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    Integration of eco-design into product development practice : applied in the design and manufacture of shower and tapware products : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Eco-Design at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Horrell, Michael James
    Consumers and wider society have become more aware of the environmental issues associated with products. Manufacturers of consumer products have responded to this awareness by attempting to integrate environmental strategies, tools and techniques into the processes that guide their product development efforts through idea-to-launch. This practice is commonly known as eco-design. There have been relatively very few eco-design success stories and generally eco-design has yet to have a significant influence on the development and commercialisation of mainstream products; research has shown that this is primarily because environmental practices are not effectively integrated into the product development process. Furthermore, the eco-design frameworks, models and tools available to New Product Development (NPD) practitioners are often challenging to integrate as they are too broad to provide adequate guidance to product designers. The environmental impacts of products can significantly differ between product types and how products are used. Active product types such as showers and tapware do consume additional energy, water and/or materials in the use phase of the product’s life cycle and so this phase may be the environmental hotspot for these product types. This implies that designers of active products should use a life cycle-based approach to eco-design. This study investigated how life cycle-based environmental considerations can be integrated effectively into product development practices. Drawing on the eco-design and NPD literature, it used both qualitative and quantitative methods in an embedded action case study of a shower and tapware manufacturer, and users of its products. In the first stage of the study, data was collected on the organisational practices of the company and their product development process. In the second stage, data was collected from the product users through experimentation and user trials that informed eco-design decisions within the development process. The data from both stages was analysed using a systematic process involving categorising and explanation building through narrative structuring. The results demonstrated that the culture of an organisation can greatly impact success of eco-design integration into the product development practices of manufactures of active products. This key finding became the foundation of the framework proposed in this thesis known as the shower and tapware eco-design product framework (STeP Framework). This framework includes an accompanying list of success factors that can be applied in an organisation that produces active products to support eco-design integration. The analysis of results showed that NPD practitioners need to consider the unique characteristics of different types of products and associated environmental impacts in order for the eco-design frameworks, models and tools to be effective. In doing so, both technical and behavioural factors related to life cycle-based environmental impacts of products were identified that greatly influence the STeP framework and success factors. Implementation of the key findings of the study was proposed in the form of a front-end process model suitable for producers of active products (Eco-AP Process Model). For front end stages such as idea generation, idea selection and project definition, it was found that Life Cycle Assessment is necessary to quantify the environmental impacts associated with the idea, and particularly so at a system level. In addition, with a better understanding of the relationship between human behaviour and how this can influence the life cycle-based impacts, it is necessary to include specialised eco-tools (such as Design of Experiments) that can measure, analyse and optimise the use phase by taking into consideration user interaction with the product. Other stages of the process model include opportunity analysis and opportunity identification, that focus on generating new environmental knowledge and eco-ideas rather than being driven by commercialisation deadlines. Finally, an opportunity development stage was added that creates new eco-design core capabilities within an organisation and maximises realisation of eco-opportunities in the industry.
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    Bridging the barriers to effective life cycle management uptake : a framework for primary industry sectors : a thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Science, Life Cycle Management, Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Seidel-Sterzik, Helene
    There is a rising global awareness of environmental problems and wider sustainability issues in business and society. Examples of environmental issues that are particularly topical include carbon emissions and climate change, waste and pollution, water consumption and impacts on biodiversity. One approach to incorporate environmental sustainability in organisations is the implementation of Life Cycle Management (LCM). LCM is a comprehensive and integrated approach towards measuring and managing environmental impacts. LCM involves sharing responsibility for addressing environmental impacts across the entire supply chain of products and services, extending from raw material extraction to end-of-life. In New Zealand, the environmental performance of products is particularly important as export markets are geographically distant and additional environmental impacts occur due to extensive transport to deliver products to end users. Additionally, New Zealand has an image of being “green and clean” which needs to be justified, particularly in discerning export markets such as Europe and Japan. Governments in those export markets often have stringent legislation in place to encourage the uptake of environmental improvement projects and ecologically responsible behaviour. Likewise, customers increasingly use environmental factors to guide their purchasing decisions. Therefore, it is important for New Zealand organisations to comply with legislation and align with customer expectations about the environmental performance of their products and services. The New Zealand economy relies heavily on primary exports with around 70% of the country’s export revenue being generated by primary industries (Ministry for Primary Industries, 2016; Trade, 2019). Successful sector-wide uptake of LCM has the potential to facilitate effective measurement and management of the environmental impacts caused by the New Zealand primary industries. Thus, New Zealand can strengthen its competitiveness in the global marketplace by maintaining and reinforcing the country’s “green and clean” image and being able to respond to threats such as the “food miles” concept. A large number of organisations in primary industry supply chains are Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs). Compared to large companies, SMEs face particular challenges when it comes to uptake of environmental initiatives. These include limited resources, lack of knowledge around market requirements, and lack of expertise in the environmental area. The aim of this PhD research was therefore to develop an approach that supports primary industry sectors to effectively evaluate, monitor and demonstrate their LCM practices based on globally relevant criteria. In particular, this research examined and tested the use of a sector-based, as opposed to individual organisation-based, approach to the implementation of LCM as an effective means of driving change amongst primary industry SMEs and overcoming the barriers they face during LCM uptake. Thus far, the focus of research into the enablers and barriers to uptake of LCM in SMEs has been on individual companies. However, a sector-based approach may allow more effective measurement and management of environmental impacts associated with supply chains. The research design involved four elements and triangulated a mix of methods, including literature-based research, face-to-face interviews, and an online survey. The New Zealand kiwifruit and aquaculture industry sectors were used as case studies to inform development of a framework for evaluating, monitoring and demonstrating LCM in primary industry sectors that are comprised largely of SMEs. The thesis has been written using a paper style with four main chapters that cover each of the four elements. Chapter 3 documents the theoretical foundation by synthesizing the literature related to enablers and barriers to uptake of LCM in organisations, related literature on supply chain management (SCM), and on the characteristics of SMEs that influence their ability to engage in change management. This led to the identification of eight factors that affect successful LCM uptake within industry sectors. On this basis it was identified that a sector-based approach could facilitate the implementation of LCM in primary industry sectors and support the large number of SMEs in those industry sectors efficiently. The academic contribution of this research phase includes the synthesis of barriers and enablers to successful sector-wide LCM uptake, as well as identification of a sector-based approach for effective implementation of LCM in supply chains. Chapter 4 summarises a study of LCM in the New Zealand kiwifruit sector. An online survey was undertaken of kiwifruit growers from various regions in New Zealand. The academic contributions of this element include the identification of the specific barriers and enablers to successful LCM uptake in the New Zealand kiwifruit sector. During this research, it was identified that knowledge management using technology is a key research area that should be considered to ensure that knowledge and information relating to LCM are effectively transferred between supply chain partners in order to facilitate the successful implementation of a sector wide sustainability strategy. Chapter 5 describes the development of a prototype LCM Uptake Evaluation Framework (LUEF) based on the literature review (Chapter 1) and the kiwifruit case study (Chapter 4). The LUEF is a capability maturity model designed to enable both individual companies and industry sectors to assess themselves against the factors that affect the uptake of LCM. The LUEF provides a methodological contribution to academic knowledge in the area of LCM and a practical tool to support companies and industry sectors to evaluate their maturity with respect to LCM. Chapter 6 describes the development of an Information Technology (IT) platform to support the effective management of an LCM programme using a sector-based approach. The IT platform aims to address the shortcomings of the LUEF developed in the previous chapter. In order to use it at a larger scale and support individual organisations as well as industry sectors in their decision-making processes to improve their environmental performance on an ongoing basis, an online platform is suggested. The platform was designed to allow individual organisations to input their data at the time of their convenience, and for industry stakeholders to access the aggregated and industry-average data. The New Zealand aquaculture industry was used as a case study to inform development of the IT platform, and industry stakeholders particularly highlighted the ease of communication and collaboration, which was identified as a key enabler of successful LCM uptake on a sector-wide basis. Key contributions during this research phase involved the development and refinement of an online software platform to facilitate the implementation of a sector-based LCM strategy, including setting industry targets, developing best practice guidelines, and identifying improvement projects. Future research should focus on wider dissemination of the LUEF, facilitated by IT platforms, across other primary industry sectors with different structures compared to the kiwifruit and aquaculture sectors in New Zealand.