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Item Relationship between experience and head kinematics in race riding jockeys(Springer Nature Limited, London, 2025-04-26) Legg KA; Cochrane DJ; Gee EK; Chin Y-Y; Rogers CWThoroughbred race-riding requires jockeys to attenuate horse movement and maintain postural stability whilst galloping at high speeds. This study aimed to investigate the head movement of jockeys in relation to race-riding experience. Accelerometer and heart rate data were collected from twelve apprentice and two senior jockeys during 85 exercise rides and 82 trial rides. Mean head displacements were determined for each jockey by double integrating the filtered acceleration data. A mixed effect multivariable linear regression model was used to investigate the relationship between jockey experience, physiological variables and head kinematics. The median (IQR) head displacement was higher for exercise riding (0.12 m, 0.09–0.14 m) than trial riding (0.06 m, 0.05–0.09 m). Jockey head displacement decreased with increasing speed of the horse (p < 0.001) and greater jockey experience (p = 0.007). Higher exercise load had a greater effect on head displacement with less experienced jockey’s (p = 0.02). The effect of speed was lower for trial riding than exercise riding (p < 0.001). More experienced jockeys had a greater ability to attenuate horse oscillation than inexperienced jockeys. This ability became more pronounced at higher exercise loads, reflecting a higher level of physical fitness and riding skill level. Measurement of jockey head displacement may provide a simple measure of assessing jockey race-riding ability or fitness.Item Nutrition related health of female recruits in the New Zealand Army : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Nutritional Science at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Martin, NicolaBackground: Basic training for military recruits is a physically demanding course that is generally a sudden change from an individual’s habitual lifestyle. Female recruits have physiological disadvantages in comparison to males, which contribute to lower aerobic fitness and higher risk of musculoskeletal injuries. Nutrition related health, including iron and vitamin D status, dietary intake and body composition is essential to support the health and physical fitness of female recruits. However, little is known about how these nutrition related health factors change during completion of basic training, their determinants or associations with measures of physical fitness in female recruits in the New Zealand Army. Objectives: The objectives of this research in females undertaking 16-weeks of basic training in the New Zealand Army were to 1) characterise iron status in female recruits during basic training and investigate associations with physical fitness; 2) investigate associations between iron stores, dietary patterns and non-dietary determinants of iron stores in female recruits at the commencement of basic training; 3) characterise vitamin D status in female recruits during basic training and investigate potential determinants at the commencement of basic training; and 4) characterise body composition, physical fitness and dietary intake during basic training and investigate associations between these three factors in female recruits. Methods: Data were collected at weeks 1 and 16 of basic training from female recruits who enlisted in the New Zealand Army between February 2014 and March 2016. Demographic, lifestyle and medical history information were self-reported via an online questionnaire at week 1. Dietary intake data from a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) administered online and body composition measurements were collected at weeks 1 and 16. Body composition was determined by the InBody230 bioelectrical impedance analyser and included body mass (BM), skeletal muscle mass, fat mass (FM), fat free mass (FFM), total body water and percent body fat (%BF). Height and body mass index (BMI) were also determined. Biochemical data were assessed at weeks 1 and 16 and included serum ferritin (SF), transferrin saturation (TS), soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), erythrocyte distribution width (RDW), haemoglobin (Hb) and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D). A 2.4km run, push-ups and curl-ups were performed at weeks 1 and 8 to assess physical fitness. Changes during basic training in iron status, 25(OH)D, body composition, physical fitness and dietary intake were investigated using paired t-tests. To explore dietary determinants of iron stores at the commencement of basic training, dietary patterns (DPs) from the FFQ were identified using factor analysis. The DPs were then examined alongside potential non-dietary determinants of iron stores. Following univariate analysis, age, %BF, previous blood donation, ≥6-hours of exercise per week and a vegetarian DP were analysed using a multiple linear regression model. To explore vitamin D status, changes in 25(OH)D were characterised by ethnicity and season. Following univariate analysis, age, BMI, ethnicity, season, exercise and SF were analysed as potential determinants of 25(OH)D at the commencement of basic training using a hierarchical linear regression model. Associations between physical fitness and iron status indicators and %BF were investigated using Pearson’s correlation coefficients. Associations between frequency intake of food categories and %BF were explored using the rho-Spearman’s correlation. Results: Of the 108 female recruits invited to take part in this research, 106 volunteered to participate. During basic training, the mean ± standard deviation (SD) changes for iron status indicators were that SF decreased (56.6 ± 33.7 to 38.4 ± 23.8μg/L, P<0.001), TS decreased (38.8 ± 13.9 to 34.4 ± 11.5%, P=0.014), sTfR increased (1.21 ± 0.27 to 1.39 ± 0.35mg/L, P<0.001), RDW increased (12.8 ± 0.6 to 13.2 ± 0.7%, P<0.001) and Hb increased (140.6 ± 7.5 to 142.9 ± 7.9g/L, P=0·009). At week 16, sTfR was positively associated (r=0.29, P=0.012) and TS was negatively associated (r=–0.32, P=0.005) with the week 8 run time. There were no significant associations between iron status and push-ups or curl-ups. Serum ferritin was positively associated with %BF (P<0.009) and negatively associated with blood donation in the past year (P<0.011), explaining 17.5% of the variance in SF. There was no association between SF and DPs in the multiple linear regression model. From week 1 to week 16, the mean ± SD for 25(OH)D was 102.5 ± 33.6 to 67.4 ± 22.6nmol/L (P<0.001) for basic training commenced in summer and 67.4 ± 21.5 to 73.8 ± 18.9nmol/L (P=0.033) for basic training commenced in winter. Overall, more than two-thirds of participants had suboptimal vitamin D status (<75nmol/L) at the end of basic training, regardless of the season training commenced. Increasing age and BMI, being of Pacific or Māori ethnicity and commencing basic training in winter were negatively associated with 25(OH)D. Collectively these determinants explained 45.0% of the variance in 25(OH)D at the commencement of basic training. From week 1 to week 16, the mean ± SD change for FM was -3.8 ± 3.6kg, %BF was -5.5 ± 3.7% and FFM was 3.8 ± 1.8kg (all P<0.001). There was no change in BM or BMI. All measures of physical fitness improved during basic training (P<0.001). There was a significant increase in frequency intake of protein, grains, fats, discretionary items and beverages (all P<0.001). A higher %BF at week 1 was positively associated with the 2.4km run time and negatively associated with push-ups at both weeks 1 and 8 (all P<0.05). Conclusions: Overall, 16-weeks of basic training in the New Zealand Army provides adequate nutrition to support training-induced adaptations in physical fitness and body composition of most female recruits. Optimal %BF and FFM were associated with improved physical fitness, while BMI is an unreliable measure of body composition in this physically active cohort. However, storage and functional iron parameters indicated a decline in iron status and 25(OH)D indicated a decline in vitamin D status in female recruits during basic training. Diminished tissue iron status was associated with impaired aerobic fitness. A lower %BF and blood donation in the past year were the strongest determinants of reduced iron stores while wintertime and being of Pacific or Māori ethnicity were the strongest determinants of reduced 25(OH)D at the commencement of basic training. Therefore, while positive changes in nutrition related health are occurring during basic training, several factors are negatively impacting the iron and vitamin D status of female recruits, both before and during basic training. These factors are limiting the potential of female recruits to achieve optimal health and physical fitness. Delivering education, clinical screening and early supplementation of iron and vitamin D are recommended strategies to counter suboptimal iron and vitamin D status and enhance the success of female recruits during basic training in the New Zealand Army.Item Health and wellness of Royal Navy personnel : trial of a health & wellness programme for the Royal New Zealand Navy : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Sport and Exercise in Endorsement of Exercise Prescription and Training, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Crawford-Mickleson, Chance RaphealIntroduction: It is essential for the Royal New Zealand Navy to ensure that all personnel are physically fit and maintain optimal physiological health for deployability. While access to health care and training facilities is provided, physiological health and physical fitness standard is up to the individual. This can potentially lead to sub-optimal health and wellness in military personnel. Therefore, the aim of this research is to trial a basic health and fitness screening programme among Royal New Zealand Navy personnel and compare results with healthy population data to ascertain any health and fitness issues that need to be addressed to ensure deployability of staff. Methods: 91 male and female Royal New Zealand Navy participants (mean age of 34 years, 68.1% = male, 31.8% = female) volunteered for this study. Data was collected over two phases within the same day (between 0600 and 1500 hours). Phase one, participants arrived in a fasted state (12 hours) and blood cholesterol/glucose, resting heart rate and blood pressure, was obtained. On completion participants consumed breakfast. Phase two involved answering two questionnaires; (the AHA/ACSM health and fitness pre-participation screening questionnaire for general health and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index questionnaire to measure sleep status over the past four weeks); and collection of anthropometric data (weight; height; waist circumference; hip circumference and right arm/leg length). Final assessment procedures involved the YMCA estimated VO2max test, Y-Balance and sit and reach test. Statistical analysis: All data was first assessed for normal distribution and analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics 25. Data was grouped by age and/or gender and analysed using independent t-tests for first level comparisons, and univariate analyses for multi-level comparisons. Significance was set at p=0.05. Results: Overall, results show that high density lipoprotein, estimated VO2max, body mass index, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and the AHA/ACSM health and fitness pre-participation screening questionnaire were near pre-published general population normal values. Analysis on age and gender showed that overall, females were healthier than males but had lower VO2max, and the <35 year age group performed better overall than the ≥35 year age group. Conclusion: Those aged <35 years and who are female presented with less risk factors for cardiovascular disease than males and those aged ≥35 years, as a whole. Recommendations for a screening programme is provided.Item Observed versus expected match-running outputs of international female rugby sevens players : a thesis submitted to Massey University, Albany, New Zealand in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Sport and Exercise(Massey University, 2018) Yallop, KirstyWomen’s rugby sevens is a new and emerging sport with limited knowledge, specifically on international female match-running outputs. It is a rare opportunity to conduct research on elite athletes, and even more so for an emerging women’s sport. The overall aim of this thesis is to establish and compare observed international female rugby sevens players’ match-running outputs versus theoretical expected match-running outputs (elite male players and an established sport, football). Another unknown aspect of the women’s rugby sevens game is how fatigue affects performance. The thesis also determines differences in match-running outputs of international female rugby sevens players from half-to-half, game-to-game and tournament-to-tournament. Global Positioning System (GPS) units worn on the players’ backs were used to collect data from 18 female rugby sevens players across 15 matches and 19 female football players across four matches. Reasons for the gaps found in match-running outputs and aspects that could be improved for optimal elite performance in female rugby sevens were explored. The match-running output measures included low-to-moderate speed running (LMSR <16.5 km), high speed running (HSR >16.6 km), sprints (>21 km) and total distance (TD). These speed thresholds represent previously used zones in rugby sevens match analysis, as well as recommended zones for female sport settings (VX View software). When compared with the expected match-running output measures, male and female rugby sevens players exhibited a large sex performance gap with male players recording more metres across all four measures, LMSR 64.8% (p<0.01), HSR 95.9% (p<0.01), TD 69.3% (p<0.01) and sprints 100% (p<0.01). Female football players and male football players demonstrated an unexpected sex performance gap in HSR of 152.3% (p<0.01), with male players performing more HSR metres. There was a smaller gap in TD 25.3% (p<0.01) and sprints 52.9% (p<0.01) and within the established performance gap for LMSR 2.3% (p = 0.28) between male and female footballers, again with male players recording more metres. There were no significant decreases in match-running outputs for female rugby sevens players from 1st half to 2nd half. However, female football players showed a significant decrease in match-running output in LMSR (p<0.01), TD (p<0.01) and sprints (p<0.01) from 1st half to 2nd half. There were significant differences in match-running output in LMSR (p<0.01) for female rugby sevens players, specifically with an increase between tournaments 2 and 3 (p<0.05) and tournaments 1 and 3 (p<0.05). There were also significant differences in the number of sprints performed (p<0.01), with an increase between tournaments 1 and 2 (p<0.05), and a decrease between tournaments 2 and 3 (p<0.05), and a decrease between games 7 and 11. There were no significant differences in match-running outputs for female football players from game to game. Overall, the findings from this thesis contribute to the limited knowledge on women’s rugby sevens, specifically observing international female match-running outputs. The findings suggest that international female rugby sevens players have significant room to improve overall match-running outputs, aligning more closely with the expected sex performance gap (5-12%) and the established elite sport of football.Item Review of Armed Offenders Squad and Special Tactics Group fitness policy for the New Zealand Police : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Exercise and Sport Science at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2015) Dickie, James AlexanderPhase One: Web based survey questionnaire. Recruitment into the New Zealand Police’s Armed Offenders Squad [AOS] and Special Tactics Group [STG] depends on successful completion of selection courses, as detailed in their respective physical fitness policies. Importantly, these physical assessments must be justified as being relevant and representative of the necessities of job duties. Therefore, as part of a review of the physical fitness policies of the AOS and STG of the New Zealand Police, Phase One of this research sought to objectively determine similarities and relationships between the AOS and STG, and the relevance of physical selection tasks utilised. A web-based survey questionnaire was developed to: 1) provide a demographic profile of the AOS and STG; 2) identify why candidates chose to participate in selection; 3) identify potential barriers for gaining entrance into the AOS and STG; 4) identify physical preparation methods for selection tests; 5) identify troublesome tests; and 6) establish the validity between fitness assessments and the perceived relevance of job demands. A total of 179 AOS (N = 298) and 35 (N = 38) STG members volunteered to participate in the on-line survey document. The main findings revealed that the 12 minute bridge test had the lowest perceived relevance of all selection tests, while the rope pull-up had moderate perceived relevance but was coupled with a high failure rate. This provided evidence to further research the aforementioned assessments in Phase Two of this project. Abstract Review of AOS and STG fitness policy for NZ Police 2 Phase Two: Analysis of the rope pull-up and twelve minute rotational bridge. The rope pull-up and 12 minute bridge test are physical assessments utilised to identify whether STG members possess appropriate levels of physical fitness required to perform their role. Due to a lack of empirical research, and Phase One findings, this study sought to: 1) determine whether the rope pull-up is a suitable assessment tool to assess operational climbing ability; and 2) determine whether the 12 minute rotational bridge test is a safe and suitable assessment of core endurance. Nineteen STG members (mean ± SD; 40 ± 5 y, 184 ± 5 cm, 93.6 ± 7.4 kg, 25.4 ± 1.9 kg·m²) volunteered to participate in this research. Surface electromyography was utilised to measure peak muscle activity of the brachioradialis, biceps brachii, mid-deltoid, upper pectoralis major, mid-trapezius, lower trapezius, latissimus dorsi and infraspinatus during rope pull-up, ladder climb and rope climb tasks. Average muscle activity and signal frequency of the rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique, mutlifidus, lumbar erector spinae, thoracic erector spinae, latissimus dorsi and mid-deltoid were measured during the 12 minute bridge test. Results revealed significantly higher activation of the pectoralis major during the ladder climb when compared to the rope pull-up (81.2 vs. 47.1 %MVIC), and of the pectoralis major (102.6 vs. 47.1 %MVIC) and infraspinatus (81.9 vs. 57.4 %MVIC) during the rope climb, when compared to the rope pull-up (all, P < .01). Rotation between prone and side positions in the bridge test suitably assessed muscular endurance of all major muscles involved in core stability. No significant differences in signal frequency across each stage, for all muscles (P > .05), indicated that muscular fatigue was minimal. Based on the present study, the rope pull-up was deemed non-appropriate to assess operational climbing ability; while the rotational bridge served as a practical endurance assessment of all major muscles involved in core stability, with the 12 minute duration not likely to cause fatigue related injury.Item Fitness, fatness and fibre type : predicting insulin resistance in Māori : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2010) Warbrick, Isaac; Warbrick, IsaacNo abstract