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    Loss of production and animal health costs in assessing economic burden of animal disease.
    (World Organisation for Animal Health, 2024-08) Marsh TL; Pendell D; Schrobback P; Shakil G; Tozer P; Rushton J; Cecchini M
    This article focuses on identifying the loss of production and costs (or lack thereof) associated with livestock health as well as animal disease externalities, with the intent to estimate economy-wide burden. It limits its scope to terrestrial livestock and aquaculture, wherein economic burden is predominately determined by market forces. Losses and costs are delineated into both direct losses and costs and indirect losses and costs, as well as ex post costs and ex ante costs. These costs include not only private expenditures but also public expenditures related to the prevention of, treatment of, and response to livestock disease. This distinction is important because a primary role of government is to mitigate externalities. The article then discusses market impacts and investments. Finally, it provides selected examples and illustrative observations and discusses future directions for research and application. Cet article examine les pertes de production et les coûts associés (ou non) à la santé animale ainsi que les externalités liées aux maladies animales, dans le but d’estimer le fardeau pour l’ensemble de l’économie. L’examen se limite à la production d’animaux terrestres et aquatiques, secteurs où le fardeau économique est principalement déterminé par les forces du marché. Les pertes et les coûts sont répartis en pertes et coûts directs et indirects, ainsi qu’en coûts ex post et ex ante. Ces coûts comprennent non seulement les dépenses privées, mais aussi les dépenses publiques liées à la prévention, au traitement et aux réponses aux maladies des animaux d’élevage. Il s’agit d’une distinction importante car l’une des fonctions premières d’un gouvernement est d’atténuer les externalités. Les auteurs examinent ensuite les impacts sur les marchés et les investissements. Pour conclure, à partir d’exemples choisis et d’observations illustrant leur propos, les auteurs proposent des voies d’exploration pour la recherche et ses applications.
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    Understanding attacks by kea (Nestor notabilis), an endemic parrot, on sheep (Ovis aries) in the South Island high country : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University/Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa, Manawatū, Aotearoa New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Reid, Clio Elizabeth
    Human-wildlife conflict is a complex global issue that can have negative impacts on wildlife species and human livelihoods. An ongoing example of such conflict in Aotearoa New Zealand occurs between high country sheep farmers and kea (Nestor notabilis). This study is the first to document the conflict since attempts were made in the early 20th century. My aims were to: 1.) review the historical records of the conflict, and estimate the number of kea killed under a 100+ year bounty scheme; 2.) characterise sheep wounds attributed to kea attacks (‘kea strike’), and estimate the current prevalence and associated risk factors; 3.) survey high country farmers’ experiences with and perspectives of kea strike; 4.) examine behaviours that potentially underpin kea strike via experimental tasks presented to wild kea. I estimated that at least 116,869 kea were killed historically as a result of the bounty scheme. The majority of sheep wounds attributed to kea strike were in the loin (lumbar) region, and the wound prevalence was low (0–1.25%). However, it should be noted that the prevalence reported by farmers can be higher, and that higher kea strike frequency results in considerable economic and welfare costs for some high country sheep stations. Risk factors included station location, breed (Perendale), class (ram), and age (>1 yr). The results of an anonymous online survey of high country sheep farmers showed that less than half of the farmers reported kea strike, with low estimates of sheep injuries and losses, and a decrease of kea strike over the past 25+ years, which may have resulted from decreasing kea numbers and changes in sheep flock management. More than half of the farmers thought that only some kea attack sheep, which is consistent with the long-standing concept that kea strike is instigated by ‘rogue’ kea (problem individuals). Individual kea differed in innovative problem solving performance, exploration tendency and neophobia, and exploration tendency was linked with social rank and innovation. I propose that high ranking males that are innovative and exploratory may initiate kea strike. Understanding the drivers of kea strike can be used to inform conservation management decisions regarding farmer-kea conflict, to the benefit of kea, high country sheep farmers and their stock.
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    An epidemiologic investigation of wastage and productivity of ewes in a sample of New Zealand commercial flocks : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2020) Griffiths, Kate Jade
    Until recently, little was known about ewe wastage in commercial New Zealand ewe flocks, or indeed, internationally. This PhD was undertaken with the broad objective of establishing the extent, timing and cause (premature culling or mortality) of ewe wastage in New Zealand ewe flocks, while also identifying factors associated with increased ewe wastage including pre-mating body condition score (BCS), failure to rear a lamb and, linked with the latter, impact of ewe udder defects on productivity. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that reports both lifetime wastage and detailed annual wastage in a sample of New Zealand commercial flocks. Of the 13,142 enrolled ewes, 50.4% exited their respective flocks due to premature culling (where a ewe is culled from the flock prior to the potential end of her productive lifespan) and 40.0% due to on-farm dead/missing, giving a total of 90.4% that exited due to wastage. In all years, pre-mating BCS could be used as a predictor of ewe wastage with odds of wastage lower with increasing BCS. In Year 1, wastage for each cohort ranged from 7.6% - 45.4% of ewe lambs enrolled, while wastage due to dead/missing accounted for 26.8% - 100.0% of ewe lamb wastage across cohorts, and premature culling was primarily due to poor reproductive performance (dry at pregnancy diagnosis or dry at docking when 3-6-week-old lambs are yarded for ear marking, tail removal and castration of males). Hence, other than the cull sale-value for those that were prematurely culled, the farmer received no productive or economic benefit from these wasted ewe lambs. Ewe lambs with heavier conceptus adjusted liveweight (CALW) and those that gained greater CALW between pregnancy diagnosis and pre-lambing were less likely to be dry at docking. Similarly, for two-tooth ewes (18-months of age at breeding), heavier ewes and those that gained CALW were less likely to be dry at docking than lighter ewes or those that lost CALW. Pre-mating udder palpation scores of hard or lump were associated with increased odds of lambs not surviving to weaning compared with normal scores. Additionally, surviving offspring of ewes with pre-mating udder palpation scores of hard had lower growth to weaning. Commercial farmers can use the information presented in this thesis to identify ewes within their flocks that have increased risk of wastage or poor productivity. They can then alter management of these at-risk ewes to both improve ewe productivity and reduce likelihood of wastage.