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Item In vitro gas production and rumen fermentation profile of fresh and ensiled genetically modified high–metabolizable energy ryegrass(FASS Inc. and Elsevier Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association, 2020-03) Winichayakul S; Beechey-Gradwell Z; Muetzel S; Molano G; Crowther T; Lewis S; Xue H; Burke J; Bryan G; Roberts NJWe previously generated a high–metabolizable energy (HME) perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) by genetically modifying the plant to increase the leaf lipid content. Although substantial progress has been made toward characterizing physiological changes of HME ryegrass, very limited information exists for feeding value and its suitability for adoption into the pastoral system. In this study, independent HME ryegrass lines with a range of elevated leaf lipid concentrations were analyzed for changes in fatty acids and possible associated changes in the broader nutritional profile, including the gross energy, which was found to increase by 6.8%. Because ryegrass is often ensiled and fermentation in the rumen leads to biohydrogenation of fatty acids as well as enteric methane production, we sought to investigate these effects on HME ryegrass. This was achieved by performing mini-scale silos and using an automated gas measurement system to incubate the material in rumen fluid in vitro for 24 h. Our study included treatments comprising 3 independent HME ryegrass genotypes and wild-type control materials prepared fresh and as silage, employing in total 5 incubation studies, using rumen fluids collected from 4 nonlactating Jersey × Holstein cows. At intervals during the incubation, the production of gases, volatile fatty acids, and the degree of biohydrogenation were measured. Statistical data analysis indicated that differences in the nutritional compositions of the ensiled materials largely reflected those of their fresh counterparts. Incubation of both fresh and ensiled HME ryegrass in rumen fluid resulted in: (1) a greater percentage of valuable unsaturated fatty acids compared with the control; (2) a significant reduction of butyrate; and (3) a 10 to 15% decrease in the methane proportion of the total gas production. We conclude that ensiling could be a convenient option for preserving HME as a locally produced high-value supplementary feed; however, large-scale application needs to be investigated. In this paper we discuss the potential use of HME ryegrass to enhancing forage feeding value and the potential environmental benefits to the pastoral agriculture industry.Item Comparison of maize silage and traditional forage crops in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Plant Science at Massey University, Manawatū Campus, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Thant, Aung MyoCattle wintering systems using crops including grazing kale, swede, and fodder beet crops in situ have resulted in soil and water quality deterioration. Nitrate leaching is the most common problem due to the high deposition of urine N driven by excess N intake. Alternative cropping systems offer a potential solution to reduce these environmental problems while maintaining or maximising productivity. We proposed maize silage as an alternative crop because it has high yield potential, flexible feeding requirements, compliments the nutritive value of pasture, and is potentially suitable for more regions in New Zealand in the future due to climate change. However, research needs to determine whether maize silage yield, feed quality and potential nitrate losses during production and utilisation means it is a viable alternative to in situ grazed forage crops in these areas. Field experiments were conducted at Massey University, Tokoroa and Kiwitea to determine forage yield and feed quality, management effects and site differences in 2018/19 and 2019/20. Crop yields and forage N content were utilised to simulate urine N loads from the feeding of these forage crops. The excreted N loads were analysed in APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator) to predict nitrate leaching losses. Maize produced significantly higher yields compared with the winter forage crops at all Massey University trials while producing competitive yields at Tokoroa and Kiwitea. Yields ranged from 10,940 to 30,417 kg DM/ha for maize whilst wide and lower yield ranges were observed for the winter forage crops (4,579 to 22,928 kg DM/ha). Irrigation increased yields of forage crops by 29-63%. Similarly, nitrogen fertiliser increased yield by 30%, on average. The faster canopy development of maize has the advantage of intercepting more radiation in summer and suppressing weeds, contributing to greater growth and yield despite a shorter crop season. All forage crops produced forage with good metabolisable energy content (MJ/kg DM); higher values in swede (10.1-14.5) and fodder beet (10.8-14.9) whereas intermediate values in kale (8.9-12.7) and maize (9.9-12.2). However, maize was the highest energy-yielding crop, ranging from about 200-316 GJ/ha while other crops varied from 34 to 217 GJ/ha. Protein content in kale (7.5-16.6% DM) and swede (11.4-18.2% DM) were adequate for non-lactating cows whereas maize (5.4-9.2% DM) and fodder beet (7.6-11.2% DM) were lower than recommended protein levels for dairy cows but offering an opportunity to reduce urinary N excretion. Maize also had recommended fibre content. With higher sugar contents, swede and fodder beet were poor in fibre sources, potentially prone to rumen acidosis unless considered mixed diet with high fibre feed. APSIM modelling indicated that maize would produce the lowest urine N output while swede the highest in simulated feeding. Accordingly, N loads/ha was higher for winter forage crops especially when good yields were produced. When common feeding practices were considered, i.e., off-paddock maize feeding (no urine N deposition) and on-paddock grazing of winter forage crops (high urine N deposition), simulated nitrate losses from maize cropping systems were the lowest. Predicted nitrate losses were 21 and 32 kg N/ha for maize under irrigated and non-irrigated conditions. A ryegrass cover crop further reduced simulated nitrate losses by 20-30%. Predicted nitrate losses for fodder beet, kale, and swede crops were 126, 162, 154 kg N/ha under irrigated conditions and 72, 201, 199 kg N/ha under non-irrigated conditions, respectively in grazing systems.Item A study of grass silage preservation with particular reference to the use of sodium metabisulphite as an additive : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the University of New Zealand(Massey University, 1957) Smith, William CampbellThe problems of preserving roughages for the feeding of livestock using unfavourable periods of pasture growth are perennial. The preservation of legumes and grasses as hay of high quality is governed mainly by two factors: ideal curing weather and stage of maturity of the crops. The inability of the farmer to control these factors results in heavy nutrient losses in the days during the curing process. The development of an alternate process of preservation has been the objective of investigators for many years. Artificial drying of protein rich herbage results in the best preservation with least storage loss but, as yet, the process involves a large capital outlay and high operating costs. This at present eliminates it from consideration by the average farmer. The preservation of early harvested material as silage seems to be the most logical approach to the solution of the problem because of the high efficiency of the process for timely handling.Item Digestibility of Fiberezy® and Timothy Haylage and behavioural observations and voluntary feed intake of FiberEzy® and rye clover hay in Thoroughbred horses : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2014) Patel, DeepaThis thesis describes a field study, a laboratory study and two animal studies evaluating the production of timothy grass grown under New Zealand conditions, the composition of a commercially prepared ensiled lucerne and timothy mix ( FiberEzy®: a 50:50 timothy lucerne mix) and ensiled timothy grass;, the stability of FiberEzy® during 12 months of storage; and also the digestibility and voluntary feed intake of FiberEzy®, ensiled timothy grass and Rye-clover hay when fed to Thoroughbred horses. For the field study, grass samples were collected from a representative section (6m x 16m) of a field in Reporoa, (Waikato, New Zealand) sown with timothy grass (Phleum pratense L.) on the 10th of March 2010 at Longitude 176°34’E, Latitude 38°39’S. The samples were collected at regular intervals to investigate changes in the dry matter (DM), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and lignin content of the crop over the growing season. There was an increase (17.7to 35.89%) in the dry matter content and lignin content (3.0to 6.3%) of timothy grass over time as the grass matured. Once harvested and ensiled, a sample of timothy grass and FiberEzy® were analysed for total DM, percentages of: crude protein; crude fat; crude fibre; ash; gross energy; hot water soluble carbohydrates; pectin, (NDF), (ADF), lignin, and vitamin E content. Lab analysis showed that FiberEzy® had higher levels of crude protein, pectin, lignin, ash and vitamin E (p<0.05), and lower levels of crude fibre and NDF (P<0.05) than the timothy grass. A shelf life stability study of FiberEzy® (was carried out by sub-sampling a stored bag of the product every 3 months and analysing for total DM, percentage crude protein, percentage hot water soluble carbohydrates and vitamin E (mg/kg) for a total of 12 months. During the storage trial, analysis of FiberEzy® showed an increase in the content of vitamin E (37.6to 124.9mg/kg) over time. A digestibility study was conducted to compare FiberEzy® and New Zealand grown and ensiled timothy haylage on Thoroughbred horses. FiberEzy® and timothy haylage was offered on a DM basis at 2.5% of the body weight to four Thoroughbred horses (10 ± 1 yr; 562.5± 30.7 kg initial BW). The horses were stalled individually in loose boxes (4 x 4 4 m) lined with rubber matting. Horses were randomly paired and assigned to be fed FiberEzy® or timothy haylage for two 18 day periods, in a 2 x 2 Latin square experimental design. Each 18 day period comprised of a 14 day dietary adaptation period where the horses were habituated to the pens and diet, and a 4 day (96 h) total faecal collection. The apparent digestibility of DM and GE were measured on days 15-18; at 12 hourly intervals faecal material from each horse was collected, weighed, and a subsample was taken and frozen at -20°C. One kg samples of the feed were collected and frozen at -20°C on day 15. The energy content of the FiberEzy® and timothy haylage varied between the first and second part of the study, with the DE of timothy haylage varying from 6.9 MJ/kg DM to 9.4 MJ/kg DM. Total energy intake of FiberEzy® and timothy haylage varied between horses, and between groups, with horses fed timothy haylage after FiberEzy® reducing their total energy intake. The apparent digestibility of FiberEzy® tended to be greater than that of timothy haylage. The apparent DM, crude protein and energy digestibility of the feed was similar to values reported in other studies using young horses. A voluntary feed intake (VFI) trial was conducted using six thoroughbred geldings, (10 ± 1 yr; 550.6±15.8 kg) were offered FiberEzy® or Rye-clover hay at >3% of the body weight. The horses were again stalled individually in loose boxes (4 x 4 m) lined with rubber matting. Voluntary feed intake was measured over 17 days. Day 1 to 8 was the adaptation phase and from day 9-17 of the study the horses were scan sampled and videoed for two hours every morning(9:30-11:30 am) after feeding and two hours in the evening (4:30-6:30 pm) after feeding. There were significant differences in VFI between time periods (24.3±0.9 vs 17.8±0.4 kg DM /day, p<0.05) and between feeds (FiberEzy®: 24.3±0.4 vs. Rye-clover hay: 17.8±0.7 kg DM /day) but not an interaction. Behaviours were typical of loose box housed horses and differences in feeding behaviour observed correlated with the differences in VFI measured between feeds. The results of this thesis suggest that FiberEzy® is a suitable alternative to concentrate-based supplementary feed.Item Effects of feeding silage and extending lactation on the pastoral dairy farm : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Animal Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 1996) Pinares Patiño, C SIt is a common practice in the New Zealand seasonal dairying system to dry-off the herd at an earlier date in order to prevent excessive loss of body condition and average pasture cover. Thus, short lactation length is one of the main reasons for the low milk yield per cow in New Zealand. An experiment was carried out in April and May 1995 (54 days) at the Dairy Cattle Research Unit (DCRU), Massey University in order to measure the effects of extending the lactation, and feeding silage on the dairy farm system. On the 4th April, 54 of the lower yielding cows of the herd (118 cows) were dried-off and divided into two equal herds (D or control system). The remaining 64 cows were also divided into two equal herds, and milked for another 54 days (M system). Each of the four herds was grazed on a self-contained farmlet, at 2.9 cows/ha stocking rate. D herds received only grazed pasture (16 kg dry matter (DM)/cow/day allowance), while M herds received pasture (30 kg DM/cow/day allowance) plus silage (5.5 kg DM/cow/day). All of the replicated farmlets were feed budgeted to common targets of 2,000 Kg DM/ha pasture cover and condition score 5.0 at 29th May. At the end of the experiment the M system had produced 57.7 kg milksolids (MS, fat+protein) per cow, but had lower (P<0.01) average pasture cover (by 584 kg DM/ha) and body condition scores (by 0.33 units/cow) than the D system. The target conditions were achieved by the D system, but not by the M system (deficits of 400 kg DM/ha pasture cover and 0.38 units CS/cow). When the feed required to overcome the deficits (when compared with the D system) in pasture cover and condition score of the M system was added to the silage fed, and these were all expressed in terms of their "pasture equivalences", a total marginal response to the silage feeding and extra days in milk of 116 g MS/kg equivalent pasture DM was calculated. Findings of this and previous farm system studies show that milk production response to late lactation (autumn) supplementary feeding is higher than was commonly believed, provided that it is associated with extra days in milk. Nevertheless, feed planning and management must be specially vigilant to ensure that the extended lactation does not cause reduced body condition score and pasture cover at the start of the next season.Item The nutritive characteristics of maize silage and maize silage/grass rations for cattle : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Animal Science at Massey University, 1973(Massey University, 1973) Waghorn, Garry CampbellAn experiment was conducted to investigate some of the nutritional properties of maize silage, when fed to rising two year old monozygous twin Jersey and Jersey cross cattle, housed indoors. In a preliminary experiment, silages made from maize harvested with two types of harvester were evaluated in terms of digestibility, rate of passage, and the extent of kernel loss in the faeces. Fine chop (conventional) silage (mean particle size 1.24 cm) and coarse chop silage (2.20 cm) were each fed to six animals at restricted levels of intake. The mean retention times of the fine (44.6 hours) and coarse (49.0 hours) chop silages were significantly different (P<0.01) but differences between DM digestibilities (62.7 and 65.1% respectively) were not significant. Undigested faecal kernel loss from both silages was negligible. Intakes of the fine chop silage were slightly higher than those of the coarse chop, but this may have been due to its higher dry matter content. In the main experiment maize silage and grass (ryegrass/clover (MP), and Tama (Ta) in separate trials), in the ratios of 100:0 (t1), 80:20 (t2), 45:55 (t3) and 0:100 (t4), were fed ad lib to four groups of four cattle. The experimental layout was a balanced incomplete block design, and the main parameters measured were digestibility and voluntary intake. Digestibilities rose as the proportion of grass in the rations increased. Approximate OM digestibilities for t2, t3 and t4 were 68.0, 73.0 and 82.0% respectively, however silage (t1) digestibilities were low, and declined from 65.4 to 57.2% over the duration of the experiment (8 weeks). In most instances, comparisons between t3 (or t4) and t1 were highly significant (PItem Yields and quality components of maize hybrids for silage : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Agronomy at Massey University(Massey University, 1996) Villaver, Ronaldo C.Seven maize hybrids were evaluated at Frewens Block, Massey University, Palmerston North to determine the effects of hybrid and plant population on yield and yield components, nutritive value, dry matter (DM) partitioning and N%. The range of maturity of the seven hybrids varied from early to full season. The seven hybrids were P3902, Janna, CF1, Furio P3751, P3585 and CG900 each planted at 75,000; 100,000 and 140,000 plants/ha. Plant height, leaf number and yield were measured at 50% silking. Three subsequent samples were taken for estimation of yield, the final yield being at 30-35% whole crop dry matter %. "In Vitro" Digestibility and Kjeldahl N analysis was done by Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Massey University on the grain, leaf, stem and husk components for the 100,000 plants/ha population only. The effect of hybrid on crop development was closely related to relative maturity. P3902 and Janna, both early maturing hybrids were quickest to reach 50% silking and blacklayer, followed by medium (CF1, P3751, Furio) and late maturing (CG900, P3751) hybrids. Heat unit accumulation of each hybrid followed a similar pattern. Plant height and leaf number differed significantly among hybrids and was related to maturity ranking. Hybrid CF1 achieved the highest (20,046 kg/ha) whole crop DM yield at final harvest while Janna produced the lowest (15,776 kg/ha) yield. The 75,000 plants/ha plant population yielded significantly less than 100,000 and 140,000 plants/ha. There was no difference between the 100,000 and 140,000 plant populations. This study confirmed the present recommended plant population of 100,000 plants/ha for maize silage. Dry matter partitioning at final harvest revealed the highest proportion in the grain component followed by the stem, husk and leaf. Total metabolizable energy (ME) content ranged from 11.3 MJME/kg DM to 10.28 MJME/kg DM. The ME content of CF1 was significantly higher than all other hybrids. Final yield was not correlated with the relative contribution to yield in any of the components or with N % in the crop. However, total metabolisable energy content was correlated with its ME components in the grain, leaf, husk and stem. There were no significant hybrid differences in whole crop N % which ranged from 1.07 to 1.16%. Nitrogen % of total DM was strongly correlated to N% in the grain and moderately correlated to N % in the stem and in the leaf. NHI was highly correlated with % grain. CF1 was the best performing hybrid, having highest yield, metabolizable energy and N %. However, among six commercial maize silage hybrids (CF1 is excluded being a non-commercial hybrid at the time of experiment) tested, P3902, Furio, P3585 are the preferred hybrids for early, medium and full season, respectively. The performance of CF1 suggests that there is considerable potential for improving the agronomic characteristics of maize hybrids for silage production in New Zealand through local plant breeding programmes.Item A study of the amino acid status of sheep fed silage, with particular reference to methionine : a thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 1976) Gill, E MargaretThe amino acid status of sheep fed silage appears to be an important factor in controlling voluntary intake. The basic aim of the experiments described in this thesis, was to study the digestion and utilisation of silage, in response to increased availability of methionine and protein. The treatments chosen to increase protein availability, were formalin-treatment of silage (Expt. 1) and supplements of formaldehyde-treated casein and a readily available energy source (Expt. 2). Methionine availability on untreated silage was increased by I/P infusion in Expt. 1, and methionine availability on all three treatments was increased by duodenal infusicn in Expt. 2. These treatments provided from 0.8 to 6.0g/day of methionine available for absorption, and from 33 to 167g/day of total amino acids entering the duodenum. The response to increased methionine availability was increased by I/P infusion in Expt. 1, and methionine availability on all three treatments was increased by duodenal infusion in Expt. 2. These treatments provided from 0.8 to 6.0g/day of methionine available for absorption, and from 33 to 167g/day of total amino acids entering the duodenum. The response to increased methionine availability was measured in terms of N balance, plasma amino acid concentration and the percentage of L-methionine-C14 (U) oxidised to carbon dioxide. Intake was restricted to near maintenance, but the amount offered was seldom completely eaten. There were no treatment differences in intake in Expt. 1, but intake of the basal silage diet decreased in Expt. 2. This decrease was partly prevented by the two supplements, and intake was increased by duodenal infusion of L-methionine on all treatments. The differences in amino acid intake accounted for 67% of the difference in flow of amino acids into the duodenum in the data from both experiments. In addition, the energy supplement increased the flow of amino acids into the duodenum, by increasing the conversion of non-protein-nitrogen to protein-nitrogen in the rumen. An adequate supply of amino acids to the tissues is required for efficient utilisation of a feed. Thus, high amino acid and water soluble sugar contents will improve the nutritive value of silage, by increasing the flow of amino acids into the duodenum. N balance increased, and total plasma amino acid concentration decreased, in response to methionine infusion on all three treatments in Expt. 2. These results suggest that methionine was limiting tissue protein synthesis. Intake, was also decreased, but to a greater extent at lower levels of duodenal amino acid flow in Expt. 2. However, there was no depression of intake in Expt. 1, despite low flow rates of amino acids into the duodenum. This appeared to be due to a lower requirement for methionine in the sheep in Expt. 1, compared to Expt. 2Item Measurement of dry matter intake of dry jersey cows on hay and silage alone and in combination : thesis submitted ... for the Animal Husbandry section of the M. Agr. Sc. examination(Massey University, 1948) Chau, Hon KauIn the provision of an adequate supply of nutrients to dairy cows, primary consideration must be given to the capacity or appetite of the animals for the food offered. This is due to the fact that appetite, measured in terms of dry matter intake per day, limits the quantity of food (dry matter) that a cow consumes. In feeding bulky roughages to dairy cows, appetite is an important factor to be considered. Bulky roughage such as hay has a low nutrient content whereas silage is both low in nutrients and dry matter, when compared with concentrated foods.