and fewer comorbidities (p = 0.030). The MNA-SF score was inversely correlated with age (r = -0.225, p = 0.027) and positively correlated with BMI (r = 0.499, p = <0.001) and fat mass (r = 0.765, p = <0.001). Conclusion: A high prevalence of malnutrition and dysphagia risk was discovered within this study population. Residents aged ≥90 years with low BMI are at greatest nutrition risk and are an easily identifiable group. Early screening and intervention is recommended upon admission to ARRC. Key words: Aged, anthropometric measures, deglutition disorders, malnutrition, mini nutritional assessment, rest home