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    Social factors and the prevalence of social isolation in a population-based adult cohort
    (Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, 2022-10) Röhr S; Wittmann F; Engel C; Enzenbach C; Witte AV; Villringer A; Löffler M; Riedel-Heller SG
    Purpose Social isolation has negative effects on physical and brain health across the lifespan. However, the prevalence of social isolation, specifically with regard to sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors, is not well known. Methods Database was the Leipzig population-based study of adults (LIFE-Adult Study, n = 10,000). The short form of the Lubben Social Network Scale (LSNS-6) was used to assess social isolation (cutoff < 12 points). Sampling weights were applied to account for differences in sampling fractions. Results Data were available for 9392 study participants; 51.6% were women, the mean age was 45.2 years (SD = 17.3). The prevalence of social isolation was 12.3% (95% CI 11.6–13.0) across ages 18–79 years. Social isolation was more prevalent in men (13.8%, 95% CI 12.8–14.8) compared to women (10.9%, 95% CI 10.0–11.8; (1) = 18.83, p < .001), and it showed an increase with increasing age from 5.4% (95% CI 4.7–6.0) in the youngest age group (18–39 years) to 21.7% (95% CI 19.5–24.0) in the oldest age group (70–79 years; (4) = 389.51, p < .001). Prevalence differed largely with regard to socioeconomic status (SES); showing lower prevalence in high SES (7.2%, 95% CI 6.0–8.4) and higher prevalence in low SES (18.6%, 95% CI 16.9–20.3; (2) = 115.78; p < .001). Conclusion More than one in ten individuals in the adult population reported social isolation, and prevalence varied strongly with regard to sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors. Social isolation was particularly frequent in disadvantaged socioeconomic groups. From a public health perspective, effective prevention of and intervention against social isolation should be a desired target as social isolation leads to poor health. Countermeasures should especially take into account the socioeconomic determinants of social isolation, applying a life-course perspective.
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    A comparative study of teachers' sense of efficacy in low- and high-decile schools : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Educational Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Soupen, Rodney Allen
    Closing the gap in education between the extremes on the socioeconomic scale is the subject of much research and debate. Great emphasis is placed on the role of teachers. Teachers’ feelings of self-efficacy can be a powerful driving force behind the motivation to strive for student achievement. Various teacher and contextual variables can influence the level and stability of this efficacy. Successful experiences against challenge are known to contribute toward improving beliefs in efficacy. The concern however is the effects of unsuccessful teaching experiences and implications for student achievement. Researchers recommend a greater understanding of the contextual effects on teacher efficacy, particularly in lower socioeconomic teaching environments. Previous research has commonly investigated the effects of teacher experience, teacher attributes, and student socioeconomic status on teaching efficacy. This study positioned the classroom teacher as a participant within an educational process which functions systemically and involves various other participants. Level of teacher efficacy is viewed as an outcome of the nature of the relationships and engagements within the educational process and system. This study compared teacher efficacy beliefs and experiences between low- and high-socioeconomic teaching contexts. The qualitative data from teacher responses to open-ended questions were analysed to investigate how the variables involved in forming teacher efficacy beliefs operate and function. Convincing evidence was found to support the assertion that low teacher efficacy may be the result of system failures or shortcomings. In general teachers tended to attribute the reasons for school problems to students or factors outside the classroom. Data analysis revealed states of teacher “helplessness” against challenge which can be linked to poor relationships and communication with sources of support. Evidence was found in support of more collaborative partnerships for higher teacher efficacy and resilience against challenge.
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    The development of a multidimensional sense of control index and its use in analysing the role of control in the relationship between SES and health : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2003) Baken, Donald McLaren
    A robust and consistent relationship has been shown between socioeconomic status and health, and it has been suggested that psychosocial factors partially explain this relationship because they can operate at all levels of socioeconomic status (SES) and they can explain the findings concerning relative SES. The present research examined the proposal that control beliefs is one psychosocial factor which may explain the relationship between SES and health. Because of the complexity of the control field, care was taken to choose a suitable approach to control. Skinner's conceptualisation, which was chosen, has three key aspects. One aspect is the differentiation between capacity beliefs and strategy beliefs. A second is that the approach argues that it is the combination of these two beliefs which produces a sense of control. The third aspect is the proposal that a sense of control can be gained through any 'means' when it is believed that the person has access to the 'means' of control. Multidimensional sense of control was the term given to describe this conceptualisation. A Multidimensional Sense of Control Scale (MSOCS) was developed for the present study because no suitable measure was available. 'Means' of control were selected for inclusion in the MSOCS, items were written for these 'means' and a content analysis was performed. Exploratory factor analyses revealed sets of items which loaded highly on the appropriate factor with very few cross-loadings. Using an independent sample, the factor structure for five 'means' (ability, family, friends, luck, and money) was tested using confirmatory factor analysis. The hypothesised model fitted significantly better than competing models. The subscales showed reasonable internal reliability, convergent validity analyses revealed expected relationships and the subscales were also shown to have reasonable consistency over a six week period. As a whole, these analyses indicated that, while improvements could be made to the measure, it was of sufficient quality to be used in the present study. The present study considered hypotheses concerning the role of sense of control (from the five distinct 'means' and overall) in the relationship between SES (education, household income and community deprivation) and health (self-reported). The sample of 580 was drawn from the New Zealand Electoral Role and completed a mail questionnaire. Analyses were performed using multiple regression. All three indicators of SES were associated with health at the bivariate level, while only household income was independently associated once age was controlled and all three indicators were considered together. All indicators of SES were associated with an overall sense of control at the bivariate level. However, only level of educational attainment and level of household income were associated once age was controlled and all three indicators were considered together. Indicators of SES were positively associated with a sense of control through 'ability', 'family', 'luck', and 'money'. However the relationship between SES and sense of control was not as simple as anticipated with different indicators of SES being associated with a sense of control through different 'means'. Level of educational attainment was independently associated with a sense of control through 'ability' and 'luck' while level of household income was independently associated with a sense of control through 'family' and 'money'. The direction of all relationships were in the hypothesised direction and some were in the opposite direction from that found using different measures of control beliefs, which is consistent with what was expected based on the multidimensional sense of control approach. A greater overall sense of control was positively associated with health while only a sense of control through 'luck' and 'money' were independently associated with health once age was controlled. Mediational analyses showed that both an overall sense of control and a sense of control through 'money' partially mediated the relationship between level of household income and health. This supported the suggestion by some authors that psychosocial factors will help explain the relationship between SES and health. This thesis has made a number of important contributions to understanding in these areas. It has confirmed that capacity beliefs and strategy beliefs are different and so should be measured separately. It has also shown that beliefs about different 'means' of control differ and so these also should be measured separately. The hypothesis testing analyses showed that different indicators of SES are related to a sense of control from different 'means'. These analyses also showed that an overall sense of control and a sense of control from 'money' mediated the relationship between household income and health. These issues are discussed in regard to the need for further research in these areas.
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    Using directed acyclic graphs to consider adjustment for socioeconomic status in occupational cancer studies.
    (B M J PUBLISHING GROUP, 2008-07) Richiardi L; Barone-Adesi F; Merletti F; Pearce N
    There is an ongoing debate on whether analyses of occupational studies should be adjusted for socioeconomic status (SES). In this paper directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) were used to evaluate common scenarios in occupational cancer studies with the aim of clarifying this issue. It was assumed that the occupational exposure of interest is associated with SES and different scenarios were evaluated in which (a) SES is not a cause of the cancer under study, (b) SES is not a cause of the cancer under study, but is associated with other occupational factors that are causes of the cancer, (c) SES causes the cancer under study and is associated with other causal occupational factors. These examples illustrate that a unique answer to the issue of adjustment for SES in occupational cancer studies is not possible, as in some circumstances the adjustment introduces bias, in some it is appropriate and in others both the adjusted and the crude estimates are biased. These examples also illustrate the benefits of using DAGs in discussions of whether or not to adjust for SES and other potential confounders.